W hy i s H IV an d A ID S ed uc a ti o n i mp or ta nt ?

The expansion and improvement of HIV and AIDS education around the world is critical to
preventing the spread of HIV. There are an estimated 33 million people living with the virus,
and each year millions more people become infected.1 Effective HIV and AIDS education can
help prevent these new infections by providing people with information about HIV and how it
is passed on, and in doing so equipping individuals with the knowledge to protect themselves
from becoming infected with the virus.
HIV and AIDS education also plays a vital role in reducing stigma and discrimination.
Around the world, there continues to be a great deal of fear and stigmatisation of people
living with HIV, which is fuelled by misunderstanding and misinformation. This not only has a
negative impact on people living with HIV, but can also fuel the spread of HIV by
discouraging people from seeking testing and treatment.2

W ho ne ed s HI V an d AI DS e du ca ti o n?

HIV and AIDS education can be effective when targeted at specific groups who are
particularly at risk of HIV infection. The groups that HIV and AIDS education needs to target
vary depending on the nature of the epidemic in an area. High risk groups can also change
over time. For example, in the early years of the AIDS epidemic in America, men who have
sex with men and injecting drug users were most at risk of HIV infection. Today,
heterosexual African Americans and the Hispanic/Latino population are also identified as
groups particularly vulnerable to HIV infection in America.3 4
However, it is important that such a focus does not lead to groups who are considered not ‘at
risk’ missing out on HIV and AIDS education. This can lead to a rise in HIV infection rates
amongst groups who are often neglected by HIV and AIDS education, for example older
people.5Furthermore, AIDS affects many parts of society, and so everyone needs to be aware
of HIV and AIDS. Providing the general population with basic AIDS education contributes to
the spread of accurate information; promoting awareness and tackling stigma and
discrimination.
It is also important that people who are already infected with HIV receive HIV and AIDS
education. This can help people to live positively without passing on the virus to anyone else;
to prevent themselves becoming infected with a different strain of the virus; and to ensure
a good quality of life by informing them about medication and the support that is available to
them.6 7

W he re d oe s H IV a nd A ID S ed uc at i on t ak e pl ac e ?

HIV and AIDS education can take place in many different environments, from classes at
school to families and friends sharing knowledge at home. It is important that this education
is provided in a variety of settings to ensure that the most vulnerable and marginalised
groups in society are reached, and that accurate information about HIV and AIDS is
reinforced from different sources.
H IV an d AI DS ed uc at io n i n sc ho ol s
The most common place for people to learn about HIV and AIDS is at school. Due to their
capacity and universality, schools are a crucial setting for educating young people about
AIDS.8 As young people are at a high risk of becoming infected with HIV, it is vital that they
are educated about HIV transmission before they are exposed to situations that put them at
risk of HIV infection (for example, before they are sexually active). Schools play a major role
in shaping the attitudes, opinions and behaviour of young people and so are ideal
environments for teaching the social as well as the biological aspects of HIV and AIDS.
Members of the wider community can also increase their knowledge about HIV and AIDS
through the school environment. Teachers who expand their understanding of the subject
while planning lessons and receiving teacher training can pass this information on to adults
as well as pupils, and the same can be said for children themselves; once informed about
AIDS, they can tell their parents or their friends what they have learned.
H IV an d AI DS ed uc at io n i n the wo rk pl ac e
“The workplace is a key location for HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes.” - Dr Peter
Piot, former UNAIDS Executive Director.9
Educating people at work is an important way of providing people with vital prevention
information, and can reach people who have previously missed out on HIV and AIDS
education. Furthermore, it is estimated that nine out of ten people living with HIV are
working. Providing education in the workplace is important for protecting those at work living
with HIV, and for helping them to live healthily and stay in work.10
Some occupations carry an increased risk of HIV infection, making HIV and AIDS education
in the workplace even more important for preventing the spread of the virus. Health care
workers may be at a higher risk of HIV transmission, for example from needles and other
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medical instruments, while at work. HIV and AIDS education needs to be a priority in such
environments, to ensure that healthcare workers take precautions that will protect them
from HIV infection.
Some people may be more vulnerable to HIV and AIDS because of the lifestyle of their work.
For example, workers who spend time away from home may be more involved in risky sexual
behaviour than those who spend the majority of the time at home with their families.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) works throughout the world on HIV/AIDS
policies and programmes in the workplace. The organisation aims to protect against
discrimination in labour laws, promote prevention initiatives within the workplace, and
supports those living with HIV by ensuring access to social protection, treatment and
care.11 However, workplace HIV and AIDS education is not universal and as a result, people
are still unaware of the dangers of HIV, and those living with the virus are still subject to HIV
related stigma and discrimination at work.

H ow c an H IV a nd A ID S ed uc at i on b e d el iv e re d ?

There are a great variety of methods and materials that can be used to educate people about
HIV and AIDS, including radio & television, booklets, billboards, street theatre, comic strips,
and many more. The form in which HIV and AIDS education should be delivered depends on
the characteristics of those who are being educated. In order to reach the target group, it
needs to be considered which environments they will be most receptive in, and what media is
most relevant to them.
How HIV and AIDS education should be delivered also depends on the principal aims of the
education programme. Sometimes education on HIV and AIDS is about giving people
information which they will remember on a long term basis, about how to protect
themselves; the difference between HIV and AIDS; and helping to reduce discrimination.
Other education strategies are intended to have more immediate effects, and may target
people when they are most likely to take part in risky behaviour – in nightclubs or holiday
resorts, for example.
There is no set or prescribed form that HIV and AIDS education should take, but there are
certain things that need to be considered when carrying out or producing resources for HIV
and AIDS education. The following questions have significant implications for the way in
which HIV and AIDS education should be delivered:
• Is the education programme targeted at a specific risk-group or more generally at the
population as a whole?
• What age are the people to be educated?
• Are the people to be educated already sexually aware?
• Have they been exposed to HIV and AIDS education before?
• Are they literate?
• What language or local dialect do they speak?
• Are there cultural issues to be considered? For example, attitudes to sexuality, or laws
against portrayal of explicit images or language.
• Are people able to do what you're suggesting? There's no point in advising people to
use condoms if none are available to them, or to use clean needles if needle exchanges
are illegal.
H IV an d AI DS ed uc at io n t hr ou gh t he ma ss me di a
The mass media has played a central role in many countries’ responses to AIDS since the
very early days of the epidemic. In the UK, as a response to the growing number of new HIV
infections during the 1980s, a leaflet about AIDS was delivered to every household and a
major advertising campaign carrying the slogan “AIDS: Don’t Die of Ignorance”, was
launched. The UK government’s use of the media for broadly targeted or ‘blanket education’
was successful in promoting widespread awareness of HIV and AIDS amongst the general
population.
Although media-based HIV and AIDS education is considered effective for raising general
awareness, its overall impact is difficult to measure. It is essential that education goes
beyond promoting general awareness and instigates behaviour change to reduce the risk of
HIV transmission.
HIV and AIDS education can also have the detrimental affect of increasing stigma and
discrimination towards people living with HIV. Some media messages try to change people’s
behaviour by making the audience afraid of the consequences of becoming infected with HIV.
This not only has the potential of making the target audience afraid of people infected with
HIV but also carries the risk of portraying HIV positive people as at fault for becoming
infected.
Media based HIV and AIDS education can be particularly harmful when targeted at specific
risk groups, such as men who have sex with men or injecting drug users. Not only can
this fuel stigmatisation of these groups, but it can also hinder HIV prevention. By not
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representing the broad face of the epidemic, and instead focusing on risks to specific groups,
the media encourages the attitude that AIDS is ‘somebody else’s problem’ and that if you are
not part of a risk group you don’t need to worry about HIV and AIDS.
Pe er e du ca tio n
It is not just teachers who can provide education; people’s knowledge about HIV and AIDS
can be influenced by a variety of different people, including family, friends, and the wider
community. Peer education is education provided by somebody who is either directly part of
the group receiving the information, or who is from a similar social background.
Peer education is a less formal method of educating, which can be more accessible to people
who are not used to or dislike a formal classroom environment. At the same time, peer
educators are trained on the subject, ensuring that the information they provide is accurate
and reliable. This makes peer education a very effective way of reaching marginalised
groups. For example, peer education programmes have been found to work well in prisons,
where authority figures are often distrusted.12 13

W ha t in fo rm at io n n ee ds t o be i nc lu de d in HI V an d AI DS e du ca t io n ?

Although HIV and AIDS education needs to be tailored to the context in which it takes place
and to the people who are being educated, there are some key areas that HIV and AIDS
education programmes need to cover. It is important that the information provided is a
balance of the social and emotional aspects of HIV/AIDS as well as biological and medical
information.
Comprehensive HIV and AIDS education includes:14 15
How to protect and promote one’s health
• Basic knowledge of HIV and AIDS – including how to protect oneself from HIV
infection.
• Learning about treatment and care - including an understanding of voluntary
counselling and testing (VCT) and antiretroviral drugs.
Social and emotional aspects
• How to maintain a healthy level of self-confidence and self esteem.
• Coping with difficult and risky situations.
• Coping with loss.
Sexuality
• Learning about different sexual orientations and the development of sexuality.
Promotion of equity, including gender issues
• Understanding that social, biological, economic and cultural factors affect vulnerability
to HIV.
• Understanding that men and women have similar rights in society and family.
Overcoming stigma and discrimination and promoting human rights
• How to show support for HIV positive people and how not to discriminate against or
stigmatise people living with HIV
• Understanding the importance of confronting HIV and AIDS in the community
Providing the right information is only part of carrying out comprehensive HIV and AIDS
education. For the education to be effective, this information needs to be absorbed and
remembered. Active learning encourages people to engage with information by giving them
the opportunity to apply it.16

H IV a nd A ID S ed uc at i on : Th e is su e s

Unfortunately when it comes to HIV and AIDS education, ideological and religious views often
conflict with science. America has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rates out of high-
income countries.17 Yet despite evidence that young people are having sex, the ideological
message of sexual abstinence until marriage plays a key role in sex education.
Abstinence-only programmes often do not teach people about contraception and
safer sex and therefore many young people remain unaware of how to protect themselves
from becoming infected with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV. Federal
funding for abstinence-only programmes in America has increased significantly since 1997,
despite many studies concluding that these programmes have no long-term effect on sexual-
health outcomes.18
Conflicts with science are not only evident in America – in many parts of the world, educating
about safe sex is against moral and religious views and therefore people remain unaware of
the dangers of HIV infection through sexual intercourse.
“At this moment in time, this school is trying to educate their students about ‘themselves’…
but because of the policies of the Catholic Education Office, certain topics are not allowed to
be spoken about in class… I feel sorry for these children as they will be totally shocked once
they finally learn about ‘sex’. I feel that the school and the Catholic system is trying to

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protect these children from the horrors of the real world” -A personal story received by
AVERT from Louise, a social work student taking a work placement at a primary school.
Discriminatory laws and government views can also have a detrimental effect upon HIV and
AIDS education. In Zimbabwe, for example, homophobic views are common
and homosexuality has been publicly denounced by President Robert Mugabe. This has
made it difficult for AIDS organisations to targetgay men with educational messages.
“A lot of gay men in Zimbabwe have died silently through ignorance and multiple
stigmatisation of homosexuality and seroposivity. As a result, there is a growing sense of
urgency to extend services to this community” - Samual Madzikure, Gays and Lesbians of
Zimbabwe.19
“What we need to do is fight for a change of laws so that gays are given recognition. Without
that, fighting AIDS among homosexuals will be futile” - Benjamin Mazhindu, chairman of the
Zimbabwe National Network for People Living with HIV.20

W ha t is ne ed e d?

Many people are now aware of the dangers of HIV, and yet each year millions of people
become infected with the virus. It is therefore vital that HIV and AIDS education goes beyond
simply providing information and that it is supported by other prevention efforts such as
providing condoms and clean injecting equipment, and making testing facilities available and
accessible. In order to ensure that people are willing and able to turn the knowledge they
gain from HIV and AIDS education into action, they need more than basic scientific facts. HIV
and AIDS education needs to motivate people by making them aware that what they are
learning is relevant to their lives. Empowerment is also crucial, as people must be in a
position where they are able to take control of their sexual behaviour or methods of drug
use.
Education is a crucial factor in preventing the spread of HIV. Given the huge numbers of
deaths that might still be prevented, the importance of effective education cannot be
overestimated.

Adolescence
Main article: Adolescent psychology
Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an
adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the
formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral
purpose (see William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought
often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during
adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)[16]
It is divided into two parts namely:
1. Early Adolescence: 13 to 17 years and
2. Late Adolescence: 17 to 18 years
The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?"
Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to
an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to
select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to
achieve a sense of identity.
Early adulthood
The person must learn how to form intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. The
development of this skill relies on the resolution of other stages. It may be hard to establish
intimacy if one has not developed trust or a sense of identity. If this skill is not learned the
alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on
others.
A related framework for studying this part of the life span is that of Emerging adulthood,
introduced in 2000 by Jeffrey Arnett. Scholars of emerging adulthood are interested not only
in relationship development (focusing on the role of dating in helping individuals settle on a
long-term spouse/partner), but also the development of sociopolitical views and occupational
choice.
Middle age
Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 60. During this period,
the middle-aged experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either
feel a sense of contributing to the next generation and their community or a sense of
purposelessness.

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Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory
keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp drop in the
hormone estrogen. Men do have an equivalent to menopause, it is called "Andropause,"
which is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects similar to menopause.
Lowered testosterone levels result in mood swings and a decline in sperm count and speed
of ejaculation and erection. Most men and women remain capable of sexual satisfaction after
middle age.
Old age
This stage generally refers to those over 60–80 years. During old age, people experience a
conflict between integrity vs. despair. When reflecting on their life, they either feel a sense of
accomplishment or failure.
Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina,
hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to
severe diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Mental
disintegration may also occur, leading to Dementia orAlzheimer's Disease. However, partially
due to a lifetime's accumulation of antibodies, the elderly are less likely to suffer from
common diseases such as the cold.
Whether or not intellectual powers increase or decrease with age remains
controversial. Longitudinal studies have suggested that intellect declines, while cross-
sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable. It is generally believed that crystallized
intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age.
Emotional Development of adolescence :
Emotional development continues once children reach adolescence. In fact, emotions have
often been used to define the period of adolescence. For some people, the changes
associated with adolescence conjure up pictures of strong emotions—a developmental period
characterized as a time when teens become moody and negative. These images, however,
are accurate for only a minority of adolescents. Most adolescents cope with the changes in
emotionally positive ways.
When emotional stress does arise, it often is the result of adolescents' conflicts with their
parents. These conflicts frequently occur because adolescents are striving to make
independent choices and do not agree with parents' requests and opinions as readily as they
did when they were younger. Conversations about general household tasks and curfews can
be potentially volatile—for instance, when a young person's desire to stay out late with his
friends conflicts with the parents' needs to make sure their child is safe and home at a
reasonable hour.
Although adolescents' conflicts over family issues can have an emotional impact, emotional
extremes more often center on interactions with peers, particularly romantic partners. These
extreme feelings are tied to the adolescent's self-perceptions, sometimes producing feelings
of worthlessness and sometimes eliciting strong joy and desire. Depending on the unique
characteristics of the young person, the availability of parental support, and the amount and
kind of stress in an adolescent's life, some teens are able to surmount difficult emotional
situations, whereas others may despair.
Beginning in infancy and spanning the course of childhood and adolescence, emotionality
represents a critical aspect of development. Although the precise factors that affect
emotional development vary from individual to individual, emotions influence how children
relate to others, how they feel about themselves, and the direction in which development
proceeds. The study of emotional development in children and adolescents is incomplete,
however. Researchers are only beginning to better understand the interplay between
children's life experiences and the complex developmental and emotional tasks they face.

Introduction to life skills education

Objectives
By the end of the session, the participants should be able to
1. define the terms Life Skills and Life Skills
Education
2. state the categories of life skills
Definitions

Life Skills are psychosocial competences which enable an individual develop adaptive and positive
behaviour so as to deal effectively with challenges and demands of everyday life. The development of Life
Skills is a life long process that starts in early childhood and continues throughout ones life}}
 Psycho
Those skills that deal mainly with the mental functions and processes, such as the problem solving
skills. Social Those skills that deal with one’s interaction with self, others and the environment.

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Life Skills Education is the study of abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to
deal effectively with the demands and the challenges of everyday life.
Challenges facing the youth
 Psychological e.g. preparing for examinations, peer pressure, etc.
 Social e.g. peer pressure, inter-relationships, etc.
 Economic e.g. lack of resources (such as finance, basic necessities), excessive resources.
 Emotional e.g. anger management, hormonal influences, etc.
 Spiritual e.g. exposure to conflicting religious beliefs.
 Etc.
Categories of Life Skills
CATEGORY 1: SKILLS OF KNOWING AND LIVING WITH ONESELF
 Self awareness
 Self esteem
 Coping with emotions
 Coping with stress
CATEGORY 2: SKILLS OF KNOWING AND LIVING WITH OTHERS
 Empathy
 Effective communication
 Conflict resolution and negotiation
 Friendship formation
 Assertiveness
 Peer pressure resistance
CATEGORY 3: SKILLS OF EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING
 Critical thinking
 Creative thinking
 Problem solving
 Decision making
Youth are considered as the most productive members of the society, due to their
physical and intellectual capacity. But it is sad to recognize the fact that most of the youth
are unable to utilize their potential in an appropriate way due to lack of guidance and
motivation. Now a days a large number of youth engaged in antisocial activities which create
a lot of social problems like alcoholism, drug abuse, sexual abuse, smoking etc. These habits
deteriorate their physical and intellectual capabilities and also seem to be a burden to the
society. Youths are engaged in many antisocial activities and which adversely affecting other
members of the society. These high risk behaviors affecting society in a large extend. This
new challenge requires immediate and effective responses from a socially responsible
system of education. It may be noted that to date, no university or board of school
education has come forward to initiate such a programme in the country which may be
beneficial to our young people. In this connection life skill education plays a very vital role to
increase the awareness among the youth about all social problems and to alleviate social
evils from the society. Life skill education helps the individual to improve the decision
making skill, ability to take every thing in the right sense and also improve their
contributions to the society.
Life skill: A skill is a learned ability to do something well. Life skills are abilities, individuals
can learn that will help them to live a fruitful life. Life skills are defined in the Targeting Life
Skills (TLS) Model (Hendricks, 1996) as “Skills that help an individual be successful in living
a productive and satisfying life.”
Meaning of Life Skill; The abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individual
to deal effectively with demands and challenges every day life (WHO). It further
encompasses thinking skill, social skill and negotiation skill. It also helps the young people
to develop and grow into well behaved adults.
Life skill education aims to provide students with strategies to make healthy choices that
contribute to a meaningful life. Life skills are the abilities that help to promote mental well
being and competence in young people as they face the realities of life. It helps the young
people to take positive actions to protect them selves and to promote health and meaningful
social relationship. Life skill facilitates a complete and integrated development of individuals
to function effectively as social beings.
Life skill education is a value addition programme for the youth to understand self and able
to assess their skill, abilities and areas of developments. Which also enable them to analyze
their capacity to enhance the function in a most productive way. Life skill education allows
the youth get along with other people, able to adjust with their environment and making
responsible decision. Which also incorporate to build up their values and to communicate
effectively. In many circles, reproductive health education, population education and family
welfare education are interchangeably used to convey the same meaning. The main
objective of life skill education is to enable the learner to develop a concept of oneself as a

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person of worth and dignity. It should help one to understand oneself and lead to growth in
personal responsibility.
Life skill education is a basic learning need for all young people. It will help the young people
to empower in challenging situations. Various skills like leadership, responsibility,
communication, intellectual capacity, self esteem, Interpersonal skill etc.extends its
maximum level, if it is practicing effectively among the youth. We need to create life skill
education as the cornerstone of various youth programmes. An effective implementation
strategy will help the youth to practice it in their life. Specific activities like leadership
training, communication, interaction, understanding self, making decisions, working with
groups, socialization etc added the quality of youth.
Developing life skill helps the adolescents to translate knowledge, attitude and their health
behavior such as acquiring the ability to reduce specific risk behavior and adopt healthy
behavior that improve their lives in general. Life skills have produced the following effects:
lessened violent behavior; increased pro-social behavior and decreased negative, self-
destructive behavior; increased the ability to plan ahead and choose effective solutions to
problems; improved self-image, self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment; increased
acquisition of knowledge; improved classroom behavior; gains in self control and sociability;
better handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety; and improved
constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity.
Skill based approach in life skill education follows well established mentoring techniques to
develop students innate quality and also motivating them to adopt socially acceptable
pattern of life style’s particularly, strategy consisting of a group of people combined together
to help themselves by identifying their talents and directing them to choose an appropriate
steps to enhance their skill and abilities as a part of development. Proper feed back are
necessary from the trainer as well as the peer groups to an individual to improve their
confidence. Through the experiential learning process, youth internalize the knowledge and
gain the ability to apply the skills appropriately.
Life skill education Strategies
Life skill covering the areas like leadership, ethics, accountability, adaptability, personal
productivity, personal responsibility, people skill and self direction. Leadership skill enables
the person to solve problems, attain his/her life goal and the ability to motivate others and
also achieve a common goal. Person will meet the high standard of accomplishments by
following the ethics in his/her personal as well as professional life. He will be able to adapt
different roles and responsibilities. They are able to tolerate ambiguity and willing to change
their priorities as per the requirement. Thus they will be committed to their work by utilizing
the time more effectively. Life skill education will be effective only when people are able to
act upon the skill which they have learned. In mental health and other areas, there is a
considerable improvement in behavior with the help of life skill education. Life skill education
lays the foundation for learning skill, which is greater demand in job market. Life skill
education enhances self direction of the individual. He/She will be able to monitor his or her
own understanding and learning needs. And also has the commitment to learning as a life
long process.
A life skill programme could include content about friendships, bullying, sexual relationships,
anger management, perceptions about drug use. The Key basic categories of life skills
including communication, negotiation, refusal skills, assertiveness, cooperation, empathy.
Cognitive skills including problem solving skills, understanding consequences, decision
making, critical thinking, self evaluation. Emotional coping skills including managing feelings
self management and self monitoring.
In order to have an effective implementation of life skill education there is a need for
professionally trained and skilled personal from within the country. Professional training
requires a purposely planned programme of study prepared by experts which has the
approval of a competent authority. There is an urgent need to train and prepare a large
contingent of “trainers of trainers” (TOTs). The TOTs will require adequate training on all
aspects of the subject. They have to be expert in this field of study in order to be effective in
performing their task.
Through life skill education one can move towards a more positive and holistic approaches in
order to educate the new generations and through them the future generations.
Family life education for adolescents addresses two important kinds of needs: (1) their
current normative needs associated with changing physical, sexual, cognitive, social, and
emotional developments, and (2) their anticipatory or future family-related needs to help
prepare them for adult roles and responsibilities in marriage and parenting. Important family
life content includes understanding one's self and others; building self-esteem; making
choices about sexuality; forming, maintaining, and ending relationships; taking responsibility
for one's actions; understanding family roles and responsibilities; and improving
communication skills (Hennon and Arcus 1993). Programs differ in the emphasis placed on
this content, with some focusing on personal development themes and others giving greater
attention to marriage and family relationships.

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The assumption underlying anticipatory family education is that if adolescents are prepared
for their potential future family roles, then their adult life experiences in these roles will be
more successful (Hennon and Arcus 1993). As most adolescents have not yet selected a
marital partner, anticipatory education for marriage emphasizes acquiring knowledge about
marriage and intimate relationships, improving relationship skills, and exploring personal
attitudes and values regarding marriage, marital expectations, and marital roles (Stahmann
and Salts 1993). Anticipatory education for parenthood helps adolescents acquire knowledge
about child development and different patterns of child rearing and sometimes includes the
study and observation of children (Brock, Oertwein, and Coufal 1993). These programs are
most successful when they also include the precursors of successful parenting—self-
understanding and the development of interpersonal relationship skills (de Lissovoy 1978).
In the United States and Canada, most family life education programs for adolescents are
found in schools, although some may also be offered through youth organizations,
community agencies, and churches. Programs vary considerably in their content and
approach, in whether they are required or elective, and in which department they may be
offered (typically Home Economics, Guidance and Counseling, Social Studies, or Health).
Information about program effectiveness is limited but suggests that programs may be
successful in helping students acquire knowledge and skills but have little impact on attitudes
and values (Hennon and Arcus 1993). Many programs are hampered by the lack of time
allocated to them, the lack of educational resources, and limitations in preparing family life
teachers.
In Japan, family life goals at the upper-secondary level include understanding human
development and daily life, understanding the meaning of families, family and community
connections, learning knowledge and skills for daily life, and creating family and community
life cooperatively between men and women (Ministry of Education 2000). This content,
taught in the Home Economics department, has been mandated for girls since 1960 and for
both girls and boys since 1989. Secondary school subjects called Life Environment
Studies and Morals may also teach content related to human development, interpersonal
relationships, family interaction, ethics, and family and society.
Human relations topics in Australian secondary schools may either be integrated into
established subject areas (typically Health Education, Social Studies, or Home Economics) or
presented as an independent subject such as Personal Development, Life Skills, or Human
Relations (Wolcott 1987). Curriculum guidelines vary among the states and territories, and
because these guidelines are "suggestive," some family life topics may receive little if any
attention.
Beginning in 2002, citizenship, which includes respecting individual differences and the
development of good relationships, will become a statutory subject taught in all state schools
in the United Kingdom (Blunkett 1999). For the first time, relationship skills and different
kinds of relationships, such as marriage and parenthood, will be taught to all students from
age eleven on. Although citizenship is a statutory subject, each individual school will
determine how the content is to be taught and by whom. This curricular development is
being supported by other U.K. agencies such as Marriage Care, which provides flexible-use
teaching units emphasizing good communication skills for use with twelve- to twenty-year-
olds through their project Foundations for a Good Life.
In Jamaica, education for family in secondary schools has typically been offered by Home
Economics (Hodelin 1999). Originally, this education was based on nineteenth-century
educational views exported from the United Kingdom to the English-speaking Caribbean and,
depending on social class, tended to emphasize either preparation for domestic
responsibilities as wife/mother or preparation for vocational domestic service. A
reconceptualization of the Home Economics Curriculum in the 1990s emphasized the
betterment of family life and provides a Caribbean-relevant curriculum relevant for both male
and female secondary students.
The biological onset of puberty highlights the universal need for sexuality education for
adolescents, and sexuality education/family planning education receives considerable
attention worldwide, prompted by global concerns about adolescent pregnancy and
parenthood and the emergence of HIV/AIDS as a health and social issue. A comparative
study of family life education, sex education, and human sexuality conducted by UNESCO
identified the need to broaden traditional population education to include topics such as
reproductive health, the status and empowerment of women, intergenerational relationships,
and problem-solving skills in order to improve family and social welfare (Blanchard 1995). In
the United States and Canada, most schools provide some form of sexuality education for
adolescents, although many curricular guides are out-of-date and programs are not
comprehensive, omitting topics such as communication and decision making, personal values
and responsibility, and reducing risk-taking behaviors (Engel, Saracino, and Bergen 1993).
Efforts to expand and improve family life/sexuality education have been reported in many
countries and regions, including Russia (Popova 1996), India (Sathe 1994; Nayak and Bose
1997), Africa (Centre for Development and Population Activities 1997), and New Zealand
(Duncan and Bergen 1997). Despite many differences in these programs, educators promote

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a broad rather than narrow approach to sexuality education, although implementation may
be difficult because of resistance from parents and from political and religious leaders.

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