Term-Paper

Of
Subject:-Computer Organization and
Architecture
Topic:- Computational Models

Submitted By:-
Gaurav Sanadhya
-:ACKNOLEDGEMENT:-

I AM VERY THNKFUL TO My friends

WHO HELPED ME
AND GUIDES ME TO
COMPLETE THIS PROJECT ON

“Computational Models”
I AM ALSO THANKFUL TO
MY CLASSMATES
( Gaurav,Rohit,Sumit,Abhinav,Sidhu,Kavi)
WHO PRPOVIDES ME VERY
IMPORTANT INFORMATION IN COMPLETING THIS
PROJECT.

GAURAV
SANADHYA
 -:CONTENT:-
• COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
• COMPUTATION
• WHAT IS COMPUTATIONAL MODEL?
• COMPUTATIONAL MODEL
• MODEL OF COMPUTATION
• WHAT IS COMPUTER PROGRAM?
• BASICS COMPUTATIONAL MODEL
• DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTATIONAL MODEL
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a
computer system. It is a blueprint and functional description of requirements and design
implementations for the various parts of a computer, focusing largely on the way by which
the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.

COMPUTATION
Computation is a general term for any type of information processing. This includes
phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning.
Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be
expressed in an algorithm, protocol, network topology, etc. Computation is also a major
subject matter of computer science: it investigates what can or cannot be done in a
computational manner. It is the branch of computer science and mathematics that deals with
whether and how efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an
algorithm. In order to perform a rigorous study of computation, computer scientists work with
a mathematical abstraction of computers called a model of computation. There are several
models in use, but the most commonly examined is the Turing machine. A Turing machine
can be thought of as a desktop PC with a potentially infinite memory capacity, though it can
only access this memory in small discrete chunks. Computer scientists study the Turing
machine because it is simple to formulate, can be analyzed and used to prove results, and
because it represents what many consider the most powerful possible "reasonable" model of
computation. It might seem that the potentially infinite memory capacity is an unrealizable
attribute, but any decidable problem solved by a Turing machine will always require only a
finite amount of memory. So in principle, any problem that can be solved (decided) by a
Turing machine can be solved by a computer that has a bounded amount of memory.

“COMPUTATIONAL MODEL IS THE ALTERNATIVE TERM FOR MATHEMATICAL MODEL”

Computation
Specificati Implementa
al model
on tool tion tool

Programmin Computer
g Language Architecture

WHAT IS COMPUTATIONAL MODEL?

 • The common basis of programming language and computer architecture is known as
computational model.
• Provides higher level of abstraction than the programming language and the
architecture.
• Computational model is the combination of the above two.

COMPUTATIONAL MODEL
A computational model is a mathematical model in computational science that requires
extensive computational resources to study the behavior of a complex system by computer
simulation. The system under study is often a complex nonlinear system for which simple,
intuitive analytical solutions are not readily available. Rather than deriving a mathematical
analytical solution to the problem, experimentation with the model is done by changing the
parameters of the system in the computer, and study the differences in the outcome of the
experiments. Theories of operation of the model can be derived/deduced from these
computational experiments. It uses mathematical language to describe a system.
Computational models are used not only in the natural sciences and engineering disciplines
but also in the social science physicists, engineers, computer scientists, and economists use
mathematical models most extensively. The process of developing a mathematical model is
termed “mathematical modelling”

MODELS OF COMPUTATION

There are many differing in the set of admissible operations and their computations cost.
They fall into the following broad categories: abstract machine, used in proofs of
computability and upper bounds on computational complexity of algorithms, and decision
tree models, used in proofs of lower bounds on computational complexity of algorithmic
problems.

• STATE MODELS:- It included Turing Machine. A Turing machine is a theoretical

device that manipulates symbols contained on a strip of tape. Despite its simplicity, a
Turing machine can be adapted to simulate the logic of any computer algorithm, and
is particularly useful in explaining the functions of a CPU inside of a computer. A
Turing machine that is able to simulate any other Turing machine is called a Universal
Turing machine. A more mathematically-oriented definition with a similar "universal"
The thesis states that Turing machines indeed capture the informal notion of effective
method in logic and mathematics, and provide a precise definition of an algorithm or
'mechanical procedure
• FUNCTIONAL MODELS:- It include lambda calculus
• LOGICAL MODELS :- Logic programming is, in its broadest sense, the use of
mathematical logic for computer programming. The problem-solving task is split
between the programmer, who is responsible only for ensuring the truth of programs
expressed in logical form, and the theorem-prover or model-generator, which is
responsible for solving problems efficiently.

However, logic programming, in the narrower sense in which it is more commonly

understood, is the use of logic as both a declarative and procedural representation
 language. It is based upon the fact that a backwards reasoning theorem-prover applied to
declarative sentences in the form of implications:

If B1 and … and Bn then H

treats the implications as goal-reduction procedures:

to show/solve H, show/solve B1 and … and Bn.

For example, it treats the implication:

If you press the alarm signal button,

then you alert the driver of the train of a possible emergency

as the procedure:

To alert the driver of the train of a possible emergency,

press the alarm signal button.

As in the purely declarative case, the programmer is responsible for ensuring the truth of
programs. But since automated proof search is generally infeasible, logic programming as
commonly understood also relies on the programmer to ensure that inferences are
generated efficiently . In many cases, to achieve efficiency, one needs to be aware of and
to exploit the problem-solving behavior of the theorem-prover. In this respect, logic
programming is comparable to conventional imperative programming; using programs to
control the behaviour of a program executor. However, unlike conventional imperative
programs, which have only a procedural interpretation, logic programs also have a
declarative, logical interpretation, which helps to ensure their correctness. Moreover, such
programs, being declarative, are at a higher conceptual level than purely imperative
programs; and their program executors, being theorem-provers, operate at a higher
conceptual level than conventional compilers and interpreters

• CONCURRENT MODELS:-It include including Actor model and process calculi

WHAT IS A COMPUTER PROGRAM?

• It is an executable representation of some algorithm designed to solve some real

world problem.
• There are thus two elements to a computer program:
• Logic - what we what the program to achieve.
• Control - how we are going to achieve the end goal.

ALGORITHM = LOGIC + CONTROL

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE CONCEPTS OF COMPUTATIONAL MODEL, PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGE AND THE ARCHITECTURE

Computational

Implementation model
Specification tool
tool

Programming Computer

language architecture

BASIC COMPUTATIONAL MODELS

• TURING
• VON NEUMANN
• DATAFLOW
• APPLICATIVE
• OBJECT BASED
• PREDICATE LOGIC BASED

DEVELOPMENTS IN COMPUTATIONAL MODELS

Several new models of computation have emerged in the last few years, and many
developments of traditional computational models have been proposed with the aim of taking
into account the new demands of computer systems users and the new capabilities of
computation engines. A new computational model, or a new feature in a traditional one,
usually is reflected in a new family of programming languages, and new paradigms of
software development.

The aim of this series of workshops is to bring together researchers who are currently
developing new computational models or new features for traditional computational models,
in order to foster their interaction, to provide a forum for presenting new ideas and work in
progress, and to enable newcomers to learn about current activities in this area.

REFERENCES:-

• www.sciencedirect.com
• www.wikipedia.com

• Computer system and Architecture