Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Definition of Machining:

Machining is an essential process of finishing by

which jobs of desired dimensions and surface
finish are produced by gradually removing the
excess material from the preformed blank in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s)
moved past the work surface(s).

7
 Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Machining requirements
Power

Blank
Machining
Machine Product
Process
Fixture

Tools Environment

Correction Analysis

8
 Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Machine Tool - definition

A machine tool is a non-portable, power

operated and reasonably valued device or system
of devices in which energy is expended to produce
jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish
by removing excess material from the preformed
blanks in the form of chips with the help of
cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

9
(i) Working principle of Machine Tools
Machine Tools – produce geometrical surfaces :
• flat surfaces
• cylindrical surfaces
• contour surfaces
Major functional components of machine tool
• devices for holding job and tool
• drive(s) for providing power and motions
• kinematic system(s) to transmit motion and
power to the tool and job
• automation and control system
• structure / body – strong and rigid
 (iii) Machine Tool Drives.
refers to source and transmission of
• motion and • power.
Source(s) of power and motion
• electrical motors
• hydraulic power drive
Machine Tools need wide ranges of speed & feed for:
Δ machining different jobs (material & size)
Δ using different tools (matl., geometry & size)
Δ various types of operations
Δ varying degree of surface finish.
(contd.)
 Configuration & use of basic machine tools
(i) Centre Lathe -
• configuration
Tool post
Tool Job(rod)
Headstock

Leadscrew
feedscrew

Bed
Saddle
 • Common machining operations done in
centre lathes

turning facing grooving forming threading

External

Internal
 Methods of mounting job & cutting tools in
general purpose machine tools
(a) Job and tool mounting in Lathes
• In centre lathes :
‰ Mounting of job / blank

The general methods :

• without additional support from tailstock
o chucks : 3 jaw self centering chuck
: 4 independent jaw chuck
o Face plate : without or using fixture
Mounting of jobs in centre lathes - continuation
Job-mounting with tailstock support in centre lathes

Methods :
• in between centres
• in between chuck and centre
• in between headstock & tailstock with
additional support from rest

driving plate

Dead centres

lathe dog

Revolving centre
 Job mounting in centre lathe with additional
Support - continuation
In between chuck and tailstock centre
3- jaw

4- jaw

Using rest
General purposes of using drilling machines
Main purpose
To originate through or blind straight cylindrical
holes in solid bodies and / or enlarge existing
or premachined holes :

• of different diameter
• of varying length
• in different work materials excepting very
hard and very soft materials like rubber,
polythenes etc.
Other purposes : boring, reaming, tapping etc.
 (ii) Classification of drilling machines - contd.
• Pillar drilling machine

φ = 3 ~ 20 mm

Power ≅ 0.55 ~ 1.1 kW

Long tubular column and

moveable table
 Classification of drilling machines - contd.
• Column drilling machine

• strong, powerful, rigid –

most common
• have SGB & FGB
— quick change of
N and so
— automatic feed
— wide ranges of
N and so
• blanks – simple, odd
or heavy
 Classification of drilling machines - contd.
• Radial drilling machine

• very large work vol.

• can work on odd
shape and size jobs
• spindle may be
— vertical
— swivelling
— swivelling &
tilting
(iv) Application (operations) of drilling machine

• Drilling through or blind holes – most common

— straight, — taper, — stepped & — deep
• Centering
• Slotting
• Boring
• Counterboring and countersinking
• Reaming
• Tapping
 Classification of drills and drilling operations
• According to material
Δ HSS
Δ cemented carbides
Δ diamond
• According to size (diameter)
Δ micro – 25 ~ 500 μm
Δ moderate – 3 to 25 mm – most widely used
Δ large – 25 to 40 mm
• According to number of flutes
Δ two fluted – most common
Δ single flute – e.g. gun drill
Δ three or four flutes – slot drills
 Use of drilling machines other than
general drilling
• slot drilling and slotting
• boring after drilling
• Counterboring, countersinking etc.

• spot facing

(a) (b)
Basic functions of milling machines

Production of

• flat surfaces in any orientation

• helical surfaces
• surfaces of revolution (external)
• contour surfaces of various configurations
Up-milling & Down milling – concept & effects

Cutting motion
 Major uses of milling machines
• making flat surfaces – in H, V & any inclined plane
• making slots and steps
• slitting or parting
• making helical grooves or surfaces
• long thread milling & short thread milling
• 2-D contouring (e.g. cam profiles) and 3-D
contouring (e.g. die cavities)
• cutting teeth of gears,worm wheels, sprockets etc.
• making flutes, gushing etc in drills, taps, reamers,
hobs etc.
 According to spindle orientation

• Horizontal arbour type

o hollow plain or disc type
cutters – mounted on
the horizontal arbour
o bed is usually knee type
o used for non-automatic
prod. in piece or batch
o the work table may or
may not be swivelled in
addition to feeds along
X-Y-Z directions
According to spindle orientation – contd.
• Vertical spindle type
o end mill or face milling
cutter(s) is mounted on
the vertical spindle
o it may be knee or bed
type
o the table may,
additionally,be swivelled
According to spindle orientation – contd.

• Universal head type

 • semi-automatic – Tracer controlled copy milling

o low to moderate rate prod.

o piece or batch production
o used for making cams,
dies etc using masterpiece
cutter
• automatic – fast production
o machines are small but tracer
automatic & productive
o example – short thread
milling (lot production)
• CNC milling machines

o flexible automation
o change-over – needs
less effort, time & cost
o complex shape
- possible
o lesser maintenance
requirement
o lesser or no jigs /
fixtures are needed
 (d) According to automation and prod. – contd.

• Machining Centre

o much more versatile

& productive
o Tool magazine
(bank)
o ATC
 Various applications of different milling cutters in
Milling machines
Uses of profile sharpened cutters
• plain or slab milling cutters

CM
feed
job job

o no. of teeth – 4 ~ 16
o diameter – 40 ~ 80 mm
 Use of profile sharpened cutters - continuation
• Side & slot milling cutters and slitting saw
Parallel facing by Slotting by side
two sided single cutter milling cutter

Parting by slitting saw

 Use of profile sharpened cutters - continuation
End mill and shell mill
Materials : Solid HSS or steel body with carbide
Inserts (uncoated or coated)
Configurations and applications

angular milling
Face milling
slotting Shell milling
 Form relieved cutters - continuation
Gear (teeth) milling cutters
• Material – essentially HSS
• Types - • disc type • end mill type
• configurations and applications
Thread milling cutters : -
• short thread milling
• long thread milling

Short thread milling long thread milling

Config. & basic functions of shaping machine

cutting tool in action

• tool work motions

• basic functions
Configuration and functions of Planing machines

cutting tool in action

• tool work motions

• basic functions • special applications
 (i) BASIC PRINCIPLE OF BROACHING
In-feed Cutting motion

a1 a1
workpiece
(b) broaching
(a) shaping
 Basic principle of broaching - continuation

Broaching holes

CM
CM

(a) horizontal pull type

Chip breaker (groove)

(b) vertical push type

 Learning Geometry of SPTT

• Material and geom. of tools – equally important

• Those play important roles on
Effectiveness, effici. and econ. of machining
• Tool geometry substantially affects :
— mechanism & mechanics of chip formation
— cutting temperature and wear
— tool life and products accuracy and finish
Cutting tools may be –
• single point – e.g., turning, shaping, boring, etc.
• double point – e.g., drills.
• multipoint – e.g., milling cutters, hobs, etc.
 (a) Geometry of SPTT - continued
(i) Concept of rake and clearance angles
• Tool geometry refers to some specific angles
or slopes of its salient faces and edges
• Rake angle and clearance angle – most imp.
• Illustration of rake and clearance of SPTT.
(i) Concept of rake and clearance angles – contd.
• Definition of
Rake angle :

clearance angle :

• Sign of rake and clearance angles

VC VC
VC
πR πR πR

γ=0 -γ

VC +γ VC

+α +α +α
Reference systems of description of tool geom.
• Tool – in – Hand system

Tool – in – Hand system :

rake surface

principal cutting
Auxiliary cutting edge
edge

Tool nose
principal flank
(clearance) surface
Auxiliary flank
(clearance) surface
Chip formation in machining brittle materials
(i) Sources of heat and causes of development of
cutting temperature

• Primary shear zone:

1
3 2

Vf • Secondary deformation
zone:
VC

• Work tool(flanks)
interfaces:
Apportionment of heat in chip, tool and job

100

share of heat %
blank

job chip tool

tool chip
Vc

0 Cutting velocity, V →
cutting velocity, CVC
Measurement of temperature distribution at
the tool tip by Infra ray detection.
Rake surface 8 – lowest temp.
8

6
1 5
1 – highest temp.
Auxiliary flank
4
 MRR (for turning MS)

0
30
40
50
60
70
80

10
20
HSS 25 m/min

1910
Carbide (brazed) 60 m/min

1930
Year
Carbide (tips) 80 m/min

1965
Coated carbide 250 m/min
1980

High perf. Ceramics 750 m/min

2000
(i) Role of development of cutting tool materials
 NEED 1900 DEVELOPMENT
HSS(W: 18%; Cr: 4%; V: 1%; C: 0.7%)
Automobile 1910
Stellite
World War - I 1920 HSS(V: 2~4%, Co: 5 – 12% in W & Cr)

Aircraft 1930 Sintered Carbide for C.I

World War - II 1940 Carbide for steels

Chem. Petro-chem., NU & HSS with high V, Mo, Co & C
1950
polymer industries Plain ceramics, Syn. Diamond
Jet engines,
1960 Ceramics and Cermets
Space programmes
Reduction of cost of 1970 Coated carbides, PM – HSS,
manufacturing PCD
Defence 1980 CBN, coated HSS, SIALON
Superalloys
1986 High performance ceramics

Just-in-time 1990 Diamond, coated carbides

 (i) (a) High Speed Steel (HSS)
Basic composition
W – 18%, Cr – 4%, 0.70% C, V – 1%, rest – Fe
VC for machining low carbon steels - 20 to 30 m/min
HSS are still used where;
• tool is slender – e.g. drills, reamers, end mills
• tool geometry is complex – drill, gear cutters,
broach etc
• the tool needs high TRS and toughness
• the M-F-T-W system does not permit high VC
 Sintered Carbide (tools)
o Manufacturing : - Powder metallurgical process
Mixing powders, briquetting and sintering
o Basic two categories – single and composite
carbides
Single carbides
• WC grains; 90 to 95 wt% and Co (binder); 5 to 10%
• Performance – tool life 2 to 3 times of that of HSS
• Application – machining cast iron, brass, bronze
etc at VC = 40 ~ 80 m/min
 Types and applications of alumina tools
Type
Characteristics
1 2 3 (mixed ceramic)
Al2O3 + Al2O3 with or
Al2O3 + TiC
Composition trace of without
(20~30%)
additives additive
Cold
Sintering Hot pressed Hot pressed
pressed
White or
Colour Black black
pink
Hardness Medium Higher less

Toughness Less Medium higher

Grey cast Stronger steel
Applications Steels & C.I.
iron and hard C.I.
VC, m/min 200 ~ 250 200 ~ 300 150 ~ 250