WOMEN IN FIRST CENTURY JUDAISM

By Rachel D. Levine

Judaism did not need a women's lib movement in the first century of the
Common Era. In fact, the Jewish women of that day had already
achieved a status both religiously and within the community that their
present-day sisters have yet to attain. This probably comes as a surprise
to those whose view of history is as a progression from inferior to
superior and not the reverse. At one time, this academic theory was
prevalent, but the discoveries in recent years of massive archaeological
evidence have led to the revision of many once-cherished beliefs.

So it is with the position of women within the Jewish faith in the years
starting about 75 B.C.E. and ending just before the compilation of the
Mishnah in 200 C.E. The remainder of this article will deal with the
Jewish woman and her position in the six main areas of her life: Home
and Family, Education, Business, Community Life, Synagogue, and the
Temple in Jerusalem.

HOME AND FAMILY

Within her home and family, the Jewish woman enjoyed the highest
possible status. Her responsibilities were numerous, and she was
accorded great honor by her husband and children. Unlike the chattel
wives in surrounding societies, she was considered an equal partner in
the running of the household. Her virtues were expounded in Proverbs
31:10-31; in fact, to this day, religious Jewish men recite these verses of
praise to their wives every week at the start of the Sabbath.

Although polygamy was permitted by the Mosaic Law, in practice it was

frowned upon, and rare was the man with more than one wife.
Concubines were not tolerated by the religion which put a premium on
marital fidelity and sexual morality. Jewish women prided themselves
upon their modesty in dress and deportment; it was a code they willingly
accepted; it was never imposed upon them.

In addition to the usual household and family tasks, the woman was
responsible for maintaining the religious and ritual aspects of daily life.
She was the one who made sure the tithe, the priest's share as mandated
in the Bible, was separated out and given as prescribed. She saw to the
adherence of the laws of kashrut in all the food eaten by the household
and assured the ritual purity of the household utensils.

As a result, women were looked upon as the persons who sanctified the
home, much as the priests were regarded as those who sanctified the
Temple.

Within the family itself, both law and custom combined to assure the
woman a central place. If widowed, she had to be supported from her
husband's estate; she could not be turned out of her home. If divorced,
her husband was obligated to provide a financial settlement as set forth
in her marriage contract; she need have no fears of being cast out
penniless. She could not be divorced against her will and could, at that
time, bring suit against her husband in the rabbinical courts.

In fact, the religious law provided that if a man died, leaving sons and
daughters, with a small estate insufficient for all, the daughters were to
be supported from the estate and the sons should go begging for their
sustenance. The wife could own property in her own right and dispose of
it as she saw fit, whether it was inherited or otherwise acquired, without
needing her husband's permission.

Although marriages were usually arranged by the parents, the woman

had the right of refusal and could not be forced into a union against her
will.

EDUCATION

While most boys received their formal education in the local school,
girls were usually taught at home. This does not mean that their
education was in any way inferior to their brothers'. Both were taught
reading and writing, since knowledge of the Torah was essential for all
Jews. In Deuteronomy we read of the "Law of Assembly" (31:10-13)
wherein the entire nation of Israel, including women and children, are
commanded to "assemble" on a regular basis in order to learn the word
of G-d and the commandments of the Torah.

In addition to the basic "Three R's," girls were instructed in all the
household arts as their brothers learned about business and agriculture.
Since women were responsible for maintaining the religious standards of
the home, they had to be taught the applicable laws in order to assure
that no transgression would occur.

During this time in Jewish history, the custom arose of giving public
classes in the synagogues prior to each holiday to acquaint the people
with the laws and proper modes of observance. That women attended
both these classes and the many rabbinic sermons which also were
preached is evidenced by numerous references in the Mishnah and
contemporaneous accounts of Jewish life.

In addition to her religious and domestic studies, many women also

learned what could be called secular knowledge, such as Greek
philosophy, foreign languages, history, and geography. It was not
unusual for girls in wealthier families whose parents employed private
tutors for their sons to sit in on their brothers' lessons and thus broaden
their education.

Although the mother took the main responsibility for her daughter's
learning, she was the one who first taught her son, even before he started
school. It was expected that the boy would know some basic prayers and
the rudiments of the alphabet even before his formal training began.

Fathers usually were very involved with their sons' education, but the
rabbinic literature records many instances of learned fathers who also
taught Torah to their daughters.

The importance of education was embedded within the culture, since the
proper service of G-d was achieved through knowledge. This emphasis
on and attachment to learning remains an essential part of Judaism today.
the learned scholar, though penniless, is accorded greater honor than the
ignorant multi-millionaire. Throughout the centuries, scholarship has
been the vehicle for upward mobility in Jewish society.

During the period under study, there were women who possessed great
knowledge in the Torah and Jewish law and who were highly praised for
their scholarship. It was not uncommon to find them participating in
traditional debates or in public discussions concerning legal, cultural, or
behavioral issues. Among the women so cited in rabbinic literature of the
times are Ima Shalom, wife of Rabbi Eliezer ben Horkanos and sister of
Rabban Gamliel of Yavneh; Martha, the daughter of Boethos; Beruriah,
wife of Rabbi Meir and daughter of Rabbi Haninah ben Teradyon; and
the mother of Rabbi Yehoshua, whose name has unfortunately been lost.
BUSINESS

From the days of the Proverbial "woman of valor" who "considers a field
and buys it," and "makes linen garments and sells them, and delivers
girdles unto the merchant," the Jewish woman has been involved in
business affairs.

Among recent archaeological finds are numerous papyri and other

documents detailing women's active role in the commerce of that day.
Since she could own property in her own right, she was free to engage in
commercial pursuits. Many women attained great wealth in this manner.

It is unfortunate that throughout the centuries much of the non-Jewish

world has misunderstood the purpose behind the Jews' business
endeavors. The acquisition of wealth was never an end in itself, it was a
means to an end; that being to be better able to fulfill the commandments
of G-d.

The wealthier the Jew was, the more he or she was expected to
contribute to the well-being of the community. Charity was incumbent
upon all Jews; after providing for your family, you were obligated to aid
your fellows. Therefore, throughout the Jewish world at this time there
are many inscriptions attesting to the donations made to synagogues and
other communal organizations by wealthy and pious Jewish women.

That these were made from their own resources is evidenced by the
following two examples:
Your servant, Juliana P...paved with mosaic, from own funds, the
holy synagogue of Naro for her salvation (Hamman Lif, in the
Bardo Museum).
Tation, daughter of Straton son of Empedon, having erected the
assembly hall and the enclosure of the open courtyard with her
own funds, gave them as a gift to the Jews. The synagogue of the
Jews honored Tation, daughter of Straton son of Empedon, with a
golden crown and the privilege of sitting in the seat of honor
(Phocaea, Ionia, Greece).

COMMUNITY LIFE
In the year 76 B.C.E., Shlomis Alexandra, wife of the Hasmonean king
Yanni, succeeded to the throne of Judea upon her husband's death. She
brought peace to a land torn by war, economic prosperity to a bankrupt
nation, and religious revival to her people. Her death ten years later was
mourned as a national tragedy, the end of a "Golden Era" in Jewish life;
it ushered in a century of almost unrelieved disaster which culminated in
the end of Judea's independence and the destruction of the Temple in
Jerusalem.

But most important was the fact that she was the Queen and as such the
ruler of the country. No one opposed her legal right to the throne and the
power she exercised because she was a woman.

That women could attain positions of influence and leadership in the

community was evidenced in the Bible, starting with Miriam, the sister
of Moses, and continuing through to Deborah, the prophetess who
judged Israel; Huldah, advisor to King Josiah; and Esther, who, as Queen
of Persia, saved her people from destruction.

Since women were unrestricted in business, this enabled them to carry

their influence over into the realm of communal affairs. The synagogue
in Jewish communal life at this time was much more than a house of
worship. The Hebrew for synagogue is Bet Knesset, meaning a House of
Assembly. In addition to religious services, the synagogue functioned as
the town hall, charitable foundation, an inn for wayfarers with nowhere
else to go, site of the local rabbinical court, and other functions for the
community well-being.

To maintain all of these diverse activities and needs, numerous groups

were organized, along patterns still in existence today. Then, as now,
women played major roles within these community structures.

It is, perhaps, this opportunity which Judaism and the Jewish community
afforded women to exercise their talents which accounted for the large
numbers of women who converted to the faith in this period.

One of the most prominent was Helena, Queen of Adiabene, who, along
with all other members of the royal family and many prominent
personages in the country, which was located west of Nineveh, embraced
the Jewish faith. Queen Helena is remembered in Jewish history for
aiding the inhabitants of Judea during a period of famine, about the year
46 C.E., when she brought large quantities of grain and other foodstuffs
while on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. A few years later, she settled in the
city and built a burial chamber. Known today as the "Tombs of the
Kings," it is a popular attraction for tourists.

Surely the high positions of Jewish women within the community and
the esteem in which they were held by their faith, in stark contrast to the
women in neighboring cultures who had no rights at all, were major
contributing factors in many women's decisions to embrace Judaism.

SYNAGOGUE

Recent archaeological discoveries in both Israel and surrounding

countries have, in the past two decades, forced scholars to reevaluate
their conclusions regarding the role of the Jewish woman in the
synagogue during the period in question.

Perhaps the single most amazing discovery is the absence of any

architectural features supporting the previously-held position that a
women's balcony was a standard feature of all such structures.

Indeed, all archaeological evidence points to just the opposite--a

common meeting room for both men and women. It is true that the
women's balcony was a standard feature in synagogue architecture as
early as the year 1000 C.E., but the presupposition that such had always
been the case is no longer valid.

Another cherished belief that can now be relegated to the realm of

mythology is in the area of women's roles and functions within the
synagogue precincts. Prior scholarship, again postulating backward from
a situation extant several hundreds of years in the future, maintained that
women rarely attended the services and, if they did, were spectators and
not leaders. That frequent attendance was the norm in the era under
study can be attested to by the numerous references within the Mishnah.
The common thread is that women's presence in the synagogue was
presupposed, since she was obligated to pray and this was one way of
fulfilling that obligation.

In terms of her function within the ritual, the Mishnah provided that a
woman could be one of the seven called each Sabbath to publically read
from the Torah scroll. Unlike the Temple service, which only priests
could officiate, the Jewish form of worship in the synagogue did not
depend on an official functionary; any person learned in the order of
prayers could lead the congregation. In fact, to this day, Jewish prayer
services are not dependent on the presence of a rabbi in order to be
conducted.

The only aspect of the synagogue service reserved to a particular group

was the Priestly Blessing, which at certain times of the liturgical year is
bestowed on the congregants by members of the Tribe of Levi. Women
were members of the priestly families just like men, since this is based
upon birth and no other criteria. As such, they were entitled to eat the
tithed produce and sacrificial animals.

While they did not serve in the Temple, it is very possible that they
functioned in synagogues in outlying communities along with the male
members of their families. There is some inscriptional evidence to
suggest this but it is too fragmentary to come to any conclusions at this
time.

That women spoke and taught in the synagogues is attested to in Acts

18:26. We have previously seen that women scholars were well known
and it is safe to assume that many of them joined with their male
colleagues in teaching the people. These activities were also an
important part of the synagogue's function.

THE TEMPLE

Perhaps no other aspect of the Jewish woman's position in her society

during this period has been as misunderstood as her role vis-a-vis the
Temple. The existence of the so-called Women's Court has been taken as
a priori evidence of her second-class place within the sacrificial cult.
Nothing could be farther from the truth.

To begin with, women were equally obligated to bring sacrifices to the

Temple. They also could bring voluntary offerings in fulfillment of vows
or in thanksgiving. While not obligated to attend the three annual
pilgrimage festivals, they did not have to attend the Temple to fulfill the
second tithe, as outlined in Deuteronomy 14:22-27.

Part of the sacrificial rite consisted of the person making the offering
laying hands on the animal just prior to the priest bringing it to the
slaughter. Since the actual sacrifice took place within the Court of the
Israelites, where the women did not enter, it was customary for the priest
to bring the animal out to the woman so she could perform this ritual,
attested to by the Mishnah.

The name, Court of the Women, was in actuality a misnomer, since men
could also be in that space. In order to understand the prohibitions
against women entering further into the sanctuary, it is necessary to
understand the roles played by ritual purity and feminine modesty in
Judaism. No one could enter the inner precincts of the Temple, including
the priests themselves, who were not in a state of ritual purity. That is the
reason for the vast complex of ritual immersion baths which can bee
seen today at the Southern Wall excavations at the Temple site. All Jews
who would enter the inner court had to first immerse themselves to
ensure their ritually pure status. Non-Jews were not allowed to enter past
the outer court under any circumstances.

Since the women only went as far as the outer court, and usually made
up the majority of its inhabitants, that area became known as the Court
of the Women. As to why women did not avail themselves of the ritual
bath complex in order to be able to further enter the Temple precincts, it
is necessary to understand the position of feminine modesty within
Judaism.

Unlike other religions of its day, Judaism enjoined sexual morality upon
its adherents. Jewish women did not serve as cult prostitutes nor did they
engage in sexual orgies as a form of worship as many pagan sects
decreed. Hand in hand with sexual morality was an emphasis on
feminine modesty. The Jewish woman did not reveal her body to all and
sundry but dressed in an appropriate fashion for a member of a "holy
people."

The enjoyment of sex within marriage was enjoined upon Jewish men
and women by the tenets of their faith, which also taught that the woman
was forbidden to her husband at certain times of the month, when she
was not in a state of ritual purity. She had to immerse herself in order to
become pure before resuming relations with her spouse. This has always
been, and still is, considered a very private matter between the woman
and her husband.

Therefore, if a woman were to enter the inner court, she would be

making a public statement regarding her status in relation to the purity
laws, which would be considered brazen and immodest on her part. To
preserve her modesty, she remained outside.

However, it was customary for major celebrations held in connection

with the festivals to take place in the outer court, thereby enabling the
woman to participate along with men.

It was not until several centuries later, in response to external

sociological pressures, that Judaism mandated the separation of the sexes
during public worship.

CONCLUSIONS

Much more can be written on this subject and there is still an enormous
amount of research waiting to be done. New discoveries are daily being
uncovered which add greatly to our understanding of this pivotal period
in Jewish history. With the rise of today's feminist movement, many
women are ready to give up on religion since they feel it has been a
vehicle of oppression for them throughout history.

I have tried in this brief article to show that women at this time within
the Jewish framework were given full scope to develop both spiritually
and within a secular context. There is ample evidence to prove that they
took full advantage of their opportunities.

That later generations, until the present day, were not equally blessed is
due to factors not inherent in Judaism. In fact, much scholarship in this
field today has brought to light a continuity throughout the ages of
Jewish women who were scholars, educators, community activists, and
spiritual leaders. By going backward in time, we can further our
development into the future.

__________________

Rachel D. Levine is a resident of Miami, Florida. She is currently

working on a Ph.D. in Judaic Studies from Union University, Cincinnati,
while studying for the Rabbinate under the aegis of Rabbi Zalman
Schachter-Shalom, spiritual leader of the P'nai Or movement of Jewish
renewal, Philadelphia.
She has a B.A. degree from the University of Miami and an M.Ed. from
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton. Levine has an extensive
background in religious and archaeological studies, having participated
in excavations in Tel Aviv in 1973. She has done additional studies with
the Biblical Archaeology Society.

In addition to her academic pursuits, Levine has written extensively on

little-known aspects of Jewish tradition and conducted workshops on the
history and development of liturgy at national gatherings. She conducts
classes and gives lectures in the Miami area and serves as lay leader at
Temple Beth Or.

Her major field of interest is in women's roles in Judaism during the

early centuries of the Common Era, and she will be writing her doctoral
thesis in that field.

Yavo Digest, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1987