INTRANET

An intranet is a private computer network that uses internet protocol

technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or
operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast to
internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network
within an organization.
Characteristics
An intranet is built from the same concepts and technologies used for the
Internet, such as client server computing and the internet protocol(TCP/IP).
Any of the well known Internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such
asHTTP (web services), SMTP(e-mail), and FTP (file transfer)
An intranet can be understood as a private version of the Internet, or as a
private extension of the Internet confined to an organization. The first
intranet websites and home pages began to appear in organizations in
1990 - 1991.
Intranets are also contrasted with extranets. While intranets are generally
restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be
accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties. An
organization's intranet does not necessarily have to provide access to the
Internet. When such access is provided it is usually through a network
gateway with a firewall, shielding the intranet from unauthorized external
access.
Benefits
1-Workforce productivity: Intranets can also help users to locate and
view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and
responsibilities.It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.
2-Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information available
to employees on a "pull" basis (i.e., employees can link to relevant
information at a time which suits them) rather than being deluged
indiscriminately by emails
3-Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for
communication within an organization, vertically and horizontallyBy
providing this information on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep
up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization
4-Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser
rather than maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals,
internal phone list and requisition forms. This can potentially save the
business money on printing, duplicating documents, and the environment
as well as document maintenance overhead
5-Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used
as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support business
operations and decisions across the internetworked enterprise
6-Promote common corporate culture: Every user is viewing the same
information within the Intranet
7-Enhance Collaboration: With information easily accessible by all
authorised users, teamwork is enabled.
8-Knowledge of your Audience
9-Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can also
be linked to a company’s management information system, for example a
time keeping system
INTRANET VS INTERNET

1-Intranet Is A Private Network Whereas Internet Is A Public Network

2-Intranet is a local network whereas internet is a global network
3-Intranet is internal system of organization which restrict outsiders
whereas internet is
a public system ,which can be accessed by anyone.
4-Using intranet we can access internet but using internet one can not
access intranet
5-intranet is for the internal use of organization whereas internet is used for
outside use of organization
6-intranet is cheaper in comparison to internet
7-intranet decreases production cost
8-intranet can be run over private line such as frame relay
9-intranet helps in improving linkage with the organizations bur internet can
not
10-intranet helps in enhancing communication
11-intranet helps in reducing cost of distributing information for internal use
12-both internet server and intranet server differs in their design
philosophy.

TYPES OF INTRANET
On the basis of applications or use intranet are classified as

Communications intranet
Integrating intranet
Catalogue intranet
Single sign on intranet

On the basis of functionality intranets are classified as

Database management

Bulletin board

Information access

Communication intranets-This intranet is used when the organizations

are having different geographical locations.for eg if an organization has
large no of franchises then for communication purpose this intranet is used
as it saves the cost and increases efficiency
Integrating intranet-This intranet helps in providing common interface by
linking different departments or divisions through hypertext link.
Catalogue intranet-When multiple informations are required to be accesed
then catalogue intranets are used as it provides access to large catalogue
of information.
Single sign on intranet-single sign on intranet allows the employees or
users to be secure from accessing inapprop[riate sites automatically.it is
done by using firewalls
Database management-This intranet helps in maintaining an interactive
database that can provide correct information at whatever time they are
needed and from any locations.when the information in the database are
required to be updated then immediately that information are updated.
Bulletin Board-It is just like a notice board of a company where
information may or may not be frequently updated.it allows everyone to
review the information.an example of bulletin board include pictures of
employees,calendars events,etc.
Information Access- As The Name Suggests This intranet allows the
information to be accesed in a simple manner .the information may be
available on any topic for accessing.

INTRANET SOFTWARE HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

Client Workstation
Operating System
Microsoft Windows:
• Microsoft Windows XP Professional
• Microsoft Windows 2000

Database- NA
Processor -1.0 GHz Pentium
Monitor - SVGA with 256 or more colors minimum 800x600 resolution
Other - Internet Explorer 5.5 and Excel 97/2000/XP/2003, for Financial
Reports
CD-ROM Drive- NA
Free Disk Space - 300 MB for application files

Server Requirements
Windows 2000/2003/2008 Server OS (x86 and 64bit compatible)
Internet Information Server (IIS versions 5,6 or 7)
Intel Pentium III, (recommended dual core or quad core processor)
1 GB minimum RAM (recommend 2 GB)
600MB required for installation (recommended minimum 6 GB for uploaded
content/documents)
Monitor - SVGA with 256 or more colors minimum 800x600 resolution
Processor - For a 50-user system:
• 2 Processors, Pentium 4 or Xeon 2.0 GHz
For a 100-user system:
• 4 Processors, Pentium 4 or Xeon 2.0 GHz
Printer - A printer capable of printing 224 characters per line
CD-ROM Drive - Required
Pointing Device - A mouse, supported by Windows
Database:
Pervasive.SQL 8.7 and 9.1 for Novell NetWare/Microsoft Windows/Linux or
Oracle 8i/9i Enterprise Edition, Standard Edition and Standard Edition One
or Microsoft SQL Server 2000 and 2005

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to

exchange and manipulate files over a TCP/IP based network, such as the
internet.FTP is used to:
• Promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
• Encourage indirect use of remote computers
• Shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different
hosts. (The user does not need to know what the type of file system
is.)
• Transfer data reliably, and efficiently
WORKING OF FTP
A client makes a connection to the server using TCP port 21. This
connection, called the control connection, remains open for the duration of
the session, with a second connection on port 20 opened as required to
transfer file data.Commands are sent by the client over the control
connection in ASCII .
The server responds on the control connection with three digit status codes
in ASCII with an optional text message, for example "200" (or "200 OK.")
means that the last command was successful. A file transfer in progress
over the data connection can be aborted using an interrupt message sent
over the control connection
FTP can be run in active mode or passive mode, which control how the
second connection is opened. In active mode the client sends the server
the IP address port number that the client will use for the data connection,
and the server opens the connection. Passive mode was devised for use
where the client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP
connections. The server sends the client an IP address and port number
and the client opens the connection to the server
While transferring data over the network, four data representations can be
used, of which only two are common:
• ASCII mode: only for plain text. (Any other form of data will be
corrupted)
• BINARY mode: the sending machine sends each file for byte and as
such the recipient stores the bytestream as it receives it. (The FTP
standard calls this "IMAGE" or "I" mode)
The other two, EBCDIC and local file type are essentially obsolete.

WHAT IS ENCRYPTION?
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher text,
that cannot be easily understood by unauthorized people.In cryptography,
encryption is the process of transforming information(referred to as plain
text) using an algorithm to make it unreadable to anyone except those
possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as akey..
Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back into its
original form, so it can be understood.

There are two basic techniques for encrypting information: symmetric

encryption(also called secret key encryption) and asymmetric
encryption(also called public key encryption).

Symmetric Encryption
Symmetric Encryption (also known as symmetric-key encryption,
single-key encryption, one-key encryption and private key encryption) is a
type of encryption where the same secret key is used to encrypt and
decrypt information or there is a simple transform between the two keys.
 A secret key can be a number, a word, or just a string of random letters.
Secret key is applied to the information to change the content in a particular
way. This might be as simple as shifting each letter by a number of places
in the alphabet. Symmetric algorithms require that both the sender and the
receiver know the secret key, so they can encrypt and decrypt all
information.
There are two types of symmetric algorithms: stream algorithms(stream
ciphers) and block algorithms(block ciphers)
Types of Symmetric algorithms (Symmetric-key algorithms)
Symmetric algorithms (Symmetric-key algorithms) use the same key for
encryption and decryption. Symmetric-key algorithms can be divided into
Stream algorithms (Stream ciphers) and Block algorithms (Block ciphers).

1-Stream cipher
Stream ciphers encrypt the bits of information one at a time - operate on
1 bit (or sometimes 1 byte) of data at a time (encrypt data bit-by-bit).
Stream ciphers are faster and smaller to implement than block ciphers,
however, they have an important security gap. If the same key stream is
used, certain types of attacks may cause the information to be revealed.

2-Block Ciphers
Block cipher (method for encrypting data in blocks) is a symmetric
cipher which encrypts information by breaking it down into blocks and
encrypting data in each block. A block cipher encrypts data in fixed sized
blocks (commonly of 64 bits). The most used block ciphers are TRIPLE
DES and AES
Some examples of popular symmetric algorithms:
AES,DES,IDEA,TRIPLE DES

(i)AES

AES stands for Advanced Encryption Standard. AES is a symmetric key

encryption technique which replaces the commonly used Data Encryption
Standard (DES).
The AES algorithm usesthree key sizes: a 128-, 192-, or 256-bit
encryption key. Each encryption key size causes the algorithm to behave
slightly differently, so the increasing key sizes not only offer a larger
number of bits with which you can scramble the data, but also increase the
complexity of the cipher algorithm

(ii)Data Encryption Standard (DES)

Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a block cipher with 64-bit block size that
uses 56-bit keysDue to recent advances in computer technology, some
experts no longer consider DES secure against all attacks; since then
Triple-DES (3DES) has emerged as a stronger method. Using standard
DES encryption, Triple-DES encrypts data three times and uses a different
key for at least one of the three passes giving it a cumulative key size of
112-168 bits.
(iii)IDEA
IDEA stands for International Data Encryption Algorithm. IDEA is a
symmetric encryption algorithm that was developed by Dr. X. Lai and Prof.
J. Massey to replace the DES standard. Unlike DES though it uses a 128
bit key. This key length makes it impossible to break by simply trying every
key.

(iii)Triple DES
Triple DES is a variation of Data Encryption Standard (DES). It uses a 64-
bit key consisting of 56 effective key bits and 8 parity bits. The size of the
block for Triple-DES is 8 bytes. Triple-DES encrypts the data in 8-byte
chunks. The idea behind Triple DES is to improve the security of DES by
applying DES encryption three times using three different keys
Asymmetric Encryption (Public Key Encryption)
Asymmetric encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption.
The decryption key is very hard to derive from the encryption key. The
encryption key is public so that anyone can encrypt a message. However,
the decryption key is private, so that only the receiver is able to decrypt the
message. It is common to set up "key-pairs" within a network so that each
user has a public and private key. The public key is made available to
everyone so that they can send messages, but the private key is only made
available to the person it belongs to.Asymmetric key encryption is much
slower than symmetric key encryption and hence they are only used for key
exchanges and digital signatures.
How Asymmetric Encryption (Public Key Encryption) works:
The sender and the reciever must have the same software. The
receiver makes a pair of keys - public key and private key .Public key can
be used by anyone with the same software to encrypt a message. Public
keys can be freely distributed without worrying since it is only used to
scramble (encrypt) the data.
The sender does not need the recipient's password to use his or her
public key to encrypt data. The recipient's other key is a private key that
only he or she can use when decrypting the message. Private key should
never be distributed since the private key assures that only the intended
recipient can unscramble (decrypt) data intended for him or her.
To uderstand assymetric encryption better please read an example:
For example, Jack makes public key A and private key A, and Jill makes
public key B and private key B. Jack and Jill exchange their public keys.
Once they have exchanged keys, Jack can send an encrypted message to
Jill by using Jill's public key B to scramble the message. Jill uses her
private key B to unscramble it. If Jill wants to send an encrypted message
to Jack, she uses Jack's public key A to scramble her message, which
Jack can then unscramble with his private key A. Asymmetric cryptography
is typically slower to execute electronically than symmetric cryptography.

Some examples of popular assymmetric algorithms:

RSA,DSA,PGP
(I)RSA
RSA is the best known public key algorithm, named after its inventors:
Rivest, Shamir and Adleman. RSA uses public and private keys that are
functions of a pair of large prime numbers. Its security is based on the
difficulty of factoring large integers. The RSA algorithm can be used for
both public key encryption and digital signatures. The keys used for
encryption and decryption in RSA algorithm, are generated using random
data. The key used for encryption is a public key and the key used for
decryption is a private key. Public keys are stored anywhere publicly
accessible. The sender of message encrypts the data using public key, and
the receiver decrypts it using his/her own private key. That way, no one
else can intercept the data except receiver.
(II)DSA
The Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) is a United States Federal
Government standard or FIPS for digital signatures. It was proposed by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in August 1991 for
use in their Digital Signature Standard (DSS).
(III)PGP
PRETTY GOOD PRIVACY a public key system for encrypting electronic
mail using the RSA public key cypher. It encrypts the message using the
IDEA cypher with a randomly generated key. It then encrypts the key using
the recipients public key. When the recipient receives the message, PGP
uses his private RSA key to decrypt the IDEA key and then uses that IDEA
key to decrypt the message.

PASSWORDS SECURITY

Passwords are keys you use to access your accounts, personal

information, software applications, etc. Passwords help to ensure that only
authorized users access PCs, bank accounts, email accounts, etc.
Password is very much like a key. It gives you access to your accounts,
emails, sensitive informaiton, software, etc.
Strong passwords is an important aspect of computer and information
security. Easy-to-guess passwords could seriously compromise you
security and put your secure information at risk. To ensure information
security you should create strong secure passwords and keep them in a
safe and secure way.

General password construction tips

These are the specific rules to which your password must conform in order
to be accepted as a strong password:
1. Passwords should not be based on well-known or easily accessible
personal information. You should never use personal information as a part
of your password. It is very easy for others to guess things like your
birthday date, mother's name, your last name, pet's name and other
personaldetails.
2. Password length - password size does matter.Each character you add to
your password length increases its security. Your passwords should be 12
or more characters in length. The more characters your password contains,
the more difficult it can be to guess.
3. Use random combination of upper-case and lower-case letters and
digits.
4. Passwords shouldn't contain dictionary and/or foreign words.
5. Regularly change your passwords. You should change your password at
least every 30 - 60 days. The more important the password is, the more
frequently the password should be changed. Old passwords should not be
re-used for a period of 6 months.
6. Don't use the same password for different accounts
7. You can use a passphrase as a part of password - use a sentence you
can easily remember and create a password using the first letter from each
word. Note: you should combine it with other measures, such as password
length, upper-case and lower-case letters and digits.
8. To improve the strength of your password, you can also use look-alike
substitutions of numbers or symbols such as to replace an 'l' with a '1', etc.
How to remember passwords
The simplest way to remember passwords is to create passwords yourself.
If you create a password yourself, you know the way it is formed, and it is
easier to remember. Of course, the harder the password is, the better the
security is. But such passwords are difficult to remember.
Like most computer users, you have at least half a dozen of passwords to
remember - e-mail, ICQ, bank accounts, dial-up, etc. Remembering all of
them is not easy. That's why some users create passwords that are easily
to remember (using your birth date, dog's name, or some other obvious
choice) and, unfortunately, so easily guessable, others use the same
password for all websites or try storing all their passwords in one text
document or write down passwords in notebook, which all is not safe.
Easily guessable passwords can become a great weakness in your
computer security.
SSL

Secure socket layer protocol is an internet protocol for secure exchange of

information between a web browser and a web server.it provides two basic
security services-authentication and confidentiality
The SSL layer is located between application layer and transport layer.SSL
has three sub protocols-Handshake protocol,record protocol and alert
protocol
Handshake protocol-The handshake protocol is actually made up of four
phases –
1-Establishing security capabilities-steps involved are
A)client Hello B)server Hello
2-Server authentication and key exchange- steps involved are
A)certificate B)server key exchange
C)certificate request D)server hello done
3-Client authentication and key exchange -steps involved are
A)certificate B)client key exchange
C)certificate verify
4-Finish

Record protocol-This protocol provides two services to an SSL connection

as follows-
A)Confidentiality-This is achieved by using secret key that is defined by
handshake protocol
B)Integrity-Handshake protocol also defines a shared secret key
(MAC)that is used for assuring message integrity.
SSL Protocol works in following steps-
1-Fragmentation
2-Compression
3-Addition of MAC
4-Encryption
5-Append header
Alert protocol-When either client or server detects an error,the detecting
party sends an alert message to other party.If error is fatal, both parties
immediately close the SSL connection.
If the error are not severe,it does not result in termination of
conection.instead handle the error and continue.
Closing and Resuming SSL Connection
Each party sends a close notify alert to another party before closing the
connection.This results in graceful closure of connection.
After receiving this alert the party must immediately stop its work and
sends its own close notify alert and ends the connection from its side
If SSL Connection results without close notify from either party ,it can not
be resumed
SECURITY POLICY

A good security policy generally takes care of four key aspects –

• Affordability-cost and effort in security implementation
• Functionality-mechanism of providing security
• Cultural issues-whether the policy gets well with peoples’s
expectations,working style.
 • Legality-whether the policy meets the legal requiremts.
Once security policy is in place ,the following points should be ensured
a) Explanation of policies to all concerned
b) Outline everybody’s responsibilities
c) Use simple language in all communication
d) Provision for exception and periodic reviews
Some of the important security principles are discussed below
1-Confidentiality – It specifies that only the sender and intended receiver
should be able to access the contents of the message.
A message send by user A for user B must be received only by B.If any
other user C gets access to the message, which is not desired then it
defeats the purpose of confidentiality.So this attack which results in loss of
confidentiality is known as interception.
2-Authentication- It ensures that the origin of the message is correctly
identified. Receiver B must ensure that the message has came from
A.user B must ne sure that any other user C posing as A has not sent the
message.
If any other user C posing as user A send the message to user B then it
results in loss of proper authentication mechanism.this type of attack is
called as fabrication.
3-Integrity- It ensures that no one has changed the content of the
message.If user A has send the message to B ,and before reaching to
B,any third user C changed or modified the content of the message about
which A and B does not know,then this type of attack is known as
modification.
4-Non Repudiation – there are some situation where user after sending
the message refuses that he/she has send the message.For example A
sends the funds transfer request to bank B over the internet.After the bank
transfer’s the fund A could claim that he/she never sent the funds transfer
message to the bank..
The principle of non repudiation defeats such possibilities of denying
something ,having done it.Non Repudiation does not aloow the sender of
the message to claim of not sending the message.
5-Access Control- It determines who should be able to access what.in
other words we should specify that user A can view the records but cannot
update it.however B might be allowed to make updates as well.
Access Control specifies and control who can access what.
6-Availibility – It states that the information should be available to
authorized user ,at all times.If due to intentional action of unauthorized user
C ,an authorized user A does not get the information on time then such an
attack on the information is called as interruption.

FIREWALL

Firewall is a device which ensures that inside information remains

inside the organization’s network and also prevents the outsider attackers
from entering inside a corporate network.
A firewall is a device installed between the internal network of an
organization and the rest of the Internet. It is designed to forward some
packets and filter (not forward) others.
All the traffic between the network and internet must pass through the
firewall.The Firewall decides if the traffic an be allowed to flow or whether it
must be stopped from proceeding further.
The characteristics of good firewall implementation can be described
as follows-
• All traffic from inside to outside or outside to inside must pass through
firewall.
• Only authorized traffic should be allowed to pass through.
• The firewall itself must be strong .

Type Of Firewall

Packet Filter

Proxy Server

Packet filter-
A packet filter performs following functions
• Receive each packets as it arrives
• Pass the packet through rules,based on IP adress and header of the
packet. Let us take an example to understand it more clearly
A table is used to decide which packet should be accepted and which
should be rejected as shown below .

The rules specified in packet filter works as follows

• Incoming packets from network 131.34.0.0 are blocked for security.
• Incoming packets from network on telnet server (port no 23) are
blocked.
• Incoming packets intended for internal host 194.78.20.8 are blocked.
• Outgoing packets intended for http (port 80) are banned.
A packet filter firewall filters at network or transport layer.
Proxy firewall-

When user client sends a message,the proxy firewall runs a server process
to receive the request.the server opens the packet at application level and
find out if request is legitimate.If it is ,the server act as a client and send
message to real server.If it is not an error message is sent to external
user.Thus request of external users are filtered based on content of
application layer.

A proxy firewall filters at application layer.

VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK

VPN is a mechanism of employing encryption,authentication and

integrity protection so that we ca use public network as if it is private
network.VPN combines the advantage of public and private network (cheap
and easily available) with those of private network(secure and reliable).
The term virtual means that it depends on use of virtual connection
which are temporary and do not have any physical presence.
The architechure of VPN is shown below.

VPN
TUNN
EL Y

FI FIREWALL 2
NETWORK 1
REWALL 1
NETWORK 2
 FIG:VPN BETWEEN TWO PRIVATE NETWORK

We have two network.network1 and network 2.network 1 connects to

internet via firewall 1 and network 2 connects to intrnet via firewall2.Both
the firewall are virtually connected via internet
Suppose Host X on network 1 want to send data packet to Host Y on
network 2.The transmission works as follows;

1-Host X creates packet .Insert its IP Address as source address and IP

address of host Y as destination address and sends the packet.

SOURCE
ADDRESS
X Y OTHER HEADER AND
2-PacketACTUAL
reaches firewall 1.It adds new header and changes source IP
DATA
address of packetDESTINATION
from X to its own IP address(f1).It also changes
ADDRESS
destination IP address from Y to IP address of firewall 2(f2).It also performs
encryption and authentication and sends the packet over internet.

X Y OTHER HEADER AND

destination
ACTUAL DATA
address

F1 X Y OTHER HEADER AND

F2Source ACTUAL DATA
additional
Address header

3-Packet reaches firewall 2 via internet.It discards the outer header and
decrypt to get original packet as was created by host X.It then realizes that
packet is meant for host Y and then delivers the packet to host Y.

F1 X Y OTHER HEADER AND

F2 ACTUAL DATA
 destination
address
X Y OTHER HEADER AND
ACTUAL DATA
Source
address

There are 3 main VPN Protocols

1) POINT TO POINT TUNNELING PROTOCOL(PPTP) which supports

VPN connectivity between single user and a LAN
2) LAYER 2 TUNNELING PROTOCOL(L2TP) which works for both
combinations-yser to LAN and LAN to LAN
3) IPSEC

ELECTRONIC MAIL
One of the most popular Internet services is electronic mail (e-mail). Its
architecture consists of several components.

Architecture:

• When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on the same
system,we need only two user agents
• When the sender and the receiver of an e-mail are on different
systems, we need two UAs and a pair of MTAs (client and server).

• When both sender and receiver are connected to the mail server
via a LAN or a WAN, we need two UAs, two pairs of MTAs and a
pair of MAAs.
This is the most common situation today.
Services of user agent:

• Composing messages

• reading messages

• replying to messages

• forwarding messages

• handling mailboxes

SMTP,POP3/IMAP4
SMTP is used two times. Between the sender and senders mail server and
between two mail server.it defines how commands a nd response must be
send back and forth.
The protocol that supports email on the Internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
* The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the
message in the envelope.
* The email address consists of two parts: a local address (user mailbox)
and a domain name. The form is localname@domainname.
* The MTA transfers the email across the Internet.
* SMTP uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an
MTA client and an MTA server.
* The steps in transferring a mail message are connection establishment,
message transfer, and connection termination

Figure 26.19 SMTP range POP3 and IMAP4

Figure - Commands and responses

SMTP is a push protocol

keyword arguments
HELLO Senders host name

MAIL Sender of the

FROM message

RCPT TO Intended recipient of

the message

DATA Body of the mail

VRFY Name of recipient to

be verified
Code Description
211 System status or help
reply
214 Help message
220 Service ready
421 Service not available
450 Mailbox not available
501 Syntax error in
TABLE: COMMANDS parameters
502 Command not implemented

TABLE: RESPONSE

Post Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol,
version 4 (IMAP4) are protocols used by a mail server in conjunction with
SMTP to receive and hold email for hosts.
POP 3 Has two modes-delete mode and keep mode.in delete mode mail is
deleted from mailboxes after each retrieval .in keep mode the mail remains
in the mailbox after retrieval.
Pop 3 is deficient in several ways.it does not allow user to organize her
mail on server.the user cannot have different folders on the server.It does
not allow user to partially check the content of mail before downloading.

Figure - The exchange of commands and responses in POP3

IMAP 4 provides following extra functions

 user can check email header before downloading

 user can partially download email.

 User can create ,rename or delete mailboxes on mail server

 User can create hierarchy of mailboxes in folder for email storage.

 ADDRESS MAPPING

The delivery of a packet to a host or a router requires two levels of

addressing: logical and physical. We need to be able to map a logical
address to its corresponding physical address and vice versa. This can be
done by using either static or dynamic mapping.

Figure - ARP operation

In fig system A has packets that needs to be delivered to system B with IP

address 141.23.56.23.System A needs to send the packet to its data link
layer but does not know physical address of recipient.then it uses ARP to
ask for physical address of system with IP 141.23.56.23
An ARP request is broadcast;an ARP reply is unicast
The packet is received by every system on network but only system B will
answer .system B sends an ARP reply packet that includes its physical
address.now system A can send the packet it has for his destination by
using physical address it received .

Figure - ARP packet

Following are the four cases in which ARP services can be used.

1-Sender is host and wants to send a packet to another host on same

network.In this case logical address that must be mapped to physical
address is the destination IP address in datagram header
2-Sender is host and wants to send packet to another host on another
network .In this case IP address of the next router becomes the logical
address that must be mapped to physical address.

Figure - Four cases using ARP

3-Sender is a router that has received a datagram destined for host on

another network.It checks routing table to find the IP address of next router
which becomes logical address that must be mapped to physical address.

4-Sender is a router that has received a datagram destined for host on

same network.destination IP address of datagram becomes the logical
address that must be mapped to physical address.
 Transmission Media

Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

TWISTED PAIR CABLE-

Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.
Twisting allows each wire to have approximately the same noise
environment.
* Twisted-pair cable is used in telephone lines for voice and data
communications

Figure Twisted-pair cable

 Figure - UTP performance

Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

COAXIAL CABLE-
Coaxial cable has the following layers (starting from the center): a metallic
rod-shaped inner conductor, an insulator covering the rod, a metallic outer
conductor (shield), an insulator covering the shield, and a plastic cover.
* Coaxial cable can carry signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-
pair cable.
* Coaxial cable is used in cable TV networks and traditional Ethernet LANs.
 Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

 Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

FIBRE OPTIC CABLE-

Fiber-optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded
by cladding, all encased in an outside jacket.
* Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light. The signal is
propagated along the inner core by reflection.
* Fiber-optic transmission is becoming increasingly popular due to its noise
resistance, low attenuation, and high-bandwith capabilities.

Fiber-optic cable is used in backbone networks, cable TV networks, and

Fast Ethernet networks.

Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

 WWW

ARCHITECTURE

The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client

using a browser can access a service using a server. However, the service
provided is distributed over many locations called sites.

Figure - Architecture of WWW

The World Wide Web is a repository of information spread all over the
world and linked together.
* Hypertext and hypermedia are documents linked to one another through
the con-cept of pointers.
* Browsers interpret and display a Web document.
* A browser consists of a controller, client programs, and interpreters

Figure - URL

WEB DOCUMENTS
The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad categories:
static, dynamic, and active. The category is based on the time at which the
contents of the document are determined.

1-Static Documents-
A static document is one in which the contents are fixed and stored in a
server. The client can make no changes in the server document.
* Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a language used to create static
Web pages

Figure - Static document

2- Dynamic Document-

A dynamic Web document is created by a server only at a browser

request.

* The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a standard for creating and

handling dynamic Web documents.
* A CGI program with its embedded CGI interface tags can be written in a
language such as C, C++, shell script, or Perl.
* The server sends the output of the CGI program to the browser.
* The output of a CGI program can be text, graphics, binary data, status
codes, instructions, or an address of a file
 Figure 27.8 Dynamic document using CGI

3-Active Document- An active document is a copy of a program retrieved

by the client and run at the client site.

* Java is a combination of a high-level programming language, a run-time

environment, and a class library that allows a programmer to write an
active document and a browser to run it.

HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used mainly to

access data on the World Wide Web. HTTP functions as a combination of
FTP and SMTP
HTTP uses the service of TCP on well known port 80
 Figure 27.12 HTTP transaction

Figure 27.13 Request and response messages