A - (Casting, Welding & Foundry)

National Conference on Recent Innovations in Production Engineering
RIPE - 2010, MIT Campus - Anna University Chennai
RADIOGRAPHY TEST ON AA 7075 ALUMINIUM ALLOY GTAW AND

GMAW WELDMENTS
Sivashanmugam1. M, Manoharan. N2, Ravikumar. S3

1. Research Scholar, Sathyabama University, Chennai-119, e-mail: s_mugam70@yahoo.com
2. Vice Chancellor, Sathyabama University, Chennai – 600 119, India,
E-mail: dean@sathyabamauniv.ac.in
3. Lecturer, Department of Mechanical & Production, Sathyabama University, Chennai – 600 119,
India, mahailak@yahoo.co.in.
Abstract: NDT- Non Destructive Testing’s are inspections, checks and surveys
carried out by means of methods that do not alter the material and do not require
the destruction or removal of test samples from the concerned structure. The main
feature of this kind of tests is the possibility to check the concerned parts without
interfering with the tested material. On-destructive tests are thus a crucial tool for
the product final check. As for safety parts, the check by means of non-destructive
test also ensures the product conformity. Aluminum and its alloys have been used
in recent times due to their light weight, moderate strength and good corrosion
resistance aluminum alloy- AA 7075 has been researched upon especially as a
potential candidate for aircraft material. This alloy is difficult to weld using
conventional welding techniques like GMAW and GTAW. An attempt has been
made in this paper to weld 7075 alloy using GTAW and GMAW with argon as a
shielding gas. Mechanical properties of the joint like tensile strength, Hardness
and impact strength have been reported. Radiography is widely used in crack
detection and other defects inspection. Liquid Penetrate testing, Ultrasonic testing,
Eddy current inspection etc. are the various NDT techniques used in industries for
final inspection.
Key words: GTAW, GMAW, Radiography, defects detection
1. INTRODUCTION
Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method of

inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high
energy photons) to penetrate various materials. Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60,
or in rare cases Cs-137) can be used as a source of photons. Neutron radiographic testing (NR) is a variant of
radiographic testing which uses neutrons instead of photons to penetrate materials. This can see very different
things from X-rays, because neutrons can pass with ease through lead and steel but are stopped by plastics,
water and oils. Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected
and measured, variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or
composition of material [1]. Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the electromagnetic
spectrum of wavelength less than about 10 nanometers. Radiography is one of the most useful of the non-
destructive tests which can be applied for assessing the quality of welded joints. Radiography can detect flaws
or Discontinuities in welds such as Cold Lap, Porosity, and Slag Inclusions. Incomplete Penetration or Lack of
Penetration (LOP), incomplete fusion, internal concavity or Suck Back. Internal & External Undercut Offset or
Mismatch, Inadequate & Excess Weld Reinforcement and Cracks [2]. Radiography technique is based upon
exposing the components to short wavelength radiations in the form of X-rays of wavelength less than 0.001x10-
8
cm to about 40x10-8 cm from a suitable source. The portion of the weldment where defects are suspected is
exposed to X-rays emitted from the X-ray tube [3]. During exposure X-rays penetrate the welded object and
thus affect the x-ray film.
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1.1 Heat-treatable and Non-heat-treatable alloy
Heat-treatable alloys: 2000, 6000, 7000 & 8000 Non-heat-treatable alloys: 1000, 3000, 4000 &5000
1.1.1 Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys
The initial strength of alloys in this group depends upon the hardening effect of elements such as manganese,
silicon, iron, and magnesium, alone or in various combinations. The non-heat-treatable alloys are usually
designated as, in 1,000, 3,000, 4,000 or 5,000 series. Since these alloys are work-hardenable, further
strengthening is made possible by various degrees of cold working, denoted by the "H" series of tempers. Alloys
containing appreciable amounts of magnesium when supplied in strain-hardened tempers are usually given a
final elevated temperature treatment called normalizing to ensure stability of properties.[4]
1.1.2 Heat-Treatable Alloys
Heat-treatable alloys are 2000, 6000, 7000 & 8000 in series. The initial strength of alloys in this group is
enhanced by the addition of alloying elements such as copper, magnesium, zinc and silicon. Since these
elements single or in various combinations show increasing solid solubility in aluminum with increasing
temperature, it is possible to subject them to thermal treatments which will impart pronounced strengthening.
Precipitation hardening is commonly used to process copper alloys and other non-ferrous metals for commercial
use .The examples of aluminum –copper alloys, copper-beryllium, copper –tin, magnesium- aluminum and
some ferrous alloys [5].
Table: 1Base metal AA7075 chemical composition and microstructure investigation
1.1.2 Digital Radiography
Digital image processing involves manipulating one or more digital images Operations of practical importance
on a single image involve artifact suppression, gray-scale manipulations, distortion corrections, and edge
enhancement. Important techniques involving two or more images are (time difference) subtraction, dual energy
cancellation of bone or soft tissue structures, and the extraction of flow or organ function parameters. The
processing of a single image can be classified as a point operation, a local operation or a global operation. A
point operation uses a single point (pixel) of the initial or input image to obtain the corresponding point of the
final or output image. A local or neighborhood operation uses several pixels in a limited area of the input image
to obtain a point in the processed or final image [6].
200 X
Fig.1 Base metal microstructure
Fig.1 refers the microstructure which has revealed spheroidal particles of Mg2 Zn2 (black) and light grey particles
of FeAl3 present in the aluminium solid solution. Fig.2 shows the Microstructure has revealed Interdendritic
eutectic with light grey particles of FeAl3 present in the solid solution [7].
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200 X
Fig.2 welded zone microstructure
200 X
Fig.3 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Fig.3 refers the HAZ microstructure shows the elongated grains with grain boundary eutectic and light grey
particles of Al3 present in the aluminum solid solution. Fig.4 shows the tungsten inclusions in the micrograph
with irregularly shaped lower density spots randomly located in the weld image.
Fig.4 - Irregularly shaped lower density spots randomly located in the weld image
The TIG & MIG weldments are radio graphically tested with VIDISCO (fox – Rayzor) Machine for various
intensities with time were taken the following set value (100/40,100/35,100/30). By using 10-16-AL pentameter
it is low range thickness we observed 3 wire lines of sensitivity in digital graphs through necked eye [8].
Fig.5 GTAW-X-ray (VIDISCO)
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Fig.6 GTAW-X-ray (VIDISCO)
Fig.7 GMAW- X-ray (VIDISCO)
5.0 CONCLUSION
The experimental TIG & MIG weldments are tested by means of digital radiography with different intensity and
time. The observed images are in fig.5, 6 & 7 shows the defect of porosity and cluster porosity in both the
weldments, and if the experimental parameters are optimized the defect can be nullified.
6.0 REFERENCES
1. Thwarter, “Recently developed solutions for aerospace applications,” Materials Science Forum, Vol.519-
521, 2006, pp. 1271–1278.
2. Saqib sadiq, Future prospects for space materials, Quality Assurance and materials Research Division,
Pakistan space and upper Atmosphere research.
3. Aircraft materials and process, M.George
4. A Method for studying Weld Fusion Boundary Microstructure Evolution in Aluminum Alloys By
Kostrivas and J.C.Lippold (Supplement to the welding journal January 2000
5. Studies on friction stir welded AA 7075 Aluminium Alloy, K.Srinivasa Rao et al,Vol 57,No 6 , December
2004, pp.659-663.
6. Gas tungsten arc welded AA 2219 Alloy using scandium containing fillers- mechanical and
Corrosion behavior, S.R.Koteswararao, G.Madhusudhan Reddy,K.Srinivasa Rao, P.Srinivasa Rao vol.57,
October 2004, pp.451-459.
7. Mechanical and microstructural behavior of 2024-7075 aluminium alloy sheets joined by friction stir
Welding P.Cavaliere, R.nobile, F.W.panella, A.Squillace, International journal of machine tools and
Manufacture, 46,(2006),pp.588-594.
8. Aluminum information at aircraft spruce.com .accessed, October 13, 2006.Effect of welding processes on
Tensile properties of AA6061 aluminum alloy joints A.K.Elongovan K.Lakshminarayanan&V.
Balasubramanian.
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CONTINUOUS CONTROL OF THE THICKNESS DISTRIBUTION IN

SUPERPLASTIC FORMING PROCESS
G. KUMARESAN1, S. DINESH KUMAR2, K. KALAICHELVAN3

1. Teaching Research Associate,
2. PG Student
3. Assistant Professor, MIT Anna University, Department of Production Technology Chennai
e-mail:kalaiselvan@mitindia.edu
Abstract:Superplasticity in materials is characterized by large neck-free

elongation under low flow stress when they are formed at temperature exceeding
about one half of the melting point. In superplastic forming, the controlling of the
thickness distribution is a very important problem. Sheets formed under this
technique obtain variation thickness. It leads to the degradation of the mechanical
properties of the formed parts. In this work eutectic Pb-Sn superplastic sheet
materials were considered. Cast sheet blanks were thermomechanically treated to
obtain superplastic properties. The complex shape (combination of the rectangular
with dome shape) was identified. As the forming height increases, the thickness
decreases in the formed components. The proximity sensor was used to indicate
the dynamic height variation of the formed component. Based on the height
variation of the formed component, the bulging pressure was controlled. Instead of
the constant bulge pressure method, the continuous control of the bulging
pressure according to the bulge height variation, the variation in thickness
distribution of the formed component was controlled.
Key word: Superplastic forming, uniform thickness, proximity sensor.
1.INTRODUCTION
Super Plastic Forming (SPF) is a manufacturing process whereby certain material under the correct
conditions of temperature and strain rate exhibit a large elongation without failure, while requiring low forming
pressure and no heat treatment. This phenomenon has been observed for a wide range of materials including
metallic alloys (such as titanium, aluminium alloys, ceramics, composites and minerals) [1-3].In practice,
superplastic forming are summarized as a grain size less than 10µm,low strain rate of less than 10-3s-1 and at
temperatures of ≥ 0.5Tm,where Tm is the melting point of the material. The main application fields of this
process are automobile and aircraft industries because of its superior characteristics, such as lightweight, low
cost and short fabrication time. The problems related with non- uniform thickness distribution and cavitation
often occur during Superplastic forming [4-5]. It leads to a degradation of the mechanical properties of the super
plastically formed parts. In the current study, an investigation of the effect of variable pressure method on the
superplastic forming behavior of a eutectic pb-sn sheet material is presented.
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1.Experimental Setup
The process setup consist of a air compressor with tank, thermocouple to measure the die temperature. The
forming chamber consist of top and bottom dies. Recess is provided in bottom die to hold sheet blank. The Top
die is a complex shape(Combination of the rectangular with the Dome shape).The entire die arrangements
where placed in a furnace and the die temperature was controlled by temperature controller. The compressed air
fed to the forming chamber as shown in fig.1.
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Fig 1. Experimental setup
2.2.Material Preparation
The Material selected for this work is eutectic lead and tin composition. The pb 61.9 and sn 38.1 alloy
was prepared by melting one-hour 184°C and cast into a mould of the dimension 100mm X 92mm X 5mm.The
sheets are prepared to a thickness of 1mm by Thermo-mechanical treatments for required grain-size. Finally the
circular sheet with a thickness of 1mm and an effective diameter of 90mm were prepared.
2.3.Experimental Procedure
The Experimental work was divided into two segments. In the first segment, two samples namely I and
II were considered .In the next segment, three samples namely, samples A,B &C were considered. In the first
Segment for sample I a constant forming pressure of 0.3 Mpa were chosen and for sample II two different
forming pressure of 0.3 Mpa (up to first 8mm formation)and 0.2 Mpa (up to next 8mm formation) were chosen
and the forming temperature of 100°C was selected. The eutectic pb-sn sheet samples I and II were
superplastically formed in the die setup as shown in fig1.The superplastically formed part was taken out of the
die setup and the thickness distribution was measured.
In the second segment for sample A, a constant forming pressure of 0.3 Mpa were chosen and for
sample B two different forming pressure of 0.3 Mpa (up to first 8mm formation)and 0.2 Mpa (up to next 8mm
formation) were chosen. For sample C three different forming pressure of 0.3 Mpa (up to first 8mm formation)
and 0.2 Mpa (up to next 4mm formation)and 0.1 Mpa (up to last 4mm formation) were chosen and the forming
temperature of 100°C was selected. The eutectic pb-sn sheet samples A,B and C were superplastically formed
in the die setup as shown in fig 1.The superplastically formed part was taken out of the die setup and the
thickness distribution was measured.
3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the First segment the sample I that was formed under high pressure(0.3 Mpa) took less forming time
and the thickness distribution were not good compared with the sample II that was formed under two stages. In
the first stage the sample II was formed under high pressure (0.3 Mpa) up to first 8mm of the die cavity. In the
next stage the sample II was formed under low pressure (0.2 Mpa) up to the remaining 8mm of the die cavity.
In the second segment the sample A that was formed under high pressure(0.3 Mpa) took less forming
time and the thickness distribution were not good compared with the sample B and C. The sample B was formed
under two stages. In the first stage the sample B was formed under high pressure (0.3 Mpa)up to the first 8mm
of the die cavity, In the next stage the sample B was formed under low pressure (0.2 Mpa) up to the remaining
8mm of the die cavity. The Sample C was formed under three stages. In the first stage the sample C was formed
under high pressure (0.3 Mpa) up to the first 8mm of the die cavity, In the next stage the sample C was formed
under low pressure (0.2 Mpa) up to the next 4mm of the die cavity. In the third stage the sample C was formed
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under very low pressure(0.1 Mpa) up to last 4mm in the die cavity. The thickness distribution were good in
sample C compared with sample A and B.
In dynamic control pressure method ,the pressure was controlled continuously according to the
component height, the proximity sensor was used to indicate the dynamic height variation of the formed
component. Instead of the constant pressure method, the dynamic control pressure method was used for getting
uniform thickness distribution throughout the formed component.
Fig.2 Formed component
Fig.3 Different position of thickness measurement in the formed component.
Table 1 Segment 1
SEGMENT 1
SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
POSITION THICKNESS(µm) POSITION THICKNESS (µm)
1 1 000 1 1000
2 690 2 690
3 620 3 680
4 700 4 720
5 730 5 725
6 610 6 675
7 730 7 720
8 700 8 720
9 620 9 700
10 690 10 680
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Table 2 Segment 2
SEGMENT 2
SAMPLE A SAMPLE B SAMPLE C
POSITION THICKNESS POSITION THICKNESS POSITION THICKNESS
(µm) (µm) (µm)
1 1000 1 1000 1 1000
2 650 2 710 2 710
3 640 3 670 3 690
4 740 4 730 4 720
5 640 5 670 5 760
6 600 6 640 6 670
7 640 7 680 7 780
8 740 8 740 8 680
9 610 9 640 9 670
10 640 10 710 10 720
4. CONCLUSION
In order to have uniform thickness distribution, with considerable amount of deformation, the
continuous control of superplastic forming process gives significant results in thin sheet superplasitc forming. In
this test, two things were absorbed, In slow pressure the thickness distribution and dome height are favorable
and in high pressure they are not favorable, but the forming time is reduced. An experiment was conducted
based upon variable pressure method, according to the component height variation to achieve the uniform
thickness distribution with minimum forming time.
5. REFERENCES
1. Young-Seon Lee,Sang-Yong Lee,Jung-Hwan Lee,(2001), “A Study on the process to control the cavity and
the thickness distribution of superplastically formed parts”, The international journal of Materials
processing technology, Vol 112,pp 114-120.
2. Yenihayat O.F ,Mimaroglu A and Unal H,(2005), “Modelling and tracing the super plastic deformation
process of 7075aluminium alloy sheet: use of finite element technique”, The international journal of
Materials and Design, Vol26, pp73-78.
3. Kalaichelvan.K, Sivaramakrishnan.R, Dinakaran.D, Joseph Stanley.A,(2005), “Cavity Minimization and
Uniformity studies on Superplastic forming of thin eutectic Pb-Sn sheet by optimum loading and
performing”, The International Journal of Materials processing Technology, Vol 162-163,pp 519-523.
4. Senthil Kumar V.S, Viswanathan.D, Natarajan.S,(2006), “Theoretical prediction and FEM analysis of
superplastic forming of AA7475 aluminium alloy in a Hemisperical Die”,The International Journal of
Materials processing Technology, Vol 173,pp 247-251.
5. Padmanabhan k.A.,(1980), Superplasticity, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York.
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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON SQUEEZE CASTING OF

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (A356 Al alloy +SiC)
P.Senthilkumar1, Dr. M.Jayaraman2

1. Final M.E (CAD/CAM)
2. Professor & Head, Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
2
Erode, email: jayaram1967@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Squeeze casting is a hybrid metal forming process combining

features of both casting and forging in one operation. An attempt was made to
prepare solid cylindrical components of (A356 +SiC) aluminum alloy through
squeeze casting The objective is to investigate the effect of process parameters
on the mechanical and metallurgical properties exhibited by the castings produced
though squeeze casting process . A set of trials are conducted based on
parameters settings suggested in Taguchi’s offline quality control concept. The
experimental results indicate that the squeeze pressure and the die-preheating
temperature, pouring temperature, Duration of pressure application were the
parameters making significant contribution toward improvement in mechanical
properties of squeeze cast (A356 +sic) aluminum alloy.
Keywords: Squeeze casting, Taguchi method, Tensilestrength, microhardness
1. INTRODUCTION
Metal matrix composite materials are advanced materials, which combine tough metallic matrix with a
ceramic. Metal matrix composites show advantages in a great number of specific applications (aircraft,
automobile, machines) due to their high specific strength and stiffness, wear resistance and dimensional
stability(1). Conventional casting process cannot produce parts as strong as forged parts. Squeeze casting
accounts for 15 to 40% improvement of the mechanical properties than gravity die casting (2). This study
investigated the effects of squeeze parameters on the properties of squeeze castings and the optimum parameters
for producing squeeze castings from Al-Si alloy. Squeeze casting is a very important manufacturing process
that combines the advantages of forging and casting and is used for the production of a wide range of products
from monolithic alloys and metal-matrix composites parts. It also compared the properties of the squeeze
castings with those of chill castings (3).
The use of reinforcement among others a good understanding of the effects of process parameters is
essential as the structure and properties of alloys can be optimised without the use of expensive alloying
elements or nucleating agents It was found that the SiC particles acted as substrates for heterogeneous
nucleation of Si crystals in one of the cast composites(4). This observation can also be explained by the thermal
lag model proposed. The microstructure and fracture behavior of the composites were examined The Taguchi
approach enables a comprehensive understanding of the individual and combined from a minimum number of
simulation trials (5). This technique is multi – step process which follow a certain sequence for the experiments
to yield an improved understanding of product or process performance (6).Though several works applying
Taguchi methods on die cast components have been reported in literature, it appears that very limited works
have been carried out for squeeze cast components. On considering the importance of aluminum alloys, the
main objective of the research was to apply Taguchi method to find the optimal set of control parameters for
squeeze casting of (A356+ SiC) aluminum alloy.
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2. SQUEEZE CASTING – PROCESS OUTLINE
Squeeze casting process, is based on the pressurized solidification of the molten metal in re-usable dies,
and involves the following steps: 1.Preheating of the die and the punch. 2.Pouring molten metal into the die
cavity. 3.Application of squeeze pressure and allowing for solidification. 4.Ejection of solidified casting
Table 1 Control factors and levels
Factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
notation Control factor
A Squeeze pressure(MPa) 4 8 12
B Pouring temperature(°C) 800 850 900
C Duration of pressure application(sec) 20 40 60
D Die preheating temperature(°C) 80 160 250
3 .TAGUCHI METHOD
Taguchi method is an efficient problem-solving tool, which can upgrade/improve the performance of
the product process, design, and system with a significant slash in experimental time and cost this technique
determines the most influential parameter on the output response for the significant improvement in the overall
performance.
Table 2 Experimental observations
Exp. no A B C D Tensile strength Hardness BHN
MPa
1 4 800 20 80 220 70
2 4 850 40 160 223 84
3 4 900 60 250 216 93
4 8 800 60 160 210 88
5 8 850 20 250 228 95
6 8 900 40 80 236 80
7 12 800 40 250 230 94
8 12 850 60 80 240 95
9 12 900 20 160 234 82
Exp. no – Experiment number .A – Squeeze pressure (MPa), B – pouring temperature (°C), C – Duration of
pressure application (Sec), D- die-preheating temperature (°C).
Table 3 S/N ratio for tensile strength and hardness
EXP A B C D S/N Ratio S/N Ratio
NO Tensile strength (Hardness Hv)
1 1 1 1 1 47.8260 38.8378
2 1 2 2 2 47.4782 38.6226
3 1 3 3 3 46.9565 38.3333
4 2 1 3 2 48.5652 39.7927
5 2 2 1 3 48.3043 39.4827
6 2 3 2 1 48.7297 39.3396
7 3 1 2 3 48.8918 39.8113
8 3 2 3 1 48.8945 39.8113
9 3 3 1 2 47.9130 39.6792
In order to observe the influencing degree of process parameters in squeeze casting, four parameters namely
squeeze pressure, pouring temperature, duration of pressure application and die preheating temperature each at
three levels were considered and are listed in Table 1. Maintaining these processing parameters as constants
enabled us to study the effect of squeeze pressure, die preheat temperature, and duration of pressure application.
4
The total degrees of freedom for four parameters in each of three levels were 6. A three level L9 3 orthogonal
array with nine experimental runs was selected (degrees of freedom = 9-1 = 8).
Table 4 Pareto ANOVA for three level factors
Factors A B C D Total
Sum at factor level 1 ΣA1 ΣB1 ΣC1 ΣD1
2 ΣA2 ΣB2 ΣC2 ΣD2
T
3 ΣA3 ΣB3 ΣC3 ΣD3
Sum of squares of differences SA SB SC SD ST
Degrees of freedom 2 2 2 2 8
(contribution ratio)/100 SA/ST SB/ST SC/ST SD/ST 1
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T = ΣA1 + ΣA2 +ΣA3 SA = (ΣA1 - ΣA2)2 + (ΣA1 - ΣA3)2 + (ΣA2 - ΣA3)2

SB = (ΣB1 - ΣB2)2 + (ΣB1 - ΣB3)2 + (ΣB2 - ΣB3)2 SC = (ΣC1 - ΣC2)2 + (ΣC1 - ΣC3)2 + (ΣC2 - ΣC3)2
SD = (ΣD1 - ΣD2)2 + (ΣD1 - ΣD3)2 + (ΣD2 - ΣD3)2 ST = SA + AB + SC + SD
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A 25 tone hydraulic press was modified to apply pressure during solidification of the aluminum alloy.
The (A356+ SiC) aluminum alloy was melted and the die was preheated using a stirrer Casting furnace. The
experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. Two trial castings were made as per the data sheet of L9 (34) orthogonal
array. Tensile strength and hardness specimens were machined from these castings and the obtained values are
tabulated in Table 2.
Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The squeeze cast process parameters, namely squeeze pressure (A), pouring temperature (B) and duration of
pressure application (C) and die preheating temperature (d) were assigned to the 1st, 2nd, 3nd and 4th columns
of L9 34 array, respectively.. The S/N ratios were computed for tensile strength and hardness in each of the nine
trial conditions and their values are given in Table3.
Table 5 Pareto ANOVA for tensile strength

Sum at factor level 1 142.2607 143.5992 144.0433 144.1526 433.5592
2 145.5992 145.283 145.0997 143.9564
3 145.6993 144.677 144.4162 145.4502
Sum of squares of 22.9796 7.6484 1.7221 3.9536 36.3037
differences
Contribution ratio 63.30 21.07 4.74 10.89 100
Optimum level A3 B2 C2 D3
From Table (5), it can be seen that the third level of factor (A) give the highest summation squeeze pressure of
12MPa (A3). The highest summation for factor (B) is at the second level pouring temperature of 850°c (B2) and
the highest summation for factor(C) is at the second level duration of pressure application 40 s (C2) and the
highest summation for factor (B) is at the third level die preheating temperature of 250°C (D3). These predicted
parameters are not used in the composite preparation which indicated in table (2). We conducted an experiment
at the predicted parameters (A = 12 MPa, B = 850°c and C = 40 s, D=250°C), and tested the resulted specimen
by tensile. These levels were found to improve tensile strength and hardness. It must be noted that the above
combination of factor levels A3, B2, C2, D3 are not among the nine combinations tested for the
experimentation. This was expected because of the multifactor nature of the experimental design employed.(9
from 33=27 possible combinations). The resulted tensile strength was 256 MPa which is greater than the tensile
strength values in table (3). These results have proved the success of Taguchi method in the prediction of the
optimum parameters for higher tensile strength In table (6) it can be seen that the highest summation is at A3
(squeeze pressure of 12MPa e), B2 (pouring temperature of 850°c), and C2 (duration of pressure application 40
s), and D4 (die preheating temperature of 250°C). The predicted parameters for giving the highest hardness by
Taguchi method is already used in our experiments and it gave the highest hardness. This also proves the
success of Taguchi method
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Table 6 Pareto ANOVA for hardness
Sum at factor level 1 115.7937 117.9276 117.7735 117.9997 338.0996
2 118.615 118.4418 117. 9997 117.6273
3 119.0128 117.3521 117.9483 119.0945
Sum of squares of 18.4806 2.0328 0.0843 3.4899 24.0876
differences
Contribution ratio 76.72 8.44 0.34 14.50 100
Optimum level A3 B2 C2 D3
6. CONCLUSIONS
Squeeze cast technology has the potential to play an important role in the near future for
improving the quality of the engineering components. This paper has reported a research in which Taguchi's off
– line quality control method was applied to determine the optimal process parameters which maximize the
mechanical properties of A356+SiC al alloy composites. For this purpose, concepts like orthogonal array, S/N
ratio and ANOVA were employed. After determining the optimum process parameters one confirmation
experiment was conducted. In light of our analysis the following conclusions were drawn: The optimum level of
process parameters to obtain good mechanical properties of squeeze cast components of A356+SIC aluminum
alloy are a squeeze pressure of 12 MPa and pouring temperature of 850°c and duration of pressure application
40 s, die preheating temperature of 250°C.Taguchi method has proved its success in prediction the optimum
parameters to reach the best properties.
REFERENCES
1. Surappa.M.K.(2003) ‘Aluminium matrix composites: Challenges and opportunities’ Journal of

Sadhana,Vol.28 parts 1&2 pp . 319-334.
2. Vijian.P. Arunachalam.V.P. (2007) ’Optimization Of squeeze casting process parameters using Taguchi
analysis’ Int J Adv Manufacturing Technology Vol 33 pp. 1122–1127.
3. Raji.A and Khan.R.H. (2006) ‘Effects of Pouring Temperature and Squeeze Pressure on Al-8%SAlloy
Squeeze Cast Parts’ pp. 229-237
4. Zhou.W, Xu.Z.M (1997)’Casting of SiC Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites’ Journal of Materials
Processing Technology Vol 63 pp. 358-363
5. Shang-Nan Choua, Jow-Lay Huanga, Ding-Fwu Lii b, Horng- HwaLu(2006)‘The mechanical properties of
Al2O3/aluminum alloy A356composite manufactured by squeeze casting’ Journal of Alloys and
Compounds Vol 419, pp. 98–102
6. Osama S. Muhammed , Haitham R. Saleh & Hussam L. Alwan (2009) ‘Using of Taguchi Method to
Optimize the Casting of Al–Si /Al2O3 Composites’ Journal of Eng and Technology Vol 27.
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National Conference on Recent Innovations in Production Engineering,
RIPE – 2010, MIT Campus – Anna University Chennai
RISK ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE VESSEL DUE TO WELD FRACTURE
S.Sathiya moorthy1, Dr.K.Kalaichelvan2, Dr.K.Balaji rao3, Dr.A.Rajadurai4
1. MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai

E-mail: sathya.suba@gmail.com
2. MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai
E-mail: kalaiselvan@mitindia.edu
3. Structural Engineering Research Centre Department of Risk and Reliability,Chennai
E-mail: balaji@sercm.org
Abstract: The main aim of this project is to identify the procedure commonly used to
design pressure vessel. From the literature review it has been found that two design
codes namely ASME and European code are popularly used for design the design of
pressure vessel. The project presents first the consideration in the design towards
identification of critical components. This is followed by a critical evaluation of design
process in ASME. The critical evaluation would be useful in setting up the safety
margin equation required for carrying out reliability analysis. From the review it is also
noted that application of fracture mechanics concepts are gaining important in the
design of welds of pressure vessel. The brittle fracture model by European standard
EN 13445 is found to be suitable for the reliable design of pressure vessels. The
supremacy of EN 13445 is due to the incorporation of various factors such as crack
geometry, primary and secondary stresses, relation between fracture toughness and
impact toughness, influence of strain rate on fracture toughness and safety margin.
PV Elite software is used to analyze the pressure vessel to calculate the thickness,
maximum allowable pressure and stress and minimum design temperature. These
values are carried out to ANSYS software to probabilistic analysis.
Key words: Pressure vessel, Stress, Weld, Brittle failure, reliability
1. INTRODUCTION
A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure different from the ambient
pressure. The pressure differential is potentially dangerous and many fatal accidents have occurred in the history of
their development and operation. Consequently, their design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by
engineering authorities backed up by laws. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from country
to country, but involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature. The fracture
toughness values measured on the single edge bending [SE (B)] specimens with both orientations follow the course
of the master curve. Nearly all values lie within the fracture toughness curves for 2% and 98% fracture probability.
There is a strong variation of the reference temperature T0 through the thickness of the welding seam, which can be
explained by micro structural differences. The scatter is more pronounced for the TS SE (B) specimens. It can be
shown that specimens with TL and TS orientation in the welding seam have a differentiating and integrating
behavior, respectively. High strength steels have wide application in engineering structures. Their performance to
cost ratio makes these steels very competitive. In the past the use of high strength steels in pressure vessels has been
fairly limited. One concern has been that the risk for brittle failure could be unacceptably high. This is reflected in
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the design of pressure vessel, where the strength exceeding the certain pressure value. To improve the design
procedures against brittle failures, in this project deals with the design of a pressure vessel. Type of the material
used, weld characteristics and the design process are studied in detail, while designing the pressure vessel and
analysis the pressure vessel using PV Elite and ANSYS software for probabilistic analysis against the brittle
fracture.
2. DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSEL

Pressure vessels have been designed with standard code books like ASME boiler and pressure vessel, European
standard and Indian boiler standard. They have different type of design methods. They are
1. Working stress method

2. Limit analysis method
3. PSF method
In ASME standard the pressure vessels have designed with working stress method because the safety of weld
zone against weld fracture is very high compared with other design methods. So identified the critical components in
the typical pressure vessel and designed the pressure vessel with ASME standard by working stress method. Shell,
head, weld joints, nozzle and gaskets identified as the major component in the pressure vessel.
3. DESIGN FACTORS OF PRESSURE VESSEL
While designing the pressure vessel, some of the most critical factors are taken into account to design the
pressure vessel. They are Material requirement thickness, Material selection, Strength, Fracture toughness,
Corrosion allowance, Stress, Maximum allowable stress, Internal and External pressure, Temperature, Weld method
(Types & categories)
The material requirement thickness, pressure and stress values are calculated from the Table 1.
Table 1 ASME code equations
In pressure vessel, ASME standard materials are used to manufacture both shell and heads. Most of the time the
shell and head materials are same. But some cases it varies due to some working pressure condition. The materials
are grouped based on common fracture toughness properties. Lower strength grades of same specifications have
better fracture toughness and normalization improves fracture toughness. In this project we select the SA 516 Grade
55,60,65,70 materials. This material contains C-Mn-Si composition. The material would have negligible toughness
in which case the weld would fracture through thickness. The reactors may have been subjected to stresses greater
than those considered here. The cracks will likely continue growing and linking around the circumference.
The stress intensity values for the cracks to link around the manhole circumference are greater than those for the
crack to propagate through the thickness.
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The stresses are also induced some crack growth in a pressure vessel. So the every material is having some
maximum stress value to resist the fracture during the pressurized condition. The allowable stresses for all
permissible materials of construction are provided in the ASME Code Book listed below.
Table 2 Maximum Allowable Stress
SA516
Gr65 Gr70
Gr 60
Tensile Strength (MPa) 415-550 450-585 485-620
Yield Strength (MPa) 220 240 260
4. BRITTLE FRACTURE MODEL FOR PRESSURE VESSEL
4.1 Basic Assumptions in the Model
4.1.1 Crack geometry
For linear elastic component behavior (linear elastic fracture mechanics) the stress intensity factor of a
component is calculated from
K I = σ appl ∏ aY (a,2c, W ) (1)
where KI is the stress intensity factor, sappl the component stress perpendicular to the crack, a the crack depth of
the design crack, 2c the crack length of the design crack, W the component width and Y a geometrical correction
factor, which is taken from handbooks. An elliptical surface crack with a/c=0.4 is assumed in the same way as in the
model for EN 13445, which corresponds to a value of =1.001 for this geometry. In a crack depth of a=t/4 is the
starting point, where t is the gauge thickness. This is a reasonable assumption for thicker gauges since such large
cracks should easily be detected during non-destructive testing.
4.1.2 Primary and Secondary Stresses
The background to the basic assumptions in the model on stress levels will only be summarized briefly here
since a more detailed account can be found elsewhere. The applied stress in Eq. (4.1) has contributions from primary
and secondary stresses. The maximum primary (hoop) stress allowed is
 Rel , nom Rm , nom 
σ prim = min  , 
f m 
(2)
 fs
Where ReL,nom and Rm,nom are the nominal yield and tensile strength. The safety factors in general take the values
fs=1.5 and fm=2.4. The maximum secondary stress value at As welded condition
 1
σ sec, AW = 1 −  Rel ,nom + σ shift (3)
 fs 
The primary and secondary stresses are used to calculate the stress intensity factor. The total stress intensity
factor KI is given as the sum of a contribution from the primary stresses, KIp, and a contribution from the secondary
stresses, KsI. V is applied to KsI to account for plasticity effects.
K I = K IP + K IS (4)
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4.1.3 Relation between Fracture Toughness and Impact Toughness
The temperature dependence of the fracture toughness can be expressed as

1 1
  T − T 27 J + 18    25 4   1  4 (5)
Kc = 20 + 11 + 77 exp  D  ×    ln  
 
  52    B eff    1 − P f  
TD is the test temperature, T27J is the impact transition temperature at 27 J, Beff the effective thickness (=total
crack front length in mm), and pf the failure probability. Eq. (5) also gives the thickness correction to Kc and the
relation between the impact transition temperature and the fracture toughness. Using this relation, the minimum
design temperature is calculated to avoid the brittle fracture failure in the pressure vessel.
5. CONCLUSION
In this project, identified the reliable procedure to design pressure vessel according to ASME boiler and pressure
vessel and design towards identification of pressure vessel components. The critical evaluation of design process in
ASME using with material requirement thickness, material selection, strength, fracture toughness, corrosion
allowance, maximum allowable stress, internal and external pressure and temperature. From the brittle fracture
model, calculated the minimum design temperature against brittle fracture. PV Elite pressure vessel analysis
software results compared with this brittle fracture model.
6. REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel code book (2007), Vol. 2.

2. Bouchard P.J., Goldthorpe M.R., Prottey P, (2001), “Integral and local damage fracture analyses for a
pump casing containing large weld repairs”, Journal of Pressure Vessels Piping, Vol.78, pp 295-305.
3. Giovanola J.H and Kirkpatrik S.W, (1999), “Fracture of geometrically scaled, notched three points bend
bars of high strength steel”, Journal of Engg Fracture mechanics”, Vol.62, pp 291-310.
4. Jovanovic A, (2001), “Risk based inspection and maintenance in power and process plants in europe”,
Paper 10, MPA-Safe Workshop, Vol.226, pp 165-182.
5. Mayer K.H, Heinruch D, Prestel W, Gnirss G, (1993), “Investigation by non destructive inspection to
determine the size of natural defects in large forgings of turbo generators”, Journal of Nuclear engineering,
Vol.144, pp 155-170.
6. Raju I.S and Newman J.C.J, (1982), “Stress intensity factors for internal and external surface cracks in
cylindrical vessels”, Journal of pressure vessel Technology, Vol. 104, pp 293-298.
7. Rolf sandstorm and peter langenberg, (2004), “New brittle fracture model for the European pressure
vessel standard”, Journal of Pressure Vessel and Piping, Vol. 817, pp 837-845.
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MONITORING AND DYNAMIC CONTROL OF PRESSURE IN

SUPERPLASTIC FORMING PROCESS
S.Dinesh Kumar1, G.Kumaresan2, K.Kalaichelvan3

1. P.G Student, MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai
e-mail: dinesh_3412@yahoo.com
2. T.R.A, MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai
e-mail: kumaresangopalkrsna@yahoo.co.in
3. Asst.Proffessor, MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai
e-mail: kalaiselvan@mitindia.edu
Abstract: Superplasticity is the process of deformation of metals that is capable of

producing neck free elongations of 100%-5000% under certain condition. The variation
in thickness distribution in the formed component is one of the major defects in
superplastic forming. To achieve the superplastic behavior, the material is subjected to
thermomechanical treatment to increase its ductility. Initially the sheets were cut into
circular bank. The forming process was conducted at constant temperature by varying
pressure for complex shape. As the forming height increases, the thickness decreases
in the formed component. A sensor is used to detect the height of the formed
component and the output signal will be sent to the PC through the Data Acquisition
Card. The program to receive the signal from sensor and to control the strain rate is to
be programmed with visual C++. Based on the value of sensor, the compressed air is
applied to die and controlled by the stepper motor. Hence in this work, the forming
parameters can be controlled at any time to minimize the variation in the thickness
distribution.
Keyword: Superplastic Forming, Proximity Sensor, Data Acquisition System
1. INTRODUCTION
Superplasticity is a term used to indicate the exceptional ductility that certain metals can exhibit when
deformed under proper conditions [5]. For a superplastic metal that is tensile tested under proper conditions
of temperature, the observed ductility is seen to vary substantially with strain rate. The constitutive equation
of superplastic materials, which defines the relationship between the flow stress, s, the strain, e, and the
strain rate, έ, is
σ = kεn έm (1)
Where K is the strength coefficient, n the strain hardening index and m the strain-rate sensitivity index.
The uniform thickness distribution plays the important role in the mechanical strength of the formed
component. Hence it becomes necessary to control the thickness variation of the superplastic formed
component. The component for superplastic forming is modeled using suitable parameters. The component
is a combination of rectangular box [1] and a dome shape [2] and the parameters varies with respect to the
shape.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup for this work is shown in Fig.1. Here the Die is placed in the furnace in which
the compressed air from the compressor is sent through the base of the Die. The strain rate for the
superplastic forming is produced by the compressor.
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Fig.1. Experimental Setup
2.1 Sensor
The Sensor that is used for the detection of the range of the sheet metal forming in the Die is LVDT.
The strength of the LVDT sensor's principle is that there is no electrical contact across the transducer
position sensing element which for the user of the sensor means clean data, infinite resolution and a very
long life. Since an LVDT operates on electromagnetic coupling principles in a friction-free structure, it can
measure infinitesimally small changes in position. As the sheet metal moves upward in the Die, the LVDT
will sense the distance moved by the sheet within the Die.
2.2 Data Acquisition System
Today, most scientists and engineers use personal computers (PCs) with PCI, PXI, Compact PCI,
PCMCIA, USB, FireWire, parallel, or serial ports for data acquisition in laboratory research, test and
measurement, and industrial automation. The visual C++ software is used to control the Data Acquisition
Card to receive the signal from the sensor and to send the signal from PC to stepper motor for controlling the
forming process. The system interface of the Sensor, PC and Stepper motor through the Data Acquisition
Card [3] is shown in Fig.2.
Fig.2. DAC System Interface
3. Formed Component
The component chosen for the superplastic forming is AA2024 aluminum alloy. The forming parameters
used for the superplastic forming to identify the variation in thickness distribution of the 1 mm thickness
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sheet are a constant temperature of 5000C and a constant forming pressure of 4 Bar. The formed component
is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.3. Formed Component
4. Dynamic Control
The Superplastic forming process can be dynamically controlled by varying the strain rate with respect to
the height of the component that is forming inside the Die. The initial strain rate should be higher and
succeeding strain rate with respect to the increase in the height of the forming sheet should be gradually
reduced after every succession. The varying strain rate is been shown in the Fig.4.
Fig.4. Strain rate control
5. Results and Discussion
The superplastic forming parameters for modelling the complex shape was studied and a Die for the
complex shape was modelled. The alloy which is suitable for superplastic forming is been used for forming
in the modelled Die. The Thickness Distribution of the Formed Component is shown in the Fig.5.
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Fig.5. Thickness Distribution of the Formed Component

Since the uniform thickness plays the major role in the formed component, a LVDT is used to measure
the forming sheet dynamically and the strain rate is controlled with respect to the LVDT feedback by
controlling the pressure with the stepper motor. Hence the variation in the thickness distribution of the
superplastic forming will be minimized.
6. Reference
1. Bimal Roy and Chandra N., (1989), Computational Modeling of Superplastic Sheet Metal Forming
Process, Proceedings IEEE System Theory, pp 209-214.
2. V.S. Senthil Kumar, D. Viswanathan, and S. Natarajan., (2006), Theoretical prediction and FEM
analysis of superplastic forming of AA7475 aluminum alloy in a hemispherical die, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 173 pp 247–251.
3. Agoston Katalin, (2006), Data Acquisition for Pressure Monitoring and Control in Distributed Systems,
IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics, Vol. 2, pp 157-160.
4. Fadi K. ABU-Farha and Marwan K. Khraisheh, (2007), On the high temperature testing of
superplastic materials, JMEP Vol. 16 Number 2, pp 142-149.
5. ASM Handbook, Forming and Forging, Vol. 14, pp 1875-1937.
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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF FRICTION STIR WELDING AND SUERPLASTIC FORMING OF
ALUMINIUM ALLOY- 6061
Srikarthikeyan.S 1 Ganesh.P 2,
1. P.G Student, MIT Anna University, Department of Production Technology, Chennai,
email: sri_krtk@yahoo.com,srikrtk@gmail.com
2. Lecturer , MIT Anna University, Department of Production Technology, Chennai,
email: ganesh_cim@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT : Friction stir welding is completely solid state joining process where
the resulting weld metal characteristics remain unchanged as far as possible. The
post weld FSW process produces minimal distortion, increased ductility, increased
hardness and produce equiaxed recrystallized grains of quiet uniform size in the
stirred zone which improves the superplasticity of the material. Superplasticity is
the ability of materials to undergo extensive tensile plastic deformation under
specific conditions. It is influenced by micro structural features, such as cavities
and grain size, which is responsible for strength, ductility, toughness, corrosion
resistance, and heat resistance. Grain size also has a significant influence on the
strain rate and temperature during the superplastic deformation process.
Therefore combination of FSW/SPF will leads to higher strain rate at optimum
temperature. Therefore this research work is done to evaluate the performance of
as weld friction stir welding and superplastic formed Aluminum alloy sheet. The
improvements in superplasticity due to friction stir welding will be predicted by
forming as weld aluminium sheet and comparing with forming as fabricated
aluminium alloy sheet.
Keywords: Frictions stir welding, Superplastic forming, thin sheets, FSW Tool design
1. INTRODUCTION
Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process used for applications where the original
metal characteristics must remain unchanged as far as possible. This process is primarily used on aluminum, and
most often on large pieces which cannot be easily heat treated .It was invented and experimentally proved by
Wayne Thomas and a team of his colleagues at The Welding Institute UK in December 1991. A method of solid
phase welding, which permits a wide range of parts and geometries to be welded in friction stir welding
(FSW).Friction stir welding is a relatively simple process as shown in Figure 1 and a specially shaped
cylindrical tool, made from material that have a hard and wear resistant relative to the material being welded, is
rotated and plunged into the abutting edges of the aluminium parts to be joined. After entry of the screw thread
probe to almost the thickness of the material and to allow the tool shoulder to just penetrate into the aluminium
plate, the rotating tool is transitioned along the joint line. The length of the pin is slightly less than the weld
depth required and the tool shoulder should be in intimate contact with the work surface. The pin is then moved
against the Work and the rotating tool develops frictional heating with the material, causing it to plasticize and
flow from the front of the tool to the back where it cools and consolidates to produce a high integrity weld, in
the solid phase. The two parameters have considerable importance and must be chosen with care to ensure a
successful and efficient welding cycle. The relationship between the welding speeds and the heat input during
welding is complex but, in general, it can be said that increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse
speed will result in a hotter weld. In order to produce a successful weld it is necessary that the material
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surrounding the tool is hot enough to enable the extensive plastic flow required and minimize the forces acting
on the tool. If the material is too cool then voids or other flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme
cases the tool may break. At the other end of the scale excessively high heat input may determine the final
properties of the weld. Theoretically, this could even result in defects due to the liquation of low-melting-point
phases (similar to liquation cracking in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the concept of a
‘processing window’: the range of processing parameters that will produce a good quality weld. Within this
window the resulting weld will have a sufficiently high heat input to ensure adequate material plasticity but not
so high that the weld properties are excessively reduced.
1.1 Step Involved In Friction Stir Welding Process
1) Tool used in friction stir welding process rotates about its own axis.
2) Tool pin plunges into the abutting edges of the material to be joined due to the frictional heat
between the tool pin and material.
3) Tool shoulder contacts the material and plasticizes the material due to frictional heat between the
shoulder and material.
4) The above steps involved in friction stir welding process are explained in the figures shown below.
Fig.1. steps involved in friction stir welding process
2. SUPERPLASTIC FORMING PROCESS
Superplastic materials are a unique class of polycrystalline solids that have the ability to undergo very
large, uniform tensile elongations prior to failure. Elongations in excess of 200%usually indicate superplasticity.
The low flow stresses and high sensitivity of flow stress to strain rate are the main aspects of superplastic
deformation. Fine and equiaxed grain size, forming temperature greater than half the absolute melting
temperature of the material, and controlled strain rate, are the main requirements for superplasticity. The
optimum value of strain rate varies with the type of material, but is usually very low. Superplastic forming
(SPF) is a near net-shape forming process which offers many advantages over conventional forming operations
including low forming pressure due to low flow stress, lower die cost, greater design flexibility, and the ability
to shape hard metals and form complex shapes. However, low production rate due to slow forming process and
limited predictive capabilities due to lack of accurate constitutive models for superplastic deformation, are the
main obstacles to the widespread use of SPF. This factor has restricted the growth of applications of
Superplastic alloy to low volume production industries like the aerospace industry.
3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Aluminium alloy 6061 is selected for this project work. For performing the FSW process the process
parameters required are downward force, tool traverse feed and tool rotational speed are selected and applied on
the AA6061 to get the perfect weld. The material was subjected to various mechanical tests in order to analyse
the improvement in mechanical properties on the material due to the FSW process. In order to identify the
improvements in mechanical properties the mechanical test such as tensile test, hardness test are carried out
before and after FSW process. The mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
ductility are evaluated by performing the tensile test and hardness test. The microstructure of both the base
material and welded component also identified with the help of the optical microscope and scanning electron
microscope. The creep test is also performed in the AA6061 to determine the strain rate of the material. As the
various mechanical test mentioned above are performed which provide the information about improvement in
mechanical properties due to FSW will enhance the superplasticity of the material. Therefore this research work
is carried out in two phases. In first phase the mechanical test such as tensile test is carried out in the AA6061 to
evaluate the mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and percentage elongation of
the component. The microstructure of the base material has been taken by optical microscope. The tool material
for welding AA6061 is identified and the tool with required geometry is machined for this material. In second
phase friction stir welding on AA6061 is done and various mechanical tests will be done to evaluate whether the
FSW increases the superplasticity of the material. The superplastic behaviour of the FSW material will be
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evaluated by forming the material. The improvements in superplasticity due to friction stir welding will be
predicted by forming as weld aluminium sheet and comparing with as fabricated aluminium alloy sheet.
3.1 Friction Stir Welding of Alminium Alloy 6061
For friction stir welding of aluminium alloy cylindrical profile pin is selected. The cylindrical tool is
made up of M2 High Speed Steel which is selected to weld the base material, which is to be tempered and
hardened to 50 HRC. The tool material composition is shown in below
Table 1: Tool material composition
Material C Cr W Mo V Fe
M2 0.85 4.0 6.0 5.0 2.0 Remaining
For hardening the tool it is subjected to heat treatment process such as stress reliving process and
tempering process. The process is carried out in muffle furnace and vertical chamber furnace. The machined
tool contains some stress due to the machining process therefore the tool is subjected to stress relieving process.
It is carried out by loading the tool in vertical furnace chamber at a temperature of 650 degree Celsius and
holding the temperature up to one hour. The tool is Furnace cooled up to 450 degree Celsius through air. The
tool is hardened using Muffle Furnace (MF).It is loaded at temperature of 900 degree Celsius and temperature
increased to 1150 degree Celsius and the Holding temperature was up to thirty minutes and then Cooled in oil.
The tempering process was conducted using Vertical Force Chamber Furnace (VFC).the tool is loaded at
temperature of 550 degree Celsius and holding temperature was up to two hour and the tool is cooled through
air. Thus the following process is carried out to hardening the tool to 50 HRC.
Fig.2. (a) Vertical force chamber furnace (b) Muffle Furnace
Fig.3. M2 HSS tool for friction stir welding process. Fig.4. Friction stir welding on AA6061 at 710 RPM
Therefore friction stir welding of aluminium alloy is performed using the above designed tool .Trial welding is
performed on the aluminium sheets at 500 RPM. The friction stir welding also conducted at 700 and 1000 RPM.
Thus friction stir welding on aluminium alloy was conducted using M2 HSS tool at various RPM. The various
welding speeds are carried out and the resulting weld are shown in the figure 4,5. The friction stir welding
parameters used for welding AA6061 are shown in the table below.
Process parameter Values
Rotational speed(rpm) 1000,700,500
Welding speed(mm/min) 0.5-1.25
Pin length(mm) 5.5
Shoulder diameter(mm),D 18
Pin diameter (mm),d 6
D/d ratio 3.0
Fig.5. Friction stir welding on AA6061 at 1000 RPM. Table 2. Friction stir welding parameters
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After friction stir welding process the component is subjected to Superplastic forming process. As the sheet has
a thickness of 6mm it is machined to a thickness of 1.5 mm. For machining the sheet it is subjected to wire
cutting process (EDM). As the component which is to be formed is of circular shape it is machined to a diameter
of 72.5mm. The circular section which is obtained from friction stir welded component is shown in the figure
below.
Fig 6. Sheet for superplastic forming from friction stir welded component.
3.2 Tensile test results
Tensile properties such as tensile strength and percentage of elongation have been evaluated for
aluminum alloy 6061 and the mechanical properties such as tensile strength, proof stress and percentage of
elongation have been evaluated for the comparison of mechanical properties after friction stir welding process.
The tested specimens are showed in figure and results are tabulated in table.
Table 4 Mechanical Properties From Tensile Test

Properties Composition
Tensile strength(Mpa) 162.56
Elongation (%) 15.6%
Youngs Modulus(Mpa) 49516
Yield stress(Mpa) 144.640
Thus mechanical properties have been obtained and it will be compared with the same component after friction
stir welding process.
4. CONCLUSION
The formability time will be estimated for the as fabricated component and compared by forming the
friction stir welded (as welded) component and estimating its formability time. The advantage of superplastic
forming on the friction stir welding process also be evaluated by performing the mechanical test such as tensile
test, creep test and microscopic view of the component before and after friction stir welding process.
5. REFERENCES
1. Elangovan K (2008), ‘Influences of tool pin profile and welding speed on the formation of friction stir
processing zone in AA2219 aluminum alloy’, Journal of materials processing technology 200, page 163–
175
2. D.G.Sanders (2007) ‘Characterization of Superplastically Formed Friction Stir Weld in Titanium 6AL-
4V’.
3. H.G.Salem (2003) ‘Structural Evolution and Superplastic Formability of Friction Stir Welded AA 2095
Sheets’.ASM international.
4. R.A.Vasin (1998) ‘Method to determine the strain rate sensitivity of a superplastic material from the
initial slopes of its stress-strain curves’.Iinstitute of metal superplasticity problems’
5. Rajiv S. Mishra (2001) ‘Processing Commercial Aluminum Alloys for High Strain Rate Superplasticity’.
6. Rodrigues D M (2009), ‘Influence of friction stir welding parameters on the micro structural and
mechanical properties of AA 6016-T4 thin welds’.
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Study on work Hardening Behavior and Establishment of

Constitutive Relationship model based on artificial neural network
(ANN) of Aluminium Alloys during cold Forming Process
M.Duraisamy 1 and Dr.R.Parameshwaran 2

1. PG Scholar Kongu Engineering College Department of Mechanical Engineering Perundurai,
e-mail:durai.sm@gmail.com
Abstract: Work hardening is produced by metal forming processes that induce

plastic deformation to exact a shape change. A compressive experiment was
studied to acquire flow stress at different deformation temperatures, strain rates
and strains. The artificial neural network with the error back propagation (BP)
algorithms was used to establish constitutive model of aluminum alloys (4043,
5182&RR58) based on the experiment data. The ultimate goal is to predicting the
flow stresses when the process controls variables are given as inputs. Flow
stresses of the material under various thermodynamic conditions are predicted by
the neural network model, and the predicted results correspond with the
experimental results. A knowledge-based constitutive relation model is developed.
Microstructure study is done to the deformation materials.
Keywords: Work hardening, constitutive model, aluminum alloy, Microstructure.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Cold Working
Cold working of metals results in an increase in the strength and hardness and decrease in ductility. When cold
working is excessive, the metal will fracture before reaching the desired shape and size. Therefore, in order to avoid
such difficulties, clod working operations are usually carried out in several steps, with intermediate annealing operations
introduced to soften the cold worked metal and restore the ductility. This sequence of repeated cold working and
annealing is frequently called the cold work anneal cycle. Deformation using cold working results in, Higher stiffness,
and strength, but Reduced malleability and ductility of the metal, Anisotropy ,Better accuracy and surface finish, Strain
hardening increases strength and hardness, Grain flow during deformation provides directional properties, No heating is
needed.
1.2. Constitutive Equations
Constitutive equation describes the relations between stress and strain in terms of the variables of strain rate and
temperature. The simple power law relationship (eq.1) and its variants are elementary forms of a constitutive
equation.
σ = kεn (1)
where, n is the strain-hardening exponent and k is the strength coefficient. Yet another form of constitutive
relations developed for computer representation of high-temperature deformation is called MATMOD. A much
simpler but useful relation describes the combined temperature and strain-rate dependence of flow stress.
σ = f (z) (2)
z = έе ∆H/RT
where ∆H is activation energy, J mol -1, that is related to the activation energy, Q is. the quantity, Z is called the
Zener-Hollomon parameter. It may also be referred to as a temperature-modified strain rate.
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2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Experimental Data
The upset forging experiment was used for experiment. The available experimental data is shown in table below
Table 1 Experimental Data at strain 0.4
Temperature Strain rate Flow stress(4043) Flow stress(RR58) Flow stress(5182)

K /s MPa MPa MPa
300 0.02 142 298 254
350 0.02 132 265 225
400 0.02 124 222 203
450 0.02 110 190 195
500 0.02 90 160 176
300 0.2 155 356 320
350 0.2 151 320 300
400 0.2 136 270 256
450 0.2 125 248 224
500 0.2 98 196 186
300 8 186 390 324
350 8 180 304 310
400 8 167 284 304
450 8 162 278 288
500 8 150 256 264
2.2. Artificial Neural Network Model
Multi-layer feed-forward neural network is also called BP (Back Propagation) neural network. The standard
feed-forward neural network is formed by three layers (input, output, hidden) of neurons, as shown in Fig. 1. In this
model, the input layer includes three nodes representing three input parameters έ, ε and T, and the output layer
includes only one node representing one output parameter σ, while the number of hidden layer nodes depends on the
training process. Such neural network has the following characteristics: no feedback connection between different
layers; no connection between neurons within a layer; there are connections only between the adjacent neurons.
Sigmoid function is used as the incentive function of the neurons in the hidden layer and linear function as the
incentive function of the neuron in the output layer. The output value of the j th neuron from the pth training sample is
given below.
Opj = f (Netj) =1/1 + exp [- (Σwijxj + θij)] (3)
Where Netj is the jth neural element input in the hidden layer; θj is the threshold of the unit in the hidden layer; wij is
the connection weight between the input layer and the hidden layer. By modifying the connection weight among
different layers and the threshold among different neurons, modeling of the complex nonlinear object can be
achieved. As to every input pattern p, if the initial weight of the network has been set randomly, the error E p
between the output value of network and desired output value exists. Here, the objective function for training is as
follows:
(4)
= E ( wij , wjk ,θj ,θk)
where ypj is the desired output of the jth output unit in the pth learning sample; Opj is the actual output of pth learning
specimen's jth neural elements; M is the number of training samples; N is the number of output nodes of the
network; θi is the threshold of hidden layer; θk is the threshold of output layer; wjk is the connection weight between
hidden layer and output layer. The maximum gradient descent algorithm is used to make the weight vary in the
direction of antigradient of the error function.
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Fig.1. Schematic diagram of a multilayer feed-forward neural network
Results of the neural network are compared with the experimental data for validation of the neural network. Two
types of graph are drawn; in the first type, the graph is drawn between temperatures, stain rate, strain and flow stress.
In the second type, the graph is drawn between temperature and flow stress for different strain rate and compared
with the experimental data. The graph indicates the error between outputs from the neural network and the
experimental data are very less of about 7 percent. So, we can rely on the artificial neural network for predicting the
flow stress.
Table 2 Comparison between Predicted Ann Model Data and Experimental Data
Temperature Strain rate Flow Predicted Flow

K /s stress(4043) stress(4043) Error %
MPa MPa
300 0.02 142 142.56 0.3
350 0.02 132 131.59 0.3
400 0.02 124 122.87 1
450 0.02 110 108.85 1.1
500 0.02 90 91.74 1.9
300 0.2 155 156.41 1
350 0.2 151 150.74 2.1
400 0.2 136 135.21 1.2
450 0.2 125 123.94 1.1
500 0.2 98 99.14 2.3
300 8 186 187.74 1.3
350 8 180 180.87 0.4
400 8 167 168.01 1.1
450 8 162 161.13 2
500 8 150 149.27 0.9
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Fig.2 Comparison between Predicted Ann Model Fig.3 Temperature Vs Flow stress, at
Data and Experimental Data (4043 Alloy) strain rate 0.02/s
Fig.4 Temperature Vs Flow stress, at Fig.5 Temperature Vs Flow stress, at

strain rate 0.2/s strain rate 8/s
4. CONCLUSIONS
The graph indicates the error between outputs from the neural network and the experimental data are very less of
about 7 percent. So, we can rely on the artificial neural network for predicting the flow stress. Future research can be
extended by developing the software for all materials. Since manufacturing design is becoming largely automated
through use of CAD modelers, adding intelligence in the form of knowledge based systems and neural network is
synergistic. The designer need not search a catalog of applicable features and attributes, and apply them consistently.
5. REFERENCES
1. Lin.Q.Q, Peng.Du, zhu Yuan.Z, (2005), “Establishment of constitutive relationship model for 2519 aluminum
alloy based on BP Artificial Neural Network”, journal of materials engineering, vol.12, No.4, pp.380-385.
2. Abhijit.B, Myrjam.W, (2004), “Prediction of cold rolling texture of steels using an Artificial Neural Network”,
journal of Material Science and Technology, vol.No.19, pp.256-260.
3. Luis E. Z, Sergio M.D, (2009), “Qualitative behavior rules for the cold rolling process extracted from trained
ANN via the FCANN method”, journal of Material Science and Technology,vol.No.22,pp.718-731.
4. Li.M.Q, Aiming.X, Xiaoli.L, (2005),”Adaptive Constitutive Model of the Ti-6.29Al-2.71Mo-1.42Cr Alloy in
High-Temperature Deformation”, journal of materials engineering and performance, vol.No.15, pp.9-12.
5. Wang.M, Chunlei.G, (2005),”Deformation Behavior of 6063 Aluminum Alloy during High-Speed
Compression”, journal of Materials Science and Engineering, vol.20, No.3, pp.40-43.
6. V.Strizhalo, S. Novogrudskii, (2007), “Cold Hardening of Steels under conditions of inhomogeneous stress
and action of electric current pulses”, journal of Materials Science and Engineering, vol.8, No.3, pp.343-343.
A-28
FABRICATION OF ALUMINUM CAST ALLOY/ FLY ASH METAL

MATRIX COMPOSITE USING SQUEEZE CASTING METHOD
P.Suya prem anand1, T.V.Moorthy2, A. Suresh babu3, J.Udaya prakash4

S.Vetrivel5
1. PG Student
2. Professor and Head
3. Lecturer
4. TRA
5. Professional Assistant, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, College of Engineering
Guindy, Anna University Chennai. e-mail: suyaprime@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: In the present experimental investigation, Aluminium cast alloy having

7% of silicon as matrix material and reinforcement as 5, 10 and 15% fly ash
composites was fabricated using Squeeze casting process. Mechanical sieve
shaker was used to sieve different sizes of fly ash particles. The particle size
ranges from 75 to 150µm were used to fabricate 10% Aluminium cast alloy /fly ash
MMC and also sizes varied from 150 to 212µm were used to fabricate 15%
Aluminium cast alloy/fly ash MMC. The micro structural characteristics of different
compositions of fly ash particles were viewed through SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscope). This reveals whether the fly ash particles were distributed uniformly
in the aluminium metal matrix composites. The distributions of fly ash particle were
based on the number of variables generally controls the quality of castings.
Key words: Squeeze casting, MMC, SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope).
1. INTRODUCTION
Discontinuously reinforced MMC are much less expensive to fabricate than continuously reinforced
composites. The properties of discontinuously reinforcement (MMC) are nearly isotropic, where the properties
of continuously reinforcement (MMC) are highly anisotropic. Fly ash particles are discontinuous dispersions
material used in this metal matrix composites. They are available at low cost and have low density
reinforcement available in large quantities as a waste by product of thermal power plant. Here the fly ash
particles were obtained from Tuticorin Thermal Power Plant. Addition of fly ash particles improves the wear
resistance, damping properties, hardness and stiffness and reduces the density of Al alloys. Stir Casting was a
liquid state method of fabricating composite materials, in which a dispersed phase (ceramic particles or short
fibers) was mixed with a molten metal by means of mechanical stirring. Stir Casting was the simplest and the
most cost effective method of fabrication in liquid state method. The liquid composite material is then cast by
conventional casting methods and also be processed by conventional metal forming technologies [7].Earlier
studies were shown that the Al 356 cast alloy and its composite reinforcement with 15% fly ash were fabricated
by different stir casting methods. They compare the three different fabrication processes such as Liquid stir
casting, compo casting and squeeze casting process. The separation of fly ash particle and dispersion are more
effective in compo casting method than in all other processes due to the shearing of fly ash particles. Finally
they resulted that squeeze casting was the best method for the distribution of fly ash particle followed by compo
casting and liquid stir casting [2]. Rohatgi has reported that the addition of fly ash particles to the aluminium
alloy significantly increases its abrasive wear resistance.Aluminium was an important material for tribological
application because of its low density and high thermal conductivity. The most important application of Al –
MMC was being used in automotive brake rotor materials. In such application, the Aluminium metal matrix
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composites slides against a semi metallic phenolic pad, which was commercially used in vehicles. Metal matrix
composites exhibit better wear resistance compared to the unreinforced alloys.
2. MATERIALS
2.1 Matrix Material
A356 cast aluminum alloy having 7% silicon was chosen as the matrix alloy with fly ash particles
varied as (Non uniform, 75-150 µm and 150-212 µm ) as the reinforcement. In liquid metal stir casting, the
addition of fly ash particle into molten metal and pouring of composite melt into the die are carried out in a fully
liquid state. The melting point of Al alloy ranges from 560-615ºC and it has good castability and weldability.
The chemical composition of Al alloy was listed in table 1.
Table 1: Chemical composition of Aluminium alloy in weight percentage
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Al
6.74 0.21 0.01 0.01 0.34 0.01 Bal
2.2 Reinforcement Material
The particle size of fly ash particles was estimated by using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and
sieve analysis were performed to collect different sized particles. The fly ash particles are spherical in shape,
most of the fly ash mainly consists of solid particles but smaller amount of partially solid or hollow spherical
particles were also seen. As a result of the preheating of fly ash particulates to 600◦C prior to the addition in the
superheated liquid metallic melt and addition of magnesium during stirring of metallic melt and fly ash
particulates mixture.
Table 2: Chemical composition of fly ash particles in weight percentage

Al 2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 TiO2 LOI Carbon
content
30.40% 58.41% 8.44% 2.75% 1.6% 1.9%
Figure .1. SEM image of fly ash particles having non uniform particle size
The fly ash particles collected from the source are preheated to 100º C by using muffle furnace and it
was allowed to pass through different standardized sieve size ranges in micron level. A mechanical Sieve shaker
has been used to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine fly ash particles. The fabrication
of Aluminium metal matrix composite used in the present study was carried out by using squeeze casting
method. Aluminium cast alloy having 7% Silicon in the form of ingots were melted to the desired temperature
of above 850ºC in a graphite crucibles under a cover of flux in order to minimize the oxidation of molten metal.
For each melting process 2 kg of Aluminium alloy was used and the fly ash particles are preheated to around
750ºC were then added to the molten metal. The mixture was stirred continuously by using a mechanical stirrer.
Figure .2. Stirrer setup with induction furnace Figure .3. Hydraulic press setup for squeeze casting
The stirring time was maintained between 5-10min at a drive speed of 350 to 400 rpm before stirring
small amount of magnesium was added to improve the wettability of fly ash particles. The metal with the
reinforced particulates were poured into the dried, lubricated rectangular mould of size 165*100*80 mm. The
pouring temperature was maintained at 800 to 850ºC. Squeeze casting consist of pouring liquid metal into a
preheated, lubricated die and forging the metal while it solidifies. The load was applied shortly after the metal
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begins to freeze and was maintained until the entire casting has solidified. Casting ejection and handling are
done in the same way as in closed die forging. The high pressure applied normally varies from 5 to 15 Mpa.
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The mechanical properties such as microhardness and density of Aluminium metal matrix composites
were detected. Micro hardness of Al-MMC was determined using Vickers hardness test. Here the load applied
to the composites material as 500gm. Results shows considerable increase in microhardness as the percentage of
fly ash particles increases from 5 to 15.The comparison of mechanical properties of Aluminium metal matrix
composites for both Fly ash and SiC reinforcement were performed in the previous study. So that tensile
property has been enhanced for Alumina and SiC. While that for fly ash it has been reduced.
Table 4: Density of Aluminium/fly ash Metal matrix

Composites
Aluminium Metal matrix Density

composites (g/cm2)
5% Aluminium/Fly ash 2.129
Figure 5: Hardness of Aluminium/fly ash MMC
The presence of eutectic silicon around solid fly ash particles was more than that around hollow cenosphere
particle. The infiltration of Aluminium matrix alloy into the hollow space of a broken cenospherical particle
occurs. The major constituents of fly ash include SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. While the minor one are Na2O, CaO
and ZnO. These constituents react with Al and Mg present in the molten matrix alloy.
Fig .6. SEM of Solid Fly ash particle Fig .7 10% fly ash composites Figure .8
Fig .7 shows the 10% fly ash composites uniformly distributed with the matrix alloy having size range
from 75 to 150µm. Cenospheres are hard, hollow, free flowing, microspheres found in fly ash The volume
fraction of 5% fly ash particle were distributed uniformly with the matrix alloy but the particle size range from
0.5 to 850µm are shown in Fig .8. Fly ash particle are generally in the form of solid spheres known as
precipitator fly ash or in the form of hollow spheres termed as cenosphere fly ash.
4.1 Parameters affecting squeeze casting
The parameters which are used to control the quality of squeeze castings are discussed during
experimental procedure but the failure of such parameters will be resulted in the following defects. Oxide
inclusions occur, when cleaning of molten metal was not handled in proper way. Preventing the inclusion of
foreign particles into the molten metal will be helpful to avoid oxide inclusions.
(a) (b)
Figure .9. (a) VMS image of Agglomerated particles (b) VMS image of porosity formed
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Fig .9. (b) Shows the video measuring system image of the formation of porosity resulted due to the
insufficient pressure applied during squeeze casting process. When the pressure exceeds the normal level, it will
be resulted in the formation of cracks. Porosity was eliminated by increasing the pressure applied to the molten
metal. Air or gas from the melt was trapped below the surface during the die filling process resulted in the
formation of blisters on the surface of composite materials. Methods involved to avoid such defects include
degassing the melt and preheating the handling transfer equipment.
(a) (b)
Figure .10. (a) VMS image of Crack formed during Squeeze casting (b) VMS image of overlapping
Fig.10.(b)Shows the formation of overlapping during squeeze casting process. cold lapping was
caused, when pouring the molten metal over the previously solidified layers with incomplete bonding between
the two layers. It was necessary to increase the pouring temperature or the die temperature.
5. CONCLUSION
1. The hardness of composites material improved based on the percentage of increase of fly ash particle added
to the matrix alloy.
2. The drastic variation among hardness shows the particle are not uniformly distributed for 15% volume
fraction but it was resulted in the formation of agglomerates.
3. The density of fly ash particle reduces the density of matrix alloy and resulted to the performance of
reduction in density, when the percentage of fly ash particle increases.
4. The dispersion of fly ash particles are observed to be uniformly distributed in Aluminium metal matrix
composites having 10% volume fraction of fly ash.
5. The size ranges from (75 to 150µm) were observed to be most suited for reinforcement process; since they
are uniformly distributed along with the matrix alloy materials.
6. Most of the important parameters of squeeze casting process are discussed and the defects responsible for
the failure of squeeze casting process are identified.
6. REFERENCES
1. Sudarshan, and Surappa M.K. (2008) ‘Dry sliding wear of fly ash particle reinforced A356 Al
composite’, composite science and technology, Vol.265, pp.349-360.
2. Rajan T.P.D, Pillai R.M., Pai B.C.,Satyanarayana K.G. and Rohatgi P.K. (2007) ‘Fabrication and
characterization of Al-7Si-0.35 Mg/fly ash metal matrix composites processed by different stir casting
routes’, composite science and technology,Vol.67, pp.3367-3377.
3. RamChandra M. and Rradakrishna K. (2005) ‘Synthesis – microstructure-mechanical properties-wear
and corrosion behavior of an Al-Si (12%)- fly ash metal matrix composite’, Journal of material science,
Vol.40, pp.5989-5997.
4. Subramanian c. (1992) ‘Some consideration towards the design of a wear resistant aluminium alloy’,
Journal of material science (wear), Vol.155, pp. 193-205.
5. Mahapatra S.S. and Amar Patnaik. (2009) ‘Study on mechanical and erosion wear behavior of hybrid
composite using experimental design’, Materials and Design, Vol.30, pp. 2791-280
A-32
WETTAB ILITY S TUDIES ON Al-S iC METAL MATRIX COMPOS ITES
L.POOVAZHAGAN1 , K.KALAICHELVAN2
1. Lecturer, Department of Marine Engineering, Sri Venketeswara College of Engineering,
Pennalur, Sriperumbudur, Chennai-602 105, E-mail- poo_ifet@yahoo.co.in.
2. Assistant Professor, Department of Production Technology, Madras Institute of Technology, Anna
University, Chrompet, Chennai.
ABS TRACT: Many researchers have been carried out in Al Metal Matrix
Composite (MMC) synthesis using conventional stir casting technique. The major
problems encountered while processing ceramic reinforced MMCs using stir
casting are wettability between ceramic and matrix, uniform distribution of particles
and porosity in the solidified material. This paper reviews the various process
parameters such as Mg addition, coating of particles, heat treatment of particles,
different stirring conditions, SiC particle size and volume percentage to improve
the wettability and uniform particle distribution in the stir casting of Al-SiC MMCs.
The wettability is measured by two dimensional area fraction methods and
validated by optical and SEM images.
Ke ywo rds : Wettability, Stir Casting, Metal Matrix Composites, Process

Parameters
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Metal Matrix Composites
Composite is a multiphase material formed from a combination of materials which differ in composition or
form, remain bonded together, and retain their identities and properties. A metal matrix composite (MMC)
combines into a single material a metallic base with a reinforcing constituent, which is usually a ceramic.
Combining the metallic properties such as good ductility and toughness of the matrix with ceramic properties
such as high strength, hardness and elastic modulus of the reinforcement, the composites exhibiting high
toughness, specific strength and stiffness and good wear resistance can be obtained. MMCs can also have low
thermal and electrical conductivity and low sensitivity to temperature variation. Consequently, they have
extensitive interest from defense, aerospace and automotive industries and have become very promising
materials for structural applications as well.
Aluminum metal matrix composites (AMMC) are appealing because of their low density and high specific
stiffness. In addition, the ceramic-particle reinforcement significantly increases wear resistance. Nevertheless,
high cost relative to conventional aluminum alloys has prevented widespread industrial applications. Two
primary factors account for the high cost of metal matrix composites. The first factor is the raw material cost of
both the aluminum matrix material and the ceramic reinforcement particles. The second factor leading to higher
cost is related to the fabrication process. If these two factors could be controlled and reduced, then a wider range
of applications becomes possible.
1.2 Stir Casting
Metal Matrix Composites are produced by different processing routes like Liquid State Processing, Solid-
State Processing and Vapor State Processing. Liquid state fabrication of particulate reinforced metal matrix
composites (PMMCs) involves incorporation of dispersed phase into a molten matrix metal, followed by its
solidification. Among the available liquid state processing stir casting is the most economical way of
manufacturing PMMCs. Stir casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a
dispersed phase (ceramic particles) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring.
A-33
Conventional stir-casting technology has been employed for producing PMMCs for decades. In order to provide
high level of mechanical properties of the composite, good interfacial bonding (wetting) between the dispersed
phase and the liquid matrix should be obtained. [9, 10]
2. WETTABILITY – BASICS
In preparing metal matrix composites by the stir casting method, there are several factors that need
considerable attention, including the difficulty of achieving a uniform distribution of the reinforcement material;
wettability between the two main substances; porosity in the cast metal matrix composites; and chemical
reactions between the reinforcement material and the matrix alloy. In order to achieve the optimum properties of
the metal matrix composite, the distribution of the reinforcement material in the matrix alloy must be uniform,
and the wettability or bonding between these substances should be optimized. The porosity levels need to be
minimized, and chemical reactions between the reinforcement materials and the matrix alloy must be avoided
Wettability is defined as the ability of the liquid surface to spread on a solid surface and represents the extent
of intimate contact between the liquid and solid [8]. Good wetting between solid ceramic phase and molten Al
alloy is an essential condition for the generation of satisfactory bond between these two elements during casting.
The mechanical properties of MMCs are controlled to a large extent by the structure and properties of the
reinforcement-metal interface. Strong interface permits transfer and distribution of load from matrix to
reinforcement resulting in increased elastic modulus and strength.
Molten Al has high oxygen affinity, at 4000C a 50 nm thick layer is formed on Al alloy in 4 hours.
Experimental results show that it is very difficult to avoid oxide formation in Al Previous experimental results
shows that Mg addition, coating of particles, heat treatment of particles, reduced solidification time, optimum
stirring speed and time enhances the wettability. The formation of melt oxide layer, contaminated particles,
reduced particle size and increased volume percentage are detrimental to wetting. . In this paper, the problem
associated with the wettability between molten Al and SiC particles and the factors influencing wettability are
discussed. [2, 3, 4]
2.1.1 Effect of Mg addition
Alloying elements reduces the surface tension of the melt by reducing the solid liquid interfacial energy or
inducing wettability by chemical reaction. The following alloying elements are tested by various authors
Magnesium, Zirconium, Titanium, calcium, Lanthanum, Bismuth, Lead, Ti and Copper [7, 8]. Among the
various alloying element tested, addition of Mg gives the better wettability. Mg is a powerful surfactant.
Surfactants are wetting agents that lower the surface tension of liquid Al and allow easier spreading of liquid
over solid and reduce the solid-liquid interfacial energy. Mg also acts as a powerful scavenger of oxygen. Mg
reacts with oxygen present on the surface of the particles and thinning the gas layers.
Experimental results show that adding 1 % Mg gives the effective wetting to Al-SiC composites. Increasing
Mg weight % increases the tendency towards agglomeration or clustering. Adding more than 1 % Mg increases
the viscosity Al-matrix alloy. Increase in viscosity makes it more difficult to get uniform SiC distribution.
Adding 3 % Mg to Al-Si alloy forms Mg2Al8 phase which has low melting point and detrimental to the
mechanical properties of MMCs. Less than 1 % Mg not influencing the uniform particle distribution. [4, 7, 8]
2.1.2 Particle Coating
Non-metallic particles are very difficult to wet liquid metal. Coating the particles with wettable metal
improves wetting. Mutual solubility or formation of inter metallic compounds induces highest wettability.
Coating methods for SiC particles includes CVD, PVD, Electroplating, Cementation, Plasma Spraying and Sol-
Gel. The following metals are tested as coating elements; Nickel, Copper and Chromium. Nickel coating is most
widely used for Al-SiC MMCs. The following problems are still unsolved in this method, interaction of coating
elements with liquid metal during stirring, influence of these elements on solidification microstructure and
mechanical properties of composites. [7, 8]
2.1.3 Particle Treatment
Heating the SiC particles to 9000 C alters the surface composition due to the formation of an oxide layer.
Particle oxide layer and clean particles improves wetting. Ultrasonic techniques, Etching and Heating in suitable
atmosphere are used to clean the particles. [7, 8]
2.1.4 Different Stirring Conditions
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Previous results showed that stirring is essential for any incorporation particles to occur. The novel two steps
mixing give good wettability [1, 8]. When there were no stirring particles simply floating on the top of the
melted alloy, irrespective of the presence of magnesium or heat treatment of particles. With stirring in fully
liquid condition poor wetting was observed. During stirring some of the particles tended to float on the surface
of the melt, and others accumulated at the base of the crucible. This occurred irrespective of the speed of
stirring. After pouring it was found that most of the particles still accumulated at the bottom of the crucible.
Stirring continuously while the slurry becomes semi solid from a liquid condition gave good wettability. In a
semi-solid state, primary α-Al phase exists so SiC particles are mechanically entrapped and prevented from
agglomeration. This process can also help to trap SiC particles and stop them from settling, thus helping to
achieve good wettability.
Decreasing the cooling time helps to trap more SiC particles. Decreasing cooling time increases the volume
fraction of primary α-Al, improving the possibility to trap more particles into the matrix [7]. The second step of
stirring is important in order to disperse the particles throughout the matrix. This is because the particles which
are already incorporated into the matrix during semi-solid stirring will tend to the bottom of the molten matrix
during soaking in fully liquid state. Increasing the mixing times promotes metal-ceramic bonding.
2.1.5 SiC particle size and Volume percentage
The tendency to incorporate the SiC into the matrix alloy reduced with the increase of volume fraction of
SiC. The reason is by increasing the volume fraction of SiC particles, the viscosity of the slurry is increased,
thus creating greater difficulty and less chance for more particles to be embedded into the melt. The attainment
of complete wetting becomes is more difficult to achieve as particle size decreases. The smaller particles are
also more difficult to disperse because of their inherently greater surface area. These finely divided powders
show an increasing tendency to agglomerate or clump together [8].
2.1.6 Measuring Wettability
The percentage of SiC incorporated within the solidified composite is an indicative of the wettability. Two
dimensional area measurements are used to measure wettability. Using a micrograph of a section through a
composite, the total area of SiC as compared to the total micrograph area is taken to indicate the percentage of
SiC content. If the area of the SiC particles fully occupies the square, the wettability is 100 % [7, 8]. The optical
and SEM images are taken to validate the wettability. Figure 1 explains the graphical method used to measure
percentage wetting. If the area of the SiC particles fully occupies the square, that means the wettability is 100 %.
Fig: 1, Graphical method used to

measure percentage wetting.
Fig.2, Microstructure of Al-10% SiCp MMC fabricated at 500 rpm a) 5 min stirring b) 10 min stirring c) 15 min stirring.
More stirring time less tendency towards clustering (1)
3. CONCLUSION
This paper reviewed the various process parameters which promotes wettability of SiC particles by molten
Al alloy and also reviewed the parameters which are detrimental to wettability. Previous results show that
mechanical stirring is necessary to promote wetting and uniform particle distribution. Stirring while the slurry is
solidifying improves the incorporation of particles into the matrix alloy. Decreasing the solidifying time
improves the wetting. Magnesium addition enhances the wettability, however increasing the content above 1 wt.
%, increases the viscosity of slurry to the detriment of particle distribution. Increasing the volume percentage of
SiC particles decreases the wettability. Use of heat treated particles also improves the wetting and particle
distribution. The presence of oxide layer on the melt surface creates a resistance to reinforcement particle
penetration. The smaller particles are more difficult to disperse because of their inherently greater surface area.
A-35
4. RFERENCES
1. S.Balasivanantha Brabhu et al (2006), Influence of stirring speed and stirring time on distribution of
particles in cast MMCs, Journal of Material processing Technology, vol 171, pp 268-273.
2. N.Aniban et al (2002), An analysis of impeller parameters for Al-MMC synthesis, Materials and Design,
vol 23, pp 553-556.
3. J.Hashim et al (2002), Particle distribution in cast MMC-Part I, Journal of material processing technology,
vol 123, pp 251-257.
4. E.Candan et al (2002), The effect of alloying elements to aluminum on the wettability of Al-SiC system,
Turkish Journal of Engineering & Environmental Science, vol 26, pp 1-5.
5. A.Ourdjini et al (2001), Settling of SiC particles in cast MMCs, Journal of Material Casting processing
Technology, vol 116, pp 72-76.
6. J.Hashim (2001), The production of cast MMCs by a modified stir casting method, Journal Technology, vol
35A, pp 9-20.
7. J.Hashim et al (2001), Wettability of SiC particles by molten Al-alloy, vol 119, pp 324-328.
8. J.Hashim et al (2001), The enhancement of wettability of SiC particles in cast Al-matrix composites, vol
119, pp 329-335.
9. J.Hashim et al (1999), MMC-Production by stir casting method, Journal of material processing technology,
vol 92-93, pp 1-7.
10. W.Zhou et al (1997), Casting of SiC reinforced Metal Matrix Composites, Journal of Material processing
Technology, vol 63, pp 358-363.
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EFFECT OF SLOW COOLING AFTER SINTERING ON POROSITY

AND MICRO HARDNESS OF ELEMENTAL 6061al ALLOY IN P/M
PROCESS
S. Solay Anand 1, B. Mohan 2, T.R. Parthasarathy 3

1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Adhiparasakthi Engg. College, Melmaruvathur
2. MIT Anna University, Department of Production Technology, Chennai, e-mail: mohan@mitindia.edu
3. MetMech Engineers, Chennai, e-mail:metmech2005@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: The usage of aluminium in lieu of ferrous components in automotives

helps to lower the weight of vehicle. The major drawback in the commercially
available press sintered aluminium alloy is porosity which is mainly depending on
the P/M process parameters such as compaction pressure, sintering temperature
and cooling temperature after sintering. In this work it is demonstrated that slow
cooling to 200°C from a high sintering temperature of 600°C reduces porosity in
6061Al alloy powder compacts. The compacts are warm compacted at 150MPa.
Two different particle sizes 165µm and 45µm of aluminium powder is used to
compare the porosity level at different cooling temperatures.
Key words: Particle size, cooling rate, precipitation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to revolution in automobile industry towards light weight metals, there is a particular interest in
aluminium matrix composites [Polmear, 1995, Slavinch, 2002], especially through powder metallurgy (P/M), as
it is a means by which complex, net shape, light weight components can be produced cost effectively
[Schaffer,2000]. The main drawback in P/M components is porosity. Porosity in sintered alloys is consequent of
(a) primary pores carried over from green state and arising from the removal of the lubricant wax which are not
entirely eliminated by shrinkage phenomena; (b) secondary pores generated by the diffusion of alloying
elements into the major phase, leaving residual porosity located at the sites of the original alloy particles; (c)
bubbles generated by the vaporization of a volatile phase. In the early works by Schaffer et. al. [Lumely et.al,
1996, Lumely et.al, 1998] on various aluminium alloy powder compacts it is clearly shown that the progression
of sintering and the final porosity in the system is also dependant on the process variables such as additive
particle size, heating rate and the final sintering temperature.
Traditionally aluminium powder products where thought difficult to sinter and their properties
deemed poor. Recent research works [Sercombe, et.al, 1999] on the sintering response of press and sintered Al
4.4Cu-0.8Si-0.5Mg powders through addition of trace amounts tin showed marked improvement in strength and
density.
A - 37
Current commercial aluminium powder metallurgy alloys are based on the wrought 6XXX series
(Al-Mg-Si) and 2xxx series (Al-Cu-Mg) of alloys, where as little research has been conducted using elemental
powders. This work was therefore undertaken to ascertain whether data on solution heat treatment of elemental
6061Al P/M alloy has any adverse effect on slow cooling from sintering temperature. The levels of porosity on
variation of grain size of aluminium powders during slow cooling from sintering temperature were also
examined.
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
An elemental 6061Al alloy is taken for this experimental study and its composition is shown in table.1.
Two different particle sizes of aluminium powders of 165µm and 45µm is selected for this study. The prepared
alloy mixture is weighed out to an accuracy of 0.01g for each specimen of size 70 x 50 x 10 mm. The powder
was warm compacted at 150MPa in a rectangular die with die temperature as 150°C and plunger temperature as
170°C, in an uniaxial hydraulic press of 100Tonnes capacity to give rectangular specimens of size 70 x 50 x
10mm. Paraffin wax is used as die wall lubricant during each compact. Dewaxing and sintering process is
carried out in a high purity nitrogen atmosphere (dew point < -60°C). Green bars were dewaxed at 300°C for
20min and sintered for 60min at 600°C. After sintering the bars are furnace cooled to 500°C, 400°C, 300°C and
200°C and air cooled. All these samples were solution heat treated at 530°C for 90min, water quenched and
precipitate hardened at 170°C for 6hrs. Both heating and cooling rate are at 15°C/min. Specimens were prepared
and tested for Vicker’s micro hardness at 0.5Kg load. % of volume porosity is found out in polished specimens
at various regions according to ASTM B276 standards by using dewinter software coupled online with optical
microscope.
Table 1 Composition of 6061 Al alloy (all in wt %) investigated in the present work
Mg Si Cu Fe Zn Sn Mn Al
as measured 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.25 0.3 0.3 Bal
The effects of different cooling temperature after sintering on porosity and micro hardness have been
discussed below.
3.1 Effects of Porosity
The porosity for sintered and solution heat treated specimens at various cooling temperature is shown
in Fig.1. Decrease in porosity level for solution heat treated specimens as compared to sintered specimens is due
to the densification of precipitates (mainlyCuAl2 and MgSi 2) around the pores during solution heat treatment.
Porosity level for 45µm aluminium particle size is apparently equal to 4.23vol% and that for 165µm aluminium
particle size porosity is apparently equal to 7.43vol%. This variation in porosity level may be related to
compressibility [Medhi Rahimian, et. al, 2009] which is good for 45 µm when compared to 165µm. The
reduction in porosity in solution heat treated samples is due to the densification of the phases formed
(b)
(a)
A - 38
Fig.1 Effect of slow cooling after sintering at different temperature on porosity level of 6061 Al alloy as sintered
and as solution heat treated (a) aluminium particle size of 165µm (b)aluminium particle size of 45µm
during sintering around the pores during solution heat treatment process and is clearly shown in Fig.2, 3.
Comparing Fig.1, 2, 3, 4 it is clear that as porosity level decreases due to slow cooling rate after sintering and
solution heat treatment process, correspondingly the micro hardness value increases. Similar case was noted in
the work [Kent et. al, 2005] age hardening of sintered Al-Cu-Mg-Si-Sn alloy systems. Precipitation induced
densification observed here is also similar to the work [Lumley et. al, 2006] on precipitation induced
densification in a sintered Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy.
(a) CuAl2 phases (b

formed during
sintering Phase
desifies
after SHT
Mg2Si
Phases
formed
Fig.2. Optical microstructure of 6061 Al alloy at a cooling temperature 400°C after sintering for aluminium
particle size of 165µm (a) as sintered and (b) as solution heat treated.
(a) (b
CuAl2 phases
formed during
sintering Phase
Mg2Si Phases desifies
formed during after SHT
sintering
Fig.3. Optical microstructure of 6061 Al alloy at a cooling temperature 400°C after sintering for aluminium
particle size of 45µm (a) as sintered and (b) as solution heat treated.
3.2 Effects of Micro Hardness
(a) (b)
Fig.4 Effect of slow cooling after sintering at different temperature on micro hardness of 6061 Al alloy as
sintered and as solution heat treated (a) aluminium particle size of 165µm
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(b)aluminium particle size of 45µm
The effect of micro hardness for aluminium particle size of 165µm and 45µm on different cooling
temperature after sintering and as solution heat treated is shown in Fig.4. The hardness value increases for both
as sintered and as solution heat treated as the cooling temperature decreases to 200°C and reaches a value of
HV0.5 ~ 40(for 165µm) and ~50(for 45µm) as solution heat treated. The increase in hardness value on slow
cooling after sintering is mainly due to the precipitation of various phases formed along the pores [Kent
et.al.2005]. From the microstructure shown in Fig 2,3 it is clear that porosity does not affect the kinetics of
precipitation. The time taken to achieve peak hardness increased at low cooling temperature because the rate of
precipitation is largely controlled by diffusion of solute elements which is highly dependent on cooling
temperature [Martin,1998]. The time taken to reach peak hardness was similar to those observed in near dense
wrought 2014 alloys [Bonfield,1976, Dutta, et. al. 1994].
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following points have been concluded from the work.

1. Slow cooling after sintering reduces porosity level due to densification of various phases formed.
2. By lowering the particle size of aluminium powders from 165 µm to 45 µm the micro hardness value
increases to about 10% which is mainly due to compressibility of fine aluminium particles.
3. Pores are mainly formed around the alloying elements which forms phases during sintering and these
phases formed densifies during solution heat treatment and filling of pores takes place.
4. For both grain sizes micro hardness is inversely related to porosity level
5. Compaction pressure required for obtaining the density is minimum (150MPa) for warm compaction when
compared to cold compaction (300MPa).
REFERENCES
1. I.J.Polmear, Light Alloys-Metallurgy of the Light metals, third ed., Arnold, London.1995.
2. D.Slavnich, (2002), “Electric and Hybrid Vechile” Journal of Automobile Engg., Vol 27, pp52 – 60.
3. G.B.Schaffer, Mater. Forum 24(2000) 109 – 125
4. R.N.Lumley, G.B. Schaffer, (1996) “Surface oxide and the role of magnesium in liquid phase sintering”
Scripta Mater. Vol 35, pp 589 - 595
5. R.N.Lumley, G.B. Schaffer, (1998) “The effect of additive particle size on sintered Al-Cu alloys" Scripta
Mater. Vol.39, pp1089-1094
6. T.B.Sercombe, G.B.Schaffer, (1999) “Statistical experimental design of Al–Cu–Mg–Si P/M alloys” Journal
of Mater. Science and Engg. A Vol.268 pp32 – 39
7. J.W.Martin, Precipitation Hardening second ed., Oxford 1998.
8. W.Bonfield, P.K Datta,(1976)” Precipitation hardening in Al–Cu–Si–Mg alloy at 130–220 °C” Journal of
Mater. Sci. Vol.11,pp1661 – 1666
9. L.Dutta, C.P Harper, G.Dutta, (1994) “The control of grain size and distribution of particles in a (6061
alloym/(Al2O3)P composite by solutionizing treatment” Journal of Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
Vol.25 pp1591 – 1602
10. D. Kent, G.B Schaffer, J.Drennan, (2005) “Age hardening of a sintered Al-Cu-Mg-Si-(Sn) alloy”Journal
of Mater. Sci Engg A Vol.405 pp65 – 73.
11. R.N Lumely, G.B.Schaffer, (2006) “Precipitation induced densification in a sintered Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy”
Journal of Script Mater. Vol.55, pp 207 – 210.
12. Mehdi Rahimian, Naser Ehsania, Nader Parvin, Hamid reza Baharvandi, (2009), “The effect of particle
size, sintering temperature and sintering time on the properties of Al–Al2O3 composites, made by powder
metallurgy” Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol209, pp5387 – 5393.
A - 40
STUDY ON WELDING OF AISI 301 STAINLESS STEEL WITH

IRS M-41/97 CORTEN STEEL
G.Thirukumaran 1, A. Rajadurai 2 and M.V.Venkatesan 3

1. P.G.Student,Department of Production Technology, Anna University Chennai, MIT Campus.
e-mail: gtkvsm71@yahoo.co.in
2. Professor, Department of Production Technology, Anna University Chennai, MIT Campus
3. Instructor, Technical Training Centre, Integral Coach Factory, Chennai-38.
Abstract: Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Chennai-38 has been involved in

manufacturing of steel body railway coaches since 1955. Carbon steel and
stainless steels are used for rail coach building. Rail coach parts are fabricated by
welding process. Welding is associated with heating and cooling. Due to non-
uniform cooling, it results in weldment distortion. Various methods are used to
control distortion. Selection of suitable process parameters is one among them. In
this study, the effect of process parameters on bowing distortion of dissimilar
metal joints was studied. The process parameters such as current, voltage and
type of shielding gas were varied. Corten steel (IRS M41/97) and Austenitic
stainless steel (AISI 301) was joined by Flux cored arc welding process. CO2
100% and Ar 80% & CO2 20% gas mixtures were used as additional shielding
gases to weld the test plates. It was observed that bowing distortion decreased
with increase in current, for both shielding gases. No major slag inclusions were
found during X-Ray radiograph test. Ferrite content found to increase with
increase in current.
Key words: Flux cored Arc Welding, Austenitic Stainless steel, CO2 shielding
gas.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Information
Integral coach factory (ICF) has been manufacturing various types of railway passenger coaches. Welding
plays a major role in fabrication of rail coaches and many types of welding process are being used. Various parts
of a coach such as Roof, Side wall, End wall, Under frame and various other parts are integrated by welding
process.
1.2 Significance of the Study
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is the most suitable process for joining stainless steel plates [1]. But,
the process is slow with lower deposition rates when compared with GMAW, FCAW processes. Due to its lack
of deposition rate, in ICF, FCAW process with higher deposition rates of 5.8 kg/hr for 1.2mm wire is used for
welding similar and dissimilar combination of metals. CO2 gas and Argon mixture gas are used as supportive
gas in FCAW process.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The specific objective of the present study on “Study on Welding of AISI 301 Stainless Steel with IRS M-
41/97 CORTEN Steel” is to, investigate the effect of process parameters on mechanical, metallurgical properties
in weldment of AISI 301 Stainless Steel with CORTEN steel.
A - 41
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The composition of base metals such as AISI 301stainless steel, CORTEN steel and filler metal AWS
309LT-1 are stated in Table 1
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Base Metals & Electrode
Wt. %
Material
C Cr Ni Cu Mn Si P S Mo
0.25 0.28
IRS M41-97 0.35- 0.2 - 0.3 - 0.075
0.1 - - 0.03 0.05
(Base metal CORTEN steel) 0.8 0.47 0.8 -0.14
0.45 0.72
AISI 301
0.15 16-18 6-8 Nil 2.0 1.0 0.045 0.03 Nil
(Base metal stainless steel)
AWS 309 0.5-
0.04 22-25 12-14 0.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 0.5
LT-1 (Electrode) 2.5
3.1 Welding Procedure
The Stainless steel and CORTEN steel specimens were sheared to the size of 250 x 125 x 2mm taking
rolling direction into consideration. These specimens were properly cleaned and edges were de-burred. The
plates were set at 1.2 mm apart as root gap and tack welded on both ends. The selected process parameters,
process variables and design matrix are listed in Table 2, 3 & 4
Table 3 Process variables and their levels

Table 2 Welding Process Parameters with CO2 as supportive shielding gas Table 4 Design Matrix
Level Level Specimen

Process FCAW Parameters Unit I V
-1 +1 No.
Root gap 1.2 mm I- Current Amp 70 80 1 -1 -1
Gas flow rate 10 L/min V-Voltage Volts 20 24 2 +1 -1
Joint design Square butt 3 -1 +1
Technique Fore hand 4 +1 +1
Thickness 2.0 mm
Welding position Down hand
Weld specimens with Argon mixture (Ar 80% + CO2 20%) as shielding gas were prepared as per the above
design matrix. But, the resultant weld bead was not satisfactory and the base metal got burn through. It may be
due to additional heat input caused due to the ionization of Argon gas. Therefore, weld trials were carried out at
different current and voltage levels. The new current levels are 60 to 70 Amps and new voltage levels are 18 to
20 Volts and the corresponding process variables and design matrix are listed in Table 5&6
Table 5 Process variables and their levels with

Argon mixture (Ar 80%+ CO2 20% as shielding gas) Table 6 Design Matrix
Parameters Unit Level -1 Level +1 Specimen No. I V

I- Current Amp 60 70 5 -1 -1
V-Voltage Volts 18 20 6 +1 -1
7 -1 +1
8 +1 +1
3.2 Inspection and Analysis
Visual, X-ray, Bowing distortion tests and Ferrite content were done to analyse the effect of current and
voltage on Distortion, Weld quality and Penetration of the weldment.
A - 42
4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Visual Inspection

The specimen welded without any shielding gas, resulted in porosity, poor weld bead profile and
incomplete penetration throughout the weldment. Whereas, by using CO2 and Argon mixture as additional
shielding gas, the resulting weldment had good weld bead and good penetration in all the eight specimens.
4.2 X-Ray Radiograph Test
X-Ray radiography indicated that, there was no major defect observed in specimens welded using shielding
gas, whereas specimens welded without shielding gas, resulted in porosity.
4.3 Distortion Test
The presence of bowing distortion in the welded plates were measured by using a Profile tracer [2] shown
in Fig.1
Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of Bowing Distortion
The bowing distortion was traced on both sides of the weldment. The measured peak value of the bowing
distortion of both stainless steel and CORTEN steel metals are listed in Table 7 and shown in Fig.2&3
Table 7 Results of bowing distortion tests
Voltage Travel
Current ( I ) Bowing distortion on Bowing distortion on
Specimen No. (V) speed
Amp SS side (mm) CORTEN steel side (mm)
Volts (mm/min)
1 70 20 294 4.52 4.12
2 80 20 300 4.22 3.10
3 70 24 357 5.32 4.38
4 80 24 395 4.72 3.24
5 60 18 190 5.50 5.38
6 70 18 200 4.54 3.72
7 60 20 210 5.48 4.80
8 70 20 220 4.80 3.94
At 20 Volts (CO2) At 24 Volts (CO2)
5 6
Bowing Distortion (mm)
Bow in g Di sto rtio n (m m )
4.52 5.32
4.22 5
4 4.72
4.12 3.1 4.38
4
3 ss ss
3 3.24
2 corten corten
2
1 1
0 0
70 80 70 80
Current (Amp) Curre nt (Amp)
Fig.2 Influence of Current over Bowing distortion (CO2)
At 18 Volts (Ar 80% + CO2 20% ) At 20 Volts (Ar 80% + C O 2 20% )
6 5.5
6
5.48 4.8
5 5
5.38 4.54
4.8
4
3.72 4
ss 3.94 ss
3 3
corten corten
2 2
1 1
0 0
60 70 60 70
Current (Amp) Current (Amp)
A - 43
Fig.3 Influence of Current over Bowing distortion (Ar 80% + CO2 20%)
From the results it is inferred that, as the Current increases bowing distortion decreases. Bowing distortion
in Stainless steel side is high compared with CORTEN steel side, due to difference in co-efficient of thermal
expansion of the base metals.
4.4 Ferrite Content Test
The Ferrite content in percentage (Fe %) is measured using Feritscope MP30 E-S (with RS 232 interface)
manufactured by M/s Fischer India. Readings were taken at eight locations on the length of the weldment and
their average percentage of Ferrite content is shown in Table 8
Table 8 Ferrite content in the Weldment of Specimens
Average Ferrite content

Specimen No.
in %
1 3.60
2 3.70
3 3.90
4 4.27
5 4.00
6 4.50
7 4.70
8 4.82
The results show that, the Ferrite content increases, as the current, voltage and travel speed increases. This
could be attributed to the suppression of transformation of ferrite into austenite during fast cooling [3].
In this study, an attempt was made to study the effect of various process parameters such as Current,
Voltage and Shielding gas on Distortion, Bead quality and Ferrite content in welding of AISI 301 stainless steel
with IRS M-41/97 CORTEN steel. FCAW process was employed and the conclusions are as follows
1. Welding of AISI stainless steel with CORTEN steel without shielding resulted in poor bead quality,
porosity and incomplete penetration.
2. Welding with CO2 and Argon mixture as additional shielding gas improves penetration and removes
porosity and thus resulting in good weldment.
3. No major slag inclusion and defects are present in the weldment as evident in the X-ray radiological
examination.
4. Bowing distortion in Stainless steel side is high compared with CORTEN steel side when the current is
increased due to difference in co-efficient of thermal expansion.
5. The Ferrite content in the weldment increases as the current, voltage and the travel speed increases.
REFERENCES:
1. Larry Jeffus (2004), “Welding principles and application”, Thomas Delmar learning, U.S.A
2. Venkatesan.M.V, Murugan.N, and Prasad.B.M (2009), “Study on measurement of bowing distortion of
stainless steel sheets joined by FCAW” Proceeding of the National Welding seminar, IIW India.
3. Vitek.J.M and David.S.A (2001) “Improved models for predicting Ferrite content in stainless steels”
http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2001/pres/111655.pdf
A - 44
CORROSION AS AN WELD QUALITY INDICATOR IN Ti6Al4V

ALLOY WELDMENTS
V.K.Bupesh Raja1, K.PalaniKumar2 and N.Manoharan3

1. Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Sathyabama
University, Chennai-600 119, India.
2. Principal, Sai Ram Institute of Technology, Chennai, India.
3. Vice Chancellor, Sathyabama University, Chennai-600 119, India.
e-mail: bupesh_r@rediffmail.com.
Abstract: The Ti6Al4V alloy is the military grade titanium alloy known as Grade 5
titanium alloy. It is immune to corrosion due to its ability to form a passive oxide
layer. In this investigation the corrosion rate was taken as an index to study the
quality of welds. During the welding process the atmospheric gases contaminate
the weld pool resulting in an increase in the corrosion. The 3mm thick plates of
Ti6Al4V alloy were square butt-welded using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
process with argon gas shielding. The corrosion studies were done using
potentiodynamic polarization technique, with non-deaerated 3.5% NaCl solution of
pH 7. The LBW weldments showed an increase in the corrosion rate when
compared with the GTAW weldments.
Key words: Titanium Alloy, Ti6Al4V, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW),
Corrosion rate, Pitting
1. INTRODUCTION
The Ti6Al4V titanium alloy designated as ASTM B265 Grade5 is the most commonly used among the
39 Grades of titanium alloys [1]. The Ti6Al4V is considered as the military grade of titanium. Due to its
corrosion resistance it is widely used in fabricating chemical processing equipments and in highly corrosive
environments. Pitting corrosion is the localized corrosion resulting in the appearance of holes on the metal
surface. Even though pitting causes minimal loss of metal, pitting leads to perforation, causing loss of
functionality reliability of the equipments and components. Therefore the study of pitting corrosion has been
done in this investigation [2]. In this investigation the GTAW was done to study the effect of the process on the
pitting corrosion of Ti6Al4V alloy. Argon gas was used to shield and purge the weldment to produce defect and
contamination free weldments.
2. MATERIALS AND WELDING PROCESS
The square butt joints were autogenously fabricated from cold rolled, annealed plates of Ti6Al4V of
size (50 x 125 x 3mm), along the rolling direction. The composition of the base metal was determined using a
vacuum optical emission spectrometer (SPECTRO-LAB, Germany). Table. 1.
Table. 1: Chemical Composition (wt %) of the base metal
A - 45
The GTAW was done manually with highly skilled welder, using Easy Weld SSR 400/600, 3 phase, 415 V ±
10%, 50 Hz Ac equipment. The GTAW process was done autogenously without filler wire with a root gap of
1.6 mm. Proper care was taken to prevent any contamination, distortions and embrittlement, by using 99.9%
pure argon with top and bottom purging and suitable clamping. The frequency of the GTAW was kept constant
as 6 HZ. The weld bead, quality of weld and full penetration was achieved by selecting suitable welding
parameters. Table. 2
Table. 2: GTAW Parameters
3. WELD QUALITY INDICATOR
The Ti6Al4V alloy is immune to corrosion. Titanium has good corrosion resistance due to the
formation of passive oxide film of TiO2 spontaneously at room temperature. The oxide film is very stable,
continuous and highly adherent protective film. The oxide film may comprise of a mixture of titanium oxides
like TiO2, Ti2O3 and TiO [3]. Generally the colour of the weld surface is observed to indicate the quality of the
weldment. In this investigation along with weld surface colour, the corrosion rate was considered for checking
the purity and quality of the weldments. The increase in corrosion rate indicates the contamination of the hot
weld pool from atmospheric gases caused by insufficient argon shielding and impurities. Therefore the corrosion
rate was taken as the weld quality indicator in this investigation.
4. CORROSION TEST
The as-welded corrosion test specimens of size 10 x 40 mm were polished to mirror finish according to
the metallographic procedures. The corrosion analysis were done taking the top surface of the welded surface as
the area of interest (AOI), instead of the cross section, since it is the surface exposed more to the environment
[4]. In the area of interest a 4 mm diameter circular area of the weld region was exposed to the electrolyte by
coating the other surfaces with acid resistant lacquer. Fig.1.
Fig.1: Corrosion specimen
The potentiodynamic polarization studies of the GTAW weldment was done using ACM GILL AC Potentiostat,
an ASTM standard cell and personal computer. A non-deaerated 3.5% NaCl solution of pH 7 was used for
conducting the polarization studies. The polarization studies yielded the potentiodynamic curves shown in Fig 2.
The pitting corrosion was detected by morphological analysis of the surface using optical microscope
METAVIS 1000[5, 6, 7, 8, 9] Fig.3.
A - 46
Fig.2: Potentiodynamic polarization curves of GTAW weldment.
20µ
Fig.3: Weld surface after corrosion test of GTAW weldment.
A - 47
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
The morphological analysis of the surface was done using optical microscope. The corrosion was very
negligible, limited to small pits. The corrosion is very minimal and the visibility of the corrosion products is
very less due to the white and transparent nature of the oxides. The pitting corrosion rate of GTAW process is
0.45 mils/year which within permissible limits. This shows that the GTAW process shall not affect the corrosion
resistance of the Ti6Al4V alloy if suitable argon gas shielding and safety precautions are adopted.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The Ti6Al4V alloy being immune to corrosion in normal conditions tends to corrode when subjected to
high temperature. The high temperature prevailing during the GTAW process causes the weld pool to react with
the atmospheric gases resulting in the Ti6Al4V alloy becoming vulnerable to corrosion. Effect of Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW) on Corrosion of Ti6Al4V Alloy was studied. The corrosion tests were conducted in non-
deaerated 3.5% NaCl solution of pH 7.The fusion zone of the GTAW welded Ti6Al4V showed very few pits
having a pitting corrosion rate of 0.45 mils/year, which is within the permissible values.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Head of the Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai
University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu and Dr.V.Balasubramanian, Centre for Materials Joining Research,
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu and
Dr.K.Shanmugam of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu for
extending the facilities of Materials Testing Laboratory to carryout this investigation.
8. REFERENCES
1. Designation: B 265–06b, “Standard Specification for Titanium Alloy Strip”, Sheet and Plate, ASTM
International, United States.
2. Mars G. Fontana, Norbert D.Greene, (1978), “Corrosion Engineering”, Second edition, McGRAW-Hill
Book Company.
3. J.R.Davis, Davis and Associates, (2003), “Alloying – Understanding the Basics”, ASM International,
USA, pp. 425.
4. F. Zucchi, G. Trabanelli, V. Grassi, (2001), Pitting and stress corrosion cracking resistance of friction stir
welded AA 5083, Materials and Corrosion, Volume 52, Issue 11, pp. 853 – 859.
5. Stefano Maggiolino, Chiara Schmid, (2008), “Corrosion resistance in FSW and in MIG welding
techniques of AA6XXX”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 197, pp. 237-240.
6. Hasan Guleryuz, Huseyin, Cimenoglu, (2004), “Effect of thermal oxidation on corrosion and corrosion-
wear behaviour of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy”, Biomaterials, 25, pp. 3325-3333.
7. F.Karimzadeh, M.Heidarbeigy, A.Saatchi, (2008), “Effect of heat treatment on corrosion behaviour of
Ti-6Al-4V alloy weldments”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 206, Issues 1-3, pp.
388-394.
8. M.Balasubramanian, V.Jayabalan, V.Balasubramanian, (November, 2008), “Optimizing pulsed current
parameters to minimize corrosion rate in gas tungsten arc welded titanium alloy”, International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume 39, Numbers 5-6, pp. 474-481
9. M.Balasubramanian, V.Jayabalan, V.Balasubramanian, “Effect of pulsed gas tungsten arc welding on
corrosion behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy”, (2008), Materials & Design, Volume 29, Issue 7, pp.
1359-1363.
A - 48
EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS IN FRICTION STIR WELDING

OF AA1100 and AA2024-AA7075 DISSIMILAR ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
T.Ganesh1 , N.Srirangarajalu2 ,M.R.Thansekhar3 ,A.Rajadurai4

1. P G S tude nt, De partment of Production Technology, MIT Ca mpus, Anna University Chennai.
2. Le cturer, De partment of P roduction Te chnology, MIT Campus, Anna Unive rsity Chenna i.
3. P rofe ssor, Depa rtme nt of Me cha nical Engine e ring, SS N Colle ge of Enginee ring, Che nna i.
4. P rofe ssor, Depa rtme nt of P roduction Te chnology, MIT Ca mpus, Anna Unive rsity Che nna i.
Abstract: Friction stir welding wa s invente d at We lding institute , Unite d Kingdom

in the ye a r 1991 and ha s e ve r since be e n prove d to be one of the be st solid sta te
joining me thods for mate rials such a s a luminium and ma gne sium. S ome of the
aluminium alloys which a re not weldable (Al-Cu, Al-Zn-Mg a lloy) by fusion welding
te chnique s, which produce defe cts and reduce the me cha nical propertie s on the
weld nugge t could be we lded using friction stir we lding (FS W) succe s sfully with
e xcelle nt joint efficie ncies. Howeve r effect of the proces s pa rame te rs on the
propertie s of weldme nt ha ve not bee n inve stiga ted fully. In this study friction stir
welding of dissimila r a luminium a lloys AA2024-AA7075 is se le cted for
investiga tion. The welding proce s s we re conducte d on varying the we lding
proces s para me ters such a s Tool rota tion spe e d (RP M), Welding spee d
(mm/min), Downwa rd force (kN) a nd Tool pin profiles. The prope rtie s such a s
de fe cts, hardne ss, tensile a nd bend be ha vior on welde d plate s we re studie d and
compare d with the ba se me ta l.
Key Words: Friction stir welding, Tool rotation spe e d (RP M), Welding spee d
(mm/min), Down ward force (kN), Tool pin profile , Aluminium a lloy 2024 a nd 7075.
1. INTRODUCTION
Friction stir welding is a relatively simple process as shown in Figure 1. A specially shaped tool,
made from material that have a hard and wear resistant relative to the material being welded, is rotated and
plunged into the abutting edges of the parts to be joined. After entry of the tool probe to almost the
thickness of the material and to allow the tool shoulder to just penetrate into the plate, the rotating tool is
transitioned along the joint line. The rotating tool develops frictional heating of the material, causing it to
plasticize and flow from the front of the tool to the back where it cools and consolidates to produce a high
integrity weld, in the solid phase. This advanced technology is capable to weld aluminium alloys difficult to
be welded with traditional fusion techniques (the 2XXX series alloys show limited weldability, whilst
7XXX series largely employed in aerospace applications are also claimed to be not easily welded). Dendrite
structure occurs in the fusion zone due to conventional TIG and laser welding, leading to a drastic decrease
of the mechanical behaviour.
Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of Friction Stir Welding
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Table1: Chemical Composition

Material Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Al
AA2024 0.103 0.136 4.416 0.535 1.646 0.011 Remainder
Material Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Cr Al
AA7075 0.062 0.186 1.445 0.019 2.55 5.602 0.195 Remainder
The welding trials were conducted using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) on AA2024 and AA7075.
Base material chemical compositions were tested using Optical Emission Spectrometer and given in Table
1. Tool geometry is the most influential aspect of the process development. It plays a critical role in
material flow and in turn governs the traverse rate at which friction stir welding can be conducted. The tool
consists of a shoulder and pin. In the initial stage of tool plunge, the heating results primarily from the
friction between pin and work piece. The tool is plunged till the shoulder touches the work piece. The
friction between shoulder and work piece results in heating. The shoulder also provides confinement for the
heated volume of material. The second function of tool is to stir and move the material. Threaded tool pin
profiles produce defect free weld joints and improve the mechanical properties [1]. The tool pin profiles
used in these experiments are straight cylindrical, straight cylindrical with thread and taper cylindrical with
thread as shown in Figure 2. The tool is made up of M 2 high speed steel and which was tempered and
hardened to 50 HRC. The tool dimensions are shank length and dia 70 mm and 20mm respectively,
shoulder length and dia 10mm and 18mm respectively, pin length and dia 4.5mm and 6mm respectively and
thread pitch is 0.5mm. The ratio between shoulder dia and pin dia is 3 [2, 5].
(a) Straight cylindrical threaded (b) Taper cylindrical threaded

Figure 2: Tool Pin profiles
The weld trials were conducted using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) on commercial aluminium,
AA2024 and AA7075. The base material is cut to the size of length 200mm, width 100mm and thickness
5mm. In these experiments the process parameters used are given in Table 2.
Table2: Process parameters
Tool Pin profile Tool rotation speed Downward force (kN) Welding speed (mm/min)
(RPM)
Straight cylindrical 600,800,1000,1200 1.5 62.5
Straight cylindrical threaded 800 1.5 62.5
Taper cylindrical threaded 800 1.5 62.5
X-Ray radiographic inspection was carried out on the welded plates using Radiographic unit
operated at 85 kV, 5 mA and exposure of 1 min. To determine the quality of the weldment. Hardness was
tested using Vickers Micro hardness testing machine. Diamond Intender was used and 0.05 kg load were
given. The tensile specimens were cut as per the ASTM E-1251. The bend specimens were cut as per the
ASTM B-557 size. Mandrel base has radius of 4-times of thickness of plate and 180 degrees of bend angle.
Both tensile and bend tests were performed at Computer Controlled AUTO Make Universal Testing
Machine. Bend tests were performed on both face and root side of the welds. Face and root bend tests are
used as an important test to understand about the ductility and toughness of friction stir welds.
The welding trials were conducted using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) on commercial aluminium,
AA2024 and AA7075. Commercial aluminium butt welded plates are shown in Figure 3.a and 3.b and
dissimilar aluminium alloy butt welded plates are shown in Figure 3.c and 3.d. No visible defects were
found in the weldments.
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3: (a) & (b) commercial aluminium butt welded plate (c) & (d) dissimilar aluminium alloy butt welded plate
3.1 Radiography test
X-Ray radiographs indicated a good quality weld with out any pores and discontinuities at
weldment. This conforms defect free weldment irrespective to tool rotation speed for the commercial
aluminium AA1100. But dissimilar aluminium alloy AA2024-AA7075 weld plates shows the lack of
penetration at the weldment respective to 800 RPM tool rotation speed. The reasons may be insufficient
downward force or tool rotation speed or welding speed.
3.2 Hardness test

The hardness at the weldment is less compared to the base metal and may be due to the annealing
effects while welding. The hardness of the base materials and the welded plates are given in the Table 3.
Table 3: Micro Hardness
Tool rotation
Combination Tool pin profile Hardness(VHN)
speed (RPM)
AA1100 (Base material) -- -- 130
AA1100-AA1100 Straight cylindrical 600 101
AA2024-AA7075 Straight cylindrical threaded 800 90
AA2024-AA7075 Taper cylindrical threaded 800 90
3.3 Tensile Properties
Tensile properties such as tensile strength and percentage of elongation have been evaluated for
welded plates and compared with base metal. In tensile specimens the necking region occurred at thermo-
mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) The tensile strength at the weldment is marginally decreased and
percentage of elongation is largely decreased compared to the base metal [3]. But as the tool rotation speed
increased the tensile properties are marginally increased at the weldment are given in the Table 4. We are
obtaining the joint efficiency 92-96%.
Table 4: Tensile Properties

Combination Tool rotation 0.2% proof Tensile Strength Elongation (%) Joint efficiency
speed (RPM) stress(MPa) (MPa) (%)
AA1100 (Base material) ---- 104 110 42 ---
AA1100-AA1100 600 93 101 21 92.1
AA1100-AA1100 800 101 106 25.2 95.3
3.4 Bend Test

Both face bend and root bend tests were performed on the bend test welded specimens which is shown
in Figure 4. Most of the welds are of good ductility, allowing for very high bend angles and no cracks were
observed [4]. Such ductility is a well known characteristic of the AA1100. Bend test results are given in Table
5.The above result conforms that weld specimens passes the bend test and allowing for very high bend angles
and no cracks were observed in weld nugget
Table 5: Bend Test Results
Combination Tool rotation speed (RPM) Root bend Face bend
AA1100-AA1100 600 No cracks observed No cracks observed
AA1100-AA1100 800 Cracks observed after 90 degree bend No cracks observed
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(a) AA1100-AA1100 (ST) Root and Face Bend Specimens (b) AA1100-AA1100 (TT) Root and Face Bend Specimens
Figure 4: Bend Tested Weld Specimens
4. CONCLUSION
1. Quality welds could be obtained with the tool rotation speeds of 600, 800, 1000, 1200 RPM. No defect
occurred at the weldment irrespective to tool rotation speed for AA1100. Lack of penetration defect
occurred in dissimilar aluminium alloys.
2. Hardness is decreased at the weldment compared to the base metal due to annealing effects.
3. The tensile strength is reduced by only about 10% and the percentage elongation reduced almost half
4. compared to the base metal and the joint efficiency 92-96% for AA1100.
5. As the tool rotation speed increased the tensile properties are marginally increased.
6. The welded specimens passed both root and face bend test allowing for very high bend angles and no
cracks were observed in welded regions for AA1100.
7. For AA1100, Straight Cylinder Tool gives quality weld at RPMs above 800.
REFERENCES
1. Bahemmat P (2008), ‘Experimental study on the effect of rotational speed and tool pin profile on aa2024
aluminium friction stir welded butt joints’.
2. Balasubramanian V (2008), ‘Influences of tool pin profile and tool shoulder diameter on the formation of
friction stir processing zone in AA6061 aluminium alloy’, Materials and Design 29, page 362–373.
3. Cavaliere P (2005), ‘Mechanical and micro structural behaviors of 2024–7075 aluminium alloy sheets
joined by friction stir welding’, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture.
4. Chunlin Dong (2009), ‘Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded joints in 2219-T6
aluminum alloy’, Materials and Design 30, page 3460–3467.
5. Padmanaban G (2009), ‘Selection of FSW tool pin profile, shoulder diameter and material for joining
AZ31B magnesium alloy – An experimental approach’, Materials and Design 30, page 2647–2656.
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INVESTIGATIONS ON FIRST MODE OF METAL TRANSFER DURING

FRICTION STIR PROCESSING IN CAST ALUMINUM A319 ALLOY
L.Karthikeyan1, S.Muthukrishnan2, V.S.Senthilkumar3, L.Karunamoorthy4

1. Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy
Campus, Anna University Chennai, Chennai- 600025. Email: lkarthikeyan@yahoo.com
2. Project fellow, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy Campus,
Anna University Chennai, Chennai- 600025. Email: muthu_28885@yahoo.com
3. Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy
Campus, Anna University Chennai, Chennai- 600025. Email: vssk70@yahoo.com
4. Professor and Head, Central Workshop, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of
Engineering Guindy Campus, Anna University Chennai, Chennai- 600025. Email: karun@annauniv.edu
ABSTRACT: Friction stir processing (FSP) is a recent solid state processing

technique that utilizes a non consumable rotating cylindrical tool to generate
frictional heat and local plastic deformation at any selected processing location.
FSP can eliminate casting defects and refine microstructures, thereby improving
the tensile properties. During FSP the metal flow takes places by two modes of
metal transfer. The first mode of metal transfer takes place layer by layer and is
caused by the shearing action of the tool shoulder, whereas the second mode is
caused by the extrusion of the plasticized metal around the pin.
The aim of the present study is to quantitatively determine the amount of metal
transferred by the first mode during friction stir processing of cast Al alloys A319 at
three different feed rates viz., 22.2 mm/min, 40.2 mm/min and 75 mm/min and at
different speeds viz., 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600 rpm. On processing, the tensile
properties showed remarkable improvement over parent metal. This improvement
in tensile properties was found to be in direct correlation with the first mode of
metal transfer. The observations made are listed in detail and pictorially
represented.
Key words: Friction stir processing, Metal flow, Grain structure, First mode of
metal transfer.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cast aluminum- silicon A319 alloy is generally used in the automotive industry in the manufacturing of
parts such as brake cylinders, crank case, gear boxes, cylinder heads, engine blocks etc., where moderate
mechanical properties and good corrosion resistance are required [1]. However these alloys portray porosity and
inter-dendritic regions which cause low performance due to degradation in the mechanical properties. FSP is a
recently evolving technique which selectively modifies the microstructure in specific areas resulting in the
closure of porosity and improvement in local mechanical properties [2-4]. During FSP, a non-consumable tool
comprising a shoulder and pin rubs against the work material and produces enormous frictional heat. The heat,
combined with deformation by the stirring action of tool pin and pressure due to tool shoulder, produces a defect-free,
recrystallized, fine-grained microstructure. Material flow in friction stir processing is characterized by two
modes of transfer. The first mode of metal transfer occurs due to the frictional heat generated between the tool
shoulder and the plate and takes place as layer-by-layer deposition of metal one over the other. The second
mode of metal transfer occurs by the extrusion of metal around the tool pin, when it reaches a state of sufficient
plasticity. Muthukumaran et al [5, 6] has established that the first mode of metal transfer plays a major role in
influencing the mechanical properties during friction stir process. The first and second modes of metal transfer
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are clearly visible in all the fracture samples, though they are not too distinct in macrostructure of most
processed samples. This investigation aims to understand the correlation between the first mode of metal
transfer during friction stir processing and the various tensile properties of cast aluminum alloy A319.
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL
Cast aluminum A319 alloy with the composition (in weight %): Al-5.2 Si-2.51 Cu was sand cast and
cut into rectangular pieces of 200mm X 50mm X 10mm. A special purpose friction stir welding machine with a
maximum force of 25kN, tool rotational speed of 3000 rpm and power of 15 HP was used. The work material
was fixed with respect to the FSP tool. A high carbon steel tool was used for friction stir processing. The
threads on the pin were right handed with a pitch of 1 mm. Three feed rates viz., 22.2 mm/min, 40.2 mm/min,
75 mm/min and five tool rotational speeds viz., 800 rpm, 1000 rpm, 1200 rpm, 1400 rpm and 1600 rpm were
employed for friction stir processing. The tensile specimens were extracted in the longitudinal direction parallel
to the direction of processing for all parametric combinations. The tensile specimens were prepared as per
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards B557M. The tensile tested specimens were used
for fracture image analysis. The first mode of metal transfer was identified visually by the grain size, which is
characterized by a fine grain structure. The images of the fractured faces of the sample were captured using an
optical microscope at low magnification (10X) to identify and distinguish the two modes of metal transfer and
contour plotted using MATLAB (v7.0) software. The various steps involved in the contour plotting of the
fracture surfaces of the tensile tested specimens are listed below.
1. The preliminary pre processing stage consists of applying filtering techniques to eliminate the noise from the
acquired images thereby sharpening the image. 2. Next a portion of the original image is cropped to select the
region of interest. 3. Then the cropped image is converted into an 8-bit gray scale intensity image for further
analysis. 4. The gray level image is equalized to improve its contrast by histogram equalization techniques. 5.
Finally contouring of the gray level image is done to display a contour plot of the data and extract the prominent
features from the image. A contour is defined as a path in an image along which the image intensity values are
assumed to be constant. Based on this contour plot, the region representing the first and second modes of metal
transfer can be identified. 6. Grids are made on the processed images to facilitate quantitative measurement of
the first mode of metal transfer.
The percentage of first mode of metal transfer was computed using the following relation:
Amount of metal transferred in the first mode
% First mode =
Total area of the contour plot
Number of grids in the first mode
=
Total number of grids in contour plot
The relationship existing between the first mode metal transfer and various tensile properties were
developed using a statistical software SPSS (v17.0).
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Effect of rotational speed on first mode metal transfer
The images of the tensile fractured surface of specimen and the corresponding contour plots are shown
in Fig. 1. The region representing the first mode metal transfer is differentiated with a contour.
Fig. 1 First mode metal transfer analysis of FSP specimen at a feed rate of 75 mm/min
a. Optical micrograph of metal transfer at a tool rotational speed of 1400 rpm
b. Contour plot of metal transfer at a tool rotational speed of 1400 rpm
The relationship between the first mode metal transfer and the process parameters is shown in the Fig.
2. The results indicate that the first mode metal transfer increases with rotational speed till 1200 rpm. This can
be attributed to the high temperatures the material is exposed to with higher tool rotational speeds and the
resultant reasonably fine recrystallized grains obtained. Owing to the frictional heat during FSP material flow
A - 54
caused by the stirring action of the pin takes place along with a severe plastic deformation. This is responsible
for the grain refinement and dynamic recrystallization present. However at higher than the optimum tool
rotational speeds a reduction in the first mode metal transfer occurs due to very high frictional heat input and
thereby resulting in a turbulent plastic flow.
3.2 Effect of first mode metal transfer on ultimate tensile strength
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between the first mode of metal transfer and the ultimate tensile strength.
It can be seen that the ultimate tensile strength increases with the first mode metal transfer. The material
extruded by the pin is compacted due to the compressive load by the tool shoulder offered during the first mode
metal transfer. It offers solidity to the process zone and hence increase in the first mode metal transfer is found
to improve the tensile properties. In addition, the grain refinement during FSP results in the closure of casting
porosity and produces a homogenized microstructure. This converts the as-cast material into a near-wrought
condition. This homogenized and refined microstructure along with the reduced porosity results in improved
tensile properties.
Fig. 2 Effect of friction stir processing parameters Fig. 3 Relationship between first mode of metal
transfer and on first mode of metal transfer ultimate tensile strength
3.3 Effect of first mode metal transfer on yield strength
Response of yield strength to the variations in the first mode meal transfer is displayed in the Fig.4.
The same reasons attributed to the increases in the tensile strength with tool rotational speed can be given here
too. On the whole increase in the yield strength can be due to the reduced strain localizations in consequence of
the uniform microstructure following friction stir processing.
Fig. 4 Relationship between first mode of metal transfer and yield strength
3.4 Correlation between first mode metal transfer and tensile properties
In use of the multi-variable linear regression analysis, the correlation between first mode metal transfer
and tensile properties in friction stir processing was obtained.
2
a) Ultimate tensile strength σ UTS = 17.94 + 6.079MT1 + ε R = 0.912 (1)
2
b) Yield strength σ YS = 27.91 + 4.692 MT1 + ε R = 0.78 (2)
This good correlation indicates that first mode metal transfer plays a major role in influencing the
mechanical properties.From the tables and graphs, it can be observed that first mode of metal transfer has an
influence over the mechanical properties of the processed material and this agrees with the previously reported
results [5-7].
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4.0 CONCLUSIONS
From this study on first mode of metal transfer and its influence of tensile properties the following
conclusions could be drawn.
Ø The two modes of metal transfer are distinct in the fractured surface.
Ø Friction stir processed plates that exhibit better yield and tensile strengths are characterized by a higher
percentage of metal transfer indicating a linear relationship between them.
Ø The percent first mode metal transfer increases distinctly with tool rotational speed and it is ascertained that
for the friction stir processing, the optimum tool rotational speed is 1200 rpm for all feed rates.
Ø The variation in the process parameters such as tool rotation and traverse speed produces different thermal
profiles. So any change in the process parameters affects the tensile properties.
Ø A good correlation between first mode metal transfer and tensile properties was established using multi-
variable linear regression. This indicates that first mode metal transfer plays a major role in influencing the
mechanical properties.
5.0 REFERENCES
1. Tavitas-Medrano F. J. , Gruzleski J. E., Samuel F. H., Valtierra S. , Doty H. W.. (2008), Effect of Mg
and Sr-modification on the mechanical properties of 319-type aluminum cast alloys subjected to artificial
aging. Materials Science & Engineering A, Vol. 480 pp 356-364.
2. Santelia M.L., Engstrom T., Storjohann D., Pan T. Y. (2005), Effects of friction stir processing on
mechanical properties of the cast aluminum alloys A319 and A356. Scipta Materialia, Vol. 53 pp 201–
206.
3. P. Caveliere, A. Squillace. (2005), High temperature deformation of friction stir processed 7075
aluminum alloy. Materials Characterization Vol.55, pp 136–142.
4. Nakata K., Kim Y.G., Fujii H., Tsumura T., Komazaki T.. (2006), Improvement of mechanical
properties of aluminum die casting alloy by multi-pass friction stir processing. Materials Science and
Engineering A Vol.437, pp 274–280.
5. Preetish Sinha, Muthukumaran, S., Mukherjee, S.K., (2008), Analysis of first mode of metal transfer in
friction stir welded plates by image processing technique” Journal of material processing technology.
Vol.197, pp 17-21.
6. Muthukumaran, S., Mukherjee, S.K. (2006), Two modes of metal flow phenomenon in friction stir
welding process, Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. Vol.11, pp 337-340.
7. Karthikeyan L., Senthilkumar V.S., Balasubramanian V., Arul S. (2010). Analysis of
First Mode Metal Transfer in A413 Cast Aluminum Alloy during Friction Stir Processing. Materials letters
Vol. 64 pp 301-304.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge University Grants Commission (UGC), Delhi, India for its financial support
through the grant UGC F.No.33-402/2007 (SR) towards carrying out this research. The authors are grateful to
the Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, India for extending
the facilities of Metal Joining Laboratory to carry out this investigation. The help of Professor (Dr.) V.
Balasubramanian, Center for Materials Joining and Research, Department of Manufacturing Engineering,
Annamalai University is highly appreciated.
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SQUEEZE CASTING - A NOVEL METAL PROCESSING TECHNIQUE:

AN OVERVIEW
M .Thirumal Azhagan1, Dr. B. Mohan2, K.G. Ashok3

1. Lecturer,MIT, Anna University Chennai,
Department of Production Technology,
Email: thirumalazhaganm@mitindia.edu
2. Assistant Professor, MIT, Anna University Chennai,
Email: bmohan@mitindia.edu
3. P.G. Student, MIT, Anna University Chennai,
Email: ashok6733@gmail.com
Abstract: Squeeze Casting is a metal processing technique which combines the

features of both casting and forging in one operation. The automotive and
aerospace industries are the main driving force behind the advent of squeeze
casting as this process produces components with improved mechanical
properties. Squeeze casting is the process in which the molten metal is solidified
under the application of pressure within the die. The time required for solidification
is substantially reduced due to enhanced heat transfer at the mould surfaces
under high pressure. The solidification time is estimated by varying heat transfer
coefficient. Higher heat transfer coefficient is interpreted as a consequence of
higher applied pressure.
Key words: Squeeze casting, solidification, mechanical properties
1. INTRODUCTION
The most economical process of making metallic components is by casting in which the liquid metal is
directly poured in the mould cavity of required shape and size with or without pressure. The main draw backs of
casting process are the formation of casting defects such as porosity, segregation, hot tears etc. In order to
compensate the limitations of casting process, several new casting techniques have been developed. Squeeze
casting is one of such new casting techniques developed which has got great potential to fabricate components
with improved mechanical properties having high integrity with very low defects. The automotive and aerospace
industries have been main driving force behind the squeeze casting process. Squeeze casting has been used for
wide range of metals ranging from the lowest melting point alloy to very high melting point alloys. Squeeze
casting is an advanced manufacturing process where molten metal is subjected to high applied pressure during
cooling and solidification. The advantages of the squeeze cast products are mainly nil gas porosity or shrinkage
porosity, better mechanical properties and reduced metal wastage. It has been reported that the mechanical
properties of a squeeze cast item can be as good as wrought products of similar composition. In squeeze casting,
the applied pressure plays a very important role. The main advantage of the deployment of high pressure is that
it enhances the heat transfer coefficient by several orders of magnitude. This enhancement is realized due to the
establishment of direct contact between the liquid metal and the die wall. Owing to the high heat flux at the
boundaries, the solidification is quickly achieved. Solidification and heat transfer are the very important aspects
of the microstructure.
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Fig. 1. Classifications of the Squeeze Casting Process
2. The Casting Process outline
Two basic forms of the process may be distinguished, depending on whether the pressure is applied directly
on to the solidifying cast product via an upper or male die (punch) or the applied pressure is exerted through an
intermediate feeding system as schematically shown in Fig 2: (i) the direct squeeze casting mode, and (ii) the
indirect squeeze casting mode. For the direct mode, two further forms may be distinguished based on liquid
metal displacement initiated by the punch movement: (i) without metal movement, and (ii) with metal
movement. As illustrated in Fig.3. the first form is suitable for ingot type components where there is no metal
movement, while the second type involving metal movement, also known as the backward process, is more
versatile and can be used to cast a wide range of shaped components.
Fig. 2. Schematic Diagram to illustrate the Direct and Indirect Modes of the Squeeze Casting Process
Fig 3. Schematic Diagram to show Two Forms of the Direct Squeeze Casting Process
A - 58
3. Steps involved in squeeze casting

The process of squeeze casting involves the following steps:
1. The metal is melted in a furnace
2.
The die set is pre heated to a temperature range of 300°C
3. The molten metal is poured in to the die cavity; the punch is placed in the hydraulic press.
4. The pressure is applied over the molten metal by means of punch until the solidification is complete.
5. The punch is with drawn and the component is ejected.
4. Elements of Squeeze Casting
4.1 The Die

The most crucial aspect in permanent mould castings such as die-casting or squeeze casting is the die itself
and very importantly the design of the die including the selection of suitable die material, the manufacturing
process, appropriate heat treatment and the maintenance practice plays a vital role. Squeeze casting dies are
exposed to severe thermal and mechanical cyclic loading, which may cause thermal fatigue, cracking, erosion,
corrosion, and indentation. Currently H11/H13 tool steel is a widely used material for the constructions of die.
4.2 Type of Equipment

A variety of squeeze casting machines are in use in various parts of the world. They are either
designed by the researchers themselves the so-called home-made, or manufactured by machine tools companies
on a mass production basis. The direct SC-machines are simple and straightforward but the indirect ones
generally fall into the following categories of: (i) vertical die closing and injection, (ii) horizontal die closing
and injection, (iii) horizontal disclosing and vertical injection, and (iv) vertical die closing and horizontal
injection
4.3 Pressure applying duration

Although squeeze casting is regarded as the pressurization of molten alloy, it may also be used for
shaping semi-solids and, therefore, a further classification are :(I) before the beginning of crystallization, and (ii)
after the beginning of crystallization, which may also be described as semi-solid pressing.
4.4 Process Parameters
The most important process parameter is the alloy itself. The composition and physical characteristics
of the alloy are of important due to their direct effects on the die life. These include the melting temperature, and
thermal conductivity of the alloy together with the combined effect of the heat-transfer coefficient and soldering
onto the die material. Furthermore, the alloy dictates the selection of casting parameters such as die temperature,
which has direct consequence on the die life. Therefore, squeeze casting is usually employed for low melting
temperature alloys of aluminium and magnesium. In addition to the composition of a casting alloy, which
determines its freezing range and affects the quality of finished components, the casting parameters should also
be controlled very closely to achieve a sound casting. The most dominant process parameters are die
temperature and pouring temperature, and superheat, although the level of applied pressure is also important.
Since the metal is cast under pressure, the inherent cast ability of the alloy is of little or no concern. The die
temperature is usually held at between 200oC and 300oC for aluminium and magnesium alloys, whilst the
applied pressure varies between 50 and 150 Mpa. The lubrication medium, i.e., the die coat, is usually graphite
based. Heat-transfer coefficients are extremely high due to the casting metal being pressed against the die wall.
5. CONCLUSION
The squeeze casting process has been proven to be an ideal way to produce near-net shape high quality
engineering components, especially for the automotive industry in both conventionally cast and wrought-alloy
compositions. Squeeze casting is one of such new casting techniques developed which has got great potential to
fabricate components with improved mechanical properties having high integrity with very low defects. Squeeze
casting has been used for wide range of metals ranging from the lowest melting point alloy to very high melting
point alloys. The process is most suitable for opening up new possibilities for the productions of castings that
are subjected to high service stresses.
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6. REFERENCES
1. P. Vijian , V.P. Arunachalam, (2005) “Experimental study of squeeze casting of gunmetal”, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 170 32–36
2. P. Vijian , V.P. Arunachalam, (2006), “Optimization of squeeze cast parameters of LM6 aluminium
alloy for surface roughness using Taguchi method” Journal of Materials Processing Technology 180, 161–
166
3. Ghomashchi M.R. Vikhrov A. (2000) “Squeeze casting: an overview”, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 101 pp.165-170.
4. Himadri Chattopadhyay (2007) “Simulation of transport processes in squeeze casting” Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 186, pp.174–178
5. Raji A. and Khan R. H. (2008) “Effects of Pouring Temperature and Squeeze Pressure on Squeeze Cast
Parts” Paper No.75-122. AFS Transactions 83: 755-60
6. Roland Lewis W. Eligiusz Postek W. (2005) “A finite element model of the squeeze casting process”
Finite Elements Analysis and Design, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 193-209.
7. Janusz krawczyk and Piotr bała (2004) “Effect of heat treatment on properties of hot work tool steel”
Vol.20 pp.145-156
8. Minaie B. K.A. Stelson K.A. (2003) “Analysis of flow patterns and solidification phenomena in the die
casting process” ASME Trans.113
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OPTIM IZATION OF PROCESS PARAM ETERS OF PLASM A ARC

WELDING FOR ENGINE VALVE M ANUFACTURING
M r.JOTHI LI NGAM .A1, PRADEEPKUM AR.D 2

1. Assistant Professor
2. PG Student, Department of Production Technology, MIT Campus, Anna University Chennai,
email: dpradeepmech@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: The neck of the engine valve is subjected to more wear than the other
surfaces so that it is coated with satellite F powder. But this coating has blow holes and
porosity which was identified in penetration test. In order to reduce these we are going to
optimize the process parameters of plasma transferred arc welding by doing so we can able
to reduce the productivity of the engine valve. Taguchi's method for parameter design,
Design of experiments and Analysis of variance are going to be employed for finding the
optimum parameters. In this work the coating of satellite F powder will be carried out in
plasma transferred arc welding. The optimum process parameters are going to be
determined.
1. I NTRODUCTI ON
Plasma transferred arc (PTA) welded coatings are used to improve surface properties of mechanical
parts. Advantages are the high reliability of the process and the low dilution of substrate and coating material.
Processing of surfaces by PTA welding is restricted at the time to flat horizontal position. Furthermore, industry
is interested in the development of strategies for coating with PTA in constraint position as complex three-
dimensional (3D) parts could be then easily processed as well. Under commercial aspects, the process design
can be optimized to increase process efficiency and to reduce heat input during the welding process. Process
optimization involves the determination of guidelines for PTA welding in constraint positions as well. Modeling
the process gives an alternative to reduce the experimental effort to optimize the welding process. Results of
simulation studies of the PTA welding process are given in the present work. It will be shown that coating
conditions can be optimized by varying plasma gas flow, heat input and heat flow, process speed, or powder
injection with regard to welding in constraint positions. The defined controlling of the PTA welding allows
modification of process management with less experimental effort and to develop coating strategies for
processing in different positions. In experimental investigations, the developed coating strategies are confirmed
by producing PTA coatings in constraint position as well as complex 3D parts. Processing of surfaces by PTA
welding is restricted at the time to flat horizontal position. This means that damaged parts have to be dismounted
to be processed. Furthermore, industry is interested in the development of strategies for PTA coating in
constraint positions as complex three-dimensional (3D) parts could be easily processed as well. Process
modeling is an important tool to develop process strategies for PTA coating in constraint positions and to
generate complex geometries, as the influence of the process parameters (plasma power, gun position, injection
conditions, and substrate) and the material on the heat input and the coating geometry can be specified. The
objective of this work is to study the plasma arc welding and find the optimum parameters using design of
experiments
2. WELDI NG
Welding is the process of joining of two metals. This can be carried out by means of melting the
metals. This process can be used for several applications. Our study is about the plasma arc welding.
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3.1 I NTRODUCTI ON OF PLASMA ARC WELDI NG
Arc is a temporary state of gas. The gas get ionized after the passage of electric current through it and become a
conductor of electricity. In ionized state gas atoms breaks into electrons and ions and the system contains ions
electrons and highly excited atoms.
3.2 DEFI NI TI ON
Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heat obtained from a
constricted arc set up between a tungsten/alloy tungsten electrode and the water cooled nozzle(non transferred)
or up between a tungsten/alloy tungsten electrode and the job(transferred). The process employs two inert gases
one forms the arc plasma and second shields the arc plasma. There are two types of plasma arc welding. They
are non transferred arc and transferred arc. Our study is on transferred arc welding. In this the tungsten electrode
act as cathode and the work piece act as anode.
3.3 EXPERI M ENTAL SET UP
In the PTA process two independent arcs are used. A pilot arc is formed between a nonconsumable
tungsten electrode (cathode) and copper plasma nozzle with an inner diameter of 2 mm (anode) in the welding
torch. A plasma gas (Ar, He, Ar/He, or Ar/H2 mixture) flows coaxially to the tungsten electrode in the copper
nozzle and is ionized by the applied arc energy. A second arc (transferred or plasma arc) is then established
between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece. The resulting temperature in the transferred arc is between
10,000 and 15,000 °C. There is no direct contact between the copper plasma nozzle and the workpiece, and no
arc is burning. The energy released by the arc is influenced by arc current and length. Powder is fed into the
plasma through injection nozzles and is subsequently heated by the arc. Shielding gas for protecting the area
around the plasma from oxidation is fed through a large outer nozzle. Figure 1 shows the principle of the plasma
transferred arc process. Main parameters of the PTA process are the current of the pilot and the transferred arc,
the flow rate of the plasma, the shielding, and the powder carrier gas . The gas flow rate and the gas type have a
significant influence on the heating and melting of the coating material during the PTA process. Additionally,
the powder feed rate and the process velocity influence the resulting properties of the coating
Fig 3.1 Plasma Arc Welding
4.1 DESI GN OF EXPERI M ENTS

Orthogonal Arrays (OA) allow us to conduct statistically designed experiments involving a large
number of factors using only a limited number of trials that is practically feasible. The work on construction of
Orthogonal Arrays for reducing run-size of an experiment started way back in 1947 in Indian Statistical
Institute, Calcutta. However, the credit for popularizing the use of OA’s for industrial experimentation goes
primarily to Dr.G. Taguchi of Japan. Dr.Taguchi has developed a set of Orthogonal Arrays and the associated
A - 62
linear graphs and given us a battery of methods for obtaining experimental design to suit one’s requirements.
There are other OA’s (like Plackett Burman designs) which are similar to those developed by Taguchi.
However, here we shall discuss only the arrays and methods of Taguchi. The following table gives the model
experiment.
Experiment Column / factors

Response
No. 1(A) 2(B) 3(C) 4(D)
1 1 1 1 1 Y1
2 1 2 2 2 Y2
3 1 3 3 3 Y3
4 2 1 2 3 Y4
5 2 2 3 1 Y5
6 2 3 1 2 Y6
7 3 1 3 2 Y7
8 3 2 1 3 Y8
9 3 3 2 1 Y9
Table 4.1 Model Experiment
5.1 EXPERI M ENTAL ANALYSI S
The experimental evaluations are going to be carried out in plasma transferred arc welding technique.
The coating of stellite F powder in the valve will be carried out. The main input parameters are angle, speed,
current and powder feed rate. The performance which we measured are porosity, thickness of coating and
hardness of the material.
5.2 MATERI AL COMPOSI TI ON
The plasma transferred arc deposition of stellite F will be carried out in engine valve seats made of X45CrSi93
martensitic steel. The composition of the valve material and the stellite powder are given in the following tables.
Nominal chemical composition of base material (X45CrSi)
elements C Si Mn Cr Ni P S
Weight% 0.45 3.00 0.80 9.00 0.50 0.04 0.03
Table 5.1 Chemical Composition of X45CrSi
Nominal chemical composition of Stellite F
Element Cr W Mo C Fe Ni Si Mn Co
Weight% 25 12.30 1 1.75 3 22 2 1 Balance
Table 5.2 Chemical Composition of Stellite F
5.3 CONTROL FACTORS
The control factors that we are considered are plasma gas flow rate, powder gas feed rate,
temperature and current. The performance that we measured are penetration, thickness and hardness.The levels
of the parameters are plasma gas flow rate:1.2 LPM, 2.2 LPM, 2.8 LPM powder gas feed rate:1.2 LPM, 2.2
LPM, 2.8 LPM, temperature: 60°, 80°, 100, current intensity:84A, 92A, 100A.
6. EXPERI MENTAL OBSERVATI ONS
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The experiment is carried in plasma transferred arc welding. The observations for the various
performance namely penetration , thickness and hardness on varying levels of cutting parameters are recorded
for an orthogonal array which minimizes the number of experimental evaluations to 9 experiments. The
following data gives the experimental data.
Sl No. PGFR PDFGR CURRENT TEMP Penetration Hardness Thickness

LPM LPM A deg mm HRC mm
1 1.2 1.2 84 60 1.1 30 1.6
2 1.2 2.2 92 80 1.15 36 1.49
3 1.2 2.8 100 100 1.18 42 2.2
4 2.2 1.2 100 80 1.2 32 1.23
5 2.2 2.2 84 100 1.23 38 1.1
6 2.2 2.8 92 60 1.25 33 1.70
7 2.8 1.2 92 60 1.34 33 2.15
8 2.8 2.2 100 100 1.45 40 1.32
9 2.8 2.8 84 80 1.50 34 1.7
The optimum process parameters are calculated by finding the signal to noise ratio for the output
parameters and graphs are plotted between process parameters and mean s/n ratio.
6. CONCLUSI ON
The process of plasma transferred arc welding which was applied in coating of stellite F powder in
the neck of the engine valve has been studied. The effect of process parameters namely plasma gas flow rate,
powder gas feed rate, current intensity and temperature and performance measures like penetration, thickness
and hardness during coating were analyzed. By finding the response table and by plotting the response graph the
optimum parameters will be identified.
7. REFERNCES
1. GAO Zhonglin et al., (2008) “Modeling of arc force in plasma arc welding”, Tianjin University and
Springer Verlag
2. Samotugin.S.S et al., (2003) “Optimising the design of plasma torches for surface hardening of materials”,
Welding International.
3. M.G.Sharapov(2003) “Optimisation of gas shielding in plasma welding”, Welding International
4. Sharapov.M.G and Shvedikov.V.M(2004) “The efficiency of gas jet shielding in argon-arc welding”,
Welding International.
5. Sundaraiyah.B and Bala Srinivasan.P(2008) “Optimization of process parameters for deposition of Stellite
on X45CrSi93 steel by plasma transferred arc technique”, Elsevier Materials and Design
6. Wilden.J et al (2006) “Plasma Transferred Arc Welding—Modeling and Experimental Optimization”, ASM
International
7. Book reference: Ronald E.Walpole(2004) “Probability and Statistics”, Pearson Education.
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DELAMINATION ANALYSIS OF FIBER REINFORCED

POLYMER COMPOSITE LAMINATES
K.S ASHRAFF ALI *1, A. AROCKIA JULIAS 2, Dr. S.S.M.ABDUL MAJEED 3
1. PG student, M.E (CAD)B.S.Abdur Rahman Crescent Engineering College

ashraff_shanas@yahoo.com
2. Assistant Professor,B.S.Abdur Rahman Crescent Engineering College

juliasarok@gmail.com
3. ProfessorB.S.Abdur Rahman Crescent Engineering College

majeedssm@bsauniv.ac.in
Abstract: Delamination is one of the predominant forms of failure in

laminated composites due to the lack of reinforcement in the thickness
direction. In this work mode-I delamination failure is analyzed using
double cantilever beam (DCB) test. The DCB test has been conducted for
glass fiber laminates with different orientation. The laminates are
manufactured by hand layup technique as per ASTM standard D 5528-01
and strain energy release rate GIc for different combinations are
calculated. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of DCB test has been done
using ANSYS software. The fracture toughness obtained by FEA is
compared with the experimental results.
Keywords: Delamination, Opening mode, GIc, DCB, ANSYS
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite is defined as the sum of matrix and reinforcement where two are more different materials are
combined together. Materials like vinyl ester, epoxy & polyester are used as matrix. The reinforcement materials are
glass, carbon, aramid & graphite. Fiber reinforced polymer composites materials are widely used in aerospace,
automobile, infrastructure & aircraft application. Most of the failures occur due to delamination in FRP composites.
The composite structures are in the form of layers or laminates. In these laminates one of the most common
failures is delamination. In such cases, layered composites suffer severally by delamination cracking because of poor
interlaminar fracture resistance. The evaluation and propagation of inter laminar damage leads to laminate separation. A
quite typical structural failure mode is called as delamination. Delamination may be introduced by the external loading as
in static bending, compression or tension in cyclic fatigue or by impact loads, during manufacture or service life
condition.
ASTM standard D 5528-01 is used for delamination test [1]. This test method describes the determination of
the Mode I (opening) interlaminar fracture toughness. GIc of continuous fiber-reinforced composite materials are
calculated using the double cantilever beam (DCB) test. The main objective of this work is to analyze and test the
mechanical properties and delamintion behavior of unidirectional glass fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite with
different Orientation. Influence of in-fiber orientation on Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness of glass/polyester
composites is done by “S.Solaimurugan, R.velmurugan” [2]. Opening mode interlaminar fracture toughness of interply
hybrid composite materials is studied by “Stun-Fa Hwang, Bon-cherg shen” [3].
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2. LAMINATE PREPARATION
The laminate preparation as shown in fig. 1 in which Glass is used as the reinforcement, epoxy is used as the
matrix. Fiber in the form of mat is prepared for the required dimensions. Resin and hardener were mixed with the ratio of
1:10 and mats are arranged to required orientation. This method commonly uses a specimen in which an initial crack is
created by inserting a thin Teflon film (typically 0.013 mm thick) at the midplane before molding. Hand lay-up technique
is used for laminate preparation and allowed for curing in atmospheric condition (2 days).
Fig.1. Laminate preparation.
3. SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Specimens is 125 mm (5.0 in.) long and nominally from 20 to 25 mm (0.8 to 1.0 in.) wide. The laminate
thickness shall normally be between 3 and 5 mm (0.12 and 0.2 in.) as per ASTM dimension D 5528-01as shown in fig 2.
The variation in thickness for any given specimen shall not exceed 0.1 mm. The initial delamination length is measured
from the load line to the end of the panel insert. Hinged metal tabs are bonded at the delaminated end of the specimen.
Fig.2. Specimen preparation.
A-66
4. TEST METHOD
The DCB test is used for determining the strain energy release rate GIc for delamination growth under Mode
I loading. The DCB shown in Fig.3 consists of a rectangular, uniform thickness, unidirectional laminated composite
specimen containing a non adhesive insert on the midplane that serves as a delamination initiator. Opening forces are
applied to the DCB specimen by means of loading blocks (Fig. 3) bonded to one end of the specimen. The ends of the
DCB are opened by controlling either the opening displacement or the crosshead movement, while the load and
delamination length are recorded. Test is conducted in the UTM Instron machine.
Fig.3. Double cantilever test.
5. CALCULATION
Modified Beam Theory (MBT) Method is used for calculating GIc. The strain energy release rate GIc
for various tested specimen can be calculated by the curve between load and crack opening displacement. The
locations of instantaneous front are marked for different intervals of delamination growth. The Mode I critical strain
energy release rate was calculated using (MBT) method as given in equation (1). The values are given in Table 1.
(1)
Where:
P = load
= load point displacement
b = specimen width
a = delamination length.
Table 1
Critical energy release rate of unstitched laminates
Crack length 35 40 45 50 55 60
(mm)
Load (N) 150.5 110.6 95.5 83.2 76 70
Load point 3.3 4.5 6.57 8.2 10.2 12.8
deflection
(mm)
∆ 0.23 0.36 0.47 0.60 0.72 0.85
A-67
2 3107 2910 2443 2109 1767 1424

GIc ( J/m )
6. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS USING ANSYS
Finite element analysis of delamination test has been done using the virtual crack closure technique.
The FEA is modeled as per ASTM standard D 5528-01. The material properties and meshing is defined for glass
fiber. The load is applied on one end and another end is arrested. The fracture toughness obtained by FEA is
compared with the experimental results.
Fig.4. Delamination analysis
7. RESULT
The GIc valve is calculated using the MBT method. The valve obtained from experiment for 0º& 90º
orientation (cross ply) is reported in table (1). The GIc of the specimen increases with increase in orientation angle.
Delamination has been done using the virtual crack closure technique and compared with the experimental results.
8. REFERENCE
1 ASTM standard designation D 5528-01.

2 S.Solaimurugan, R.velmurugan, 2008, “Influence of in-fiber orientation on mode 1 interlaminar
fracture toughness of stitched glass/polyester composites”. Composite science and technology, pp1752-
1782
3 Stun-Fa Hwang, Bon-cherg shen, 1999, “Opening mode interlaminar fracture toughness of interply
hybrid composite materials”. Composite science and technology, pp 1861-1869
4 P.K. Mallick- “Fiber reinforced composite materials, manufacturing, and design”.
5 Bhagwan D.Agarwal- “Analysis and performance of fiber composite”.
6 Prasanthakumar- “Mechanics of facture”.
A-68

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National Conference on Recent Innovations in Production Engineering

RIPE - 2010, MIT Campus - Anna University Chennai

RADIOGRAPHY TEST ON AA 7075 ALUMINIUM ALLOY GTAW AND

Sivashanmugam1. M, Manoharan. N2, Ravikumar. S3

Key words: GTAW, GMAW, Radiography, defects detection

Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method of

1.1 Heat-treatable and Non-heat-treatable alloy

1.1.1 Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys

1.1.2 Heat-Treatable Alloys

Table: 1Base metal AA7075 chemical composition and microstructure investigation

1.1.2 Digital Radiography

Fig.5 GTAW-X-ray (VIDISCO)

Fig.6 GTAW-X-ray (VIDISCO)

Fig.7 GMAW- X-ray (VIDISCO)

CONTINUOUS CONTROL OF THE THICKNESS DISTRIBUTION IN

G. KUMARESAN1, S. DINESH KUMAR2, K. KALAICHELVAN3

Abstract:Superplasticity in materials is characterized by large neck-free

Key word: Superplastic forming, uniform thickness, proximity sensor.

Fig 1. Experimental setup

3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig.2 Formed component

Fig.3 Different position of thickness measurement in the formed component.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON SQUEEZE CASTING OF

P.Senthilkumar1, Dr. M.Jayaraman2

ABSTRACT: Squeeze casting is a hybrid metal forming process combining

Keywords: Squeeze casting, Taguchi method, Tensilestrength, microhardness

2. SQUEEZE CASTING – PROCESS OUTLINE

T = ΣA1 + ΣA2 +ΣA3 SA = (ΣA1 - ΣA2)2 + (ΣA1 - ΣA3)2 + (ΣA2 - ΣA3)2

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up

Table 5 Pareto ANOVA for tensile strength

Table 6 Pareto ANOVA for hardness

1. Surappa.M.K.(2003) ‘Aluminium matrix composites: Challenges and opportunities’ Journal of

RISK ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE VESSEL DUE TO WELD FRACTURE

S.Sathiya moorthy1, Dr.K.Kalaichelvan2, Dr.K.Balaji rao3, Dr.A.Rajadurai4

1. MIT Anna University Department of Production Technology,Chennai

Key words: Pressure vessel, Stress, Weld, Brittle failure, reliability

2. DESIGN OF PRESSURE VESSEL

1. Working stress method

3. DESIGN FACTORS OF PRESSURE VESSEL

Table 1 ASME code equations

Table 2 Maximum Allowable Stress

Yield Strength (MPa) 220 240 260

4. BRITTLE FRACTURE MODEL FOR PRESSURE VESSEL

4.1 Basic Assumptions in the Model

4.1.1 Crack geometry

4.1.2 Primary and Secondary Stresses

4.1.3 Relation between Fracture Toughness and Impact Toughness

The temperature dependence of the fracture toughness can be expressed as

1. ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel code book (2007), Vol. 2.

MONITORING AND DYNAMIC CONTROL OF PRESSURE IN

S.Dinesh Kumar1, G.Kumaresan2, K.Kalaichelvan3

Abstract: Superplasticity is the process of deformation of metals that is capable of

Keyword: Superplastic Forming, Proximity Sensor, Data Acquisition System

Fig.1. Experimental Setup

2.2 Data Acquisition System

Fig.2. DAC System Interface

Fig.3. Formed Component

Fig.4. Strain rate control

5. Results and Discussion

Fig.5. Thickness Distribution of the Formed Component

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

1.1 Step Involved In Friction Stir Welding Process