Cellular Network Planning and Optimization Part2

Cellular Network Planning
and Optimization
Part II: Fading
Jyri Hämäläinen,
Communications and Networking Department,
TKK, 17.1.2007
Outline
Modeling approaches
Path loss models
Shadow fading
Fast fading
2
Modeling approaches
3
Fading seen by moving terminal
Fast fading
Power
Modeling approach:
+20 dB
1. Distance between
TX and RX =>
path loss
Path loss
2. Shadowing by
large obstacles =>
shadow fading
3. Multi-path effects
=> fast fading - 20 dB Lognormal
fading
Path loss
Time
4
Path Loss
Path loss is distance dependent mean

attenuation of the signal.
Once the allowed path loss of a certain system
is known we can solve the maximum distance
between transmitter and receiver and compute
the relative coverage area.
Suitable path loss model depends on the
environments (macro-cell, micro-cell, indoor)
Outdoor to outdoor models
Outdoor to indoor models
Indoor models
5
Shadow Fading
Shadow fading is used to model variations in

path loss due to large obstacles like buildings,
terrain conditions, trees.
Shadow fading is also called as log-normal
fading since it is modeled using log-normal
distribution
In cell dimensioning/link budget shadow fading
is taken into account through a certain margin
(=shadow fading margin)
6
Path loss + shadow fading
Log-normal distribution
Signal strength in dB’s
Path loss
Standard deviation e.g. +/-8 dB
Distance between TX and RX in logarithmic scale
7
Fast Fading
Fast fading is also called as multi-path fading since it is mainly
caused by multi-path reflections of a transmitted waves by local
scatterers such as human build structures or natural obstacles
Fast fading occurs since MS and/or scatterers nearby MS are moving
Signal strength in the receiver may change even tens of decibels
within a very short time frame
Signal coherence distance = separation between locations where fast
fading correlation is negligible. Signal coherence distance is half of the
carrier wavelength
f = 2GHz => coherence distance = c/(2*f) =7.5 cm
Coherence time = time in which MS travels coherence distance
Coherence time depends on MS speed.
In cell dimensioning/link budget fast fading is taken into account
through a certain margin (=fast fading margin)
8
Fast Fading
Scatterers
Especially the changes in

component signal phases
a1 (t )e jφ1 ( t ) create rapid variations in
sum signal
a1 (t + t0 )e jφ1 ( t +t0 )
Sum signal at time t S (t ) = a1 (t )e jφ1 (t ) + ... + a5 (t )e jφ5 ( t )

Sum signal at time t+t0 S (t + t0 ) = a1 (t + t0 )e jφ1 ( t +t0 ) + ... + a5 (t + t0 )e jφ5 ( t +t0 )
9
Path loss models
10
Content
We recall first two important path loss models for macro- and micro-cell
environments
I Model: Classical Okumura-Hata
Okumura-Hata is based on only few parameters but it works well and is widely used
to predict path loss in macro-cell environments
II Model: COST 231 or Walfisch – Ikegami
This model is suitable for both macro- and micro-cell environments and it is mode
general than Okumura-Hata. Walfisch – Ikegami models propagation phenomena
more accurately but in cost of increased complexity.
Then we consider path loss in urban environment when both transmitter
and receiver are below the rooftop (Berg model)
Outdoor to outdoor model
Path loss of RS – MS signal in street canyon II Model: BRT – BRT, NLOS
(Berg model)
Finally, we discuss shortly on outdoor-to-indoor modeling
Terminology
ART= Above Roof Top
BRT = Below Roof Top
LOS = Line-of-Sight
NLOS = Non Line-of-Sight
11
General path loss model/outdoor
Outdoor path loss models are usually given in the form
(*) L= A+ 10 ⋅ n ⋅ log 10 ( R ) (in decibels)

Here
R is the distance between TX and RX
A and n are constants. Values of these constant are
depending on the various parameters such as carrier
frequency, antenna heights etc
An other form for formula (*)
~ ~ n
L = 10 = 10 ⋅ R = A ⋅ R
L / 10 A / 10 n
Note that n defines the exponential attenuation of the signal. Typically

its value is 3-4 in urban environment. In free space n=2.
12
Okumura-Hata
Okumura-Hata propagation loss model
Based on measurements in Tokyo
May be the most widely used path loss model for
attenuation of cellular transmissions in built up areas.
Most suitable for large macro-cells
L = A + B log10 f c − 13.82 log10 hb − a ( hm ) + ( C − 6.55log10 hb ) log10 d
A and B constants fc Carrier frequency (MHz)

150-1000 1500 – hb Base station antenna height
MHz 2000 MHz 30m ≤ hb ≤ 200m
A 69.55 46.3 hm Mobile station antenna height
B 26.16 33.9 hm ≈ 1.5m
a ( hm ) Mobile antenna gain function
C 44 – 47, default 44.9
C constant gives distance dependency and should be fitted to

local measurements 13
Okumura-Hata
Mobile station antenna gain function
Small/Medium size city
a ( hm ) = (1.1log10 f c − 0.7 ) hm − (1.56 log10 f c − 0.8 )
Large city
 8.29 ( log (1.54h ) )2 − 1.1 f ≤ 200 MHz

a ( hm ) = 
10 m
3.2 ( log10 (11.75hm ) ) − 4.97 200

2
f ≥MHz < f c ≤ 1500 MHz
400 MHz
Antenna gain function can be in most cases be ignored!

a ( h m ) = 0 , f c > 1500 MHz
a ( h m ) = 0 , h m = 1 .5 m
14
Okumura-Hata: Example
170
Path loss according to 160
Okumura-Hata model in
Path Loss [dB] (Okumura-Hata Model)

150
large city when 140
f = 450 MHz (□) 130
f = 900 MHz (*) 120
110
f = 1800 MHz (o)
100
f = 1950 MHz (x) 90
Flash-OFDMA (NMT-450), 80
GSM900, GSM1800, 70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Range [km]
WCDMA
Note: There would be huge differences in coverage if

allowed path losses would be the same for different systems
15
BS height = 30m, MS height = 1.5m
Okumura-Hata: Example
f c = 1950 Mhz
hb
hm = 1.5m
d
Impact of base station 165
antenna height: 160
Path Loss [dB] (Okumura-Hata Model)

155
Distance = 3.0 km
150
Distance = 2.0 km
145
Distance = 1.0 km
140
Distance = 0.5 km
135
Distance measured 130
between TX and RX 125
120
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Base Station Antenna Height [m] 16
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami path loss model
In the following we
also use notations:
Note: we consider only 17

NLOS case
The rooftop-to-street diffraction

loss term determines the loss
which occurs on the wave
coupling into the street where φ
the receiver is located
18
19
Comparison with some measurements made by Nortel in 1996 for a base

antenna deployed in Central London well above the average rooftop
height revealed that the COST 231 W-I model did not correctly model the
variation of path loss with mobile height. This problem was solved by the
above correction factor.
20
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami path loss model:
Impact of rooftop height
190
180
Parameters:
170
BS antenna height = 30m
160
Carrier frequency = 1950MHz
Path Loss [dB]

150
Street width = 12m
140
Building spacing = 60m
130
Street orientation = 90 degrees
120
Roof top heights:
110
6m (□), 12m (*)
100
18m (o), 24m (x)
90
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Range [km]
Remarks:
W-I and Okumura-Hata give approximately the same path
loss curve when roof top height is 12m 21
Impact for rooftop height is crucial for cell coverage
COST231-Walfisch-Ikegami path loss model:
Impact of MS height
BS antenna height = 15m (o), 20m (*), 25m (x), 30m (+)
Parameters: BS - RS distance = 1 km
150
Roof top height = 12m
145
Carrier frequency = 1950MHz 140
Street width = 12m 135
Building spacing = 60m
Path Loss [dB]

130
Street orientation = 90 degrees 125
120
115
110
105
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Relay Height [m]
MS height [m]
Notice:
- BS antenna 20m -> 30m => 10 dB gain 22
- MS antenna 1.5m -> 5m => 10 dB gain
Berg model
Scenario:
Both BS and MS antennas are BS
below rooftop.
Model takes the minimum of an
over-the-rooftop signal
component and a round-the
streets component.
This scenario will be increasingly
important in future since density
of network elements is increasing
and macro-cell site costs are high
23
Berg model
Check how to use this model 24

Note: Path loss depends heavily on corners (how many, how sharp)
Berg model: Example
160
o
30 m 140
200 m o
120
Path Loss [dB]

100
x x
RS * * 80
60
∇∇
+ 40
+ 0 100 200 300 400
Distance from relay [m]
500 600
o
130
120
o
110
Red marks = range along the dashed route
100
Path Loss [dB]
Violet marks = range without penetration loss

90
Remarks: 80
- This model is quite pessimistic (high path 70
loss) 60
- Signal is dying soon round the corner 25

50
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
- BS location planning is important D is t a n c e fro m re la y [ m ]
Outdoor-to-indoor modeling: Example
Remark: 26
- Path loss depends on number of walls
Shadow fading
27
General remarks
W-I with parameters:
In urban areas macro-cell ranges are BS antenna height = 25m
from few hundred meters up to few
kilometers Roof top height = 15m
Shadowing by big buildings etc can be Carrier frequency = 1950MHz
critical on cell edge. It may create Street width = 12m
large coverage holes Building spacing = 60m
Example: Allowed total signal fading in Street orientation = 90 degrees
system is 155dB and shadow fading
margin is 8dB. How much larger (in %) 170
would the coverage be without 160

shadow fading margin? Use figure of
the slide for range comparison. 150
Answer: Cell range would increase

Path Loss [dB]
140
from 1.35 km up to 2.2 km which leads
to 267% increase in coverage 130
Remark: the impact of shadow fading
can be really large 120
110
100 28
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Range [km]
Shadow fading model
Shadow fading is modeled by log-normal

distribution, i.e. signal strength in decibels is of
the form
(1) L =L + X
where first term is the mean path loss and latter
term follows the normal distribution,
x2
1 − 2
(2) X~ e 2σ
= f ( x)
2π σ
with zero mean and standard deviation σ.
29
Cell edge coverage probability
In link budget shadow fading is taken into account

through a certain shadow fading margin (SFM). In cell
border we require that the signal strength plus SFM is
larger than mean signal level by a certain probability,
denoted by Pcov. Then we compute the corresponding
SFM. Hence, we require that
Pcov = P {L + SFM > L }

= P {L + X + SFM > L }
= P{X > − SFM }
-SFM
30
L= A+ 10 ⋅ n ⋅log10 ( R) L= A+ 10 ⋅ n ⋅log10 ( R)
Using the distribution (2) we find that

∞ x2
−
Pcov = P{X > − SFM } =
1
2π σ ∫e
− SFM
2σ 2
dx
∞ t2
1 −
= ∫ eσ 2
dt = Q ( − SFM / σ ) = 1 − Q ( SFM / σ )
2π − SFM /
From this equation we can solve SFM for given

Pcov and σ:
SFM = σ ⋅ Q −1 (1 − Pcov )
31
Function 1-Q is the cumulative density function

(CDF) of normal distribution with zero mean and
standard deviation 1. Moreover,
Q (∞ ) = 0, Q ( −∞ ) = 1,
∞ t2 ∞ t2 −x t2
1 − 1 − 1 −
Q (− x) =
2π ∫e
−x
2
dt =
2π ∫e
−∞
2
dt −
2π ∫e
−∞
2
dt
∞ t2 ∞ t2
1 − 1 −
=
2π ∫e
−∞
2
dt −
2π ∫e
x
2
dt = 1 − Q ( x )
32
We can estimate the value of SFM by using the

inversion curve of Q. 0
10
Example: Let Pcov=0.95 10

-1
and let σ=6dB. Then we

find from the curve that 10
-2
Q(x)
Q − 1 (1 − Prcov ) ≈ 1.6449 -3
10
and hence, SFM=11.6dB -4

10
-5
10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x
33
Outdoors: σ=5-8dB. Indoors: σ=10-12dB.
Single cell coverage probability
Next we compute the cell coverage probability in

case of a single cell.
Analytical computation is pretty technical but
result shows the relation between path loss
exponent n, standard deviation σ of shadow
fading and the required cell coverage probability
34
Let us compute the single cell coverage

probability. We use assumptions:
Mean path loss follows the general formula, i.e.
L ( r )= A+ 10 ⋅ n ⋅ log 10 ( r )
Cell radius is R
Users are uniformly distributed in the cell, i.e.
r
p(r , ϕ ) = , 0 ≤ r ≤ R, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π
πR 2
35
The cell coverage probability is obtained by averaging

the local coverage probability over all possible mobile
positions. Hence, we must compute the integral
2π R
Fu = ∫∫ P cov (r ) p(r,ϕ )drdϕ
0 0
First we need to find formula for coverage probability
within a certain distance r.
36
The coverage probability at distance r is given

by
Pcov (r) = P{L (r) + X > L (R) − SFM | r}
where lower bound is defined by the maximum
allowed path loss. We use now the equations:
L ( R ) − L ( r ) = A + 10 n log 10 ( R ) − ( A + 10 n log 10 ( r ))
R
= 10 n log 10  
r
L(r) = L (r) + X
37
We obtain a form
Pcov (r ) = P{X > − SFM − 10n log10 ( r R ) | r}

= Q(− (SFM + 10n log10 ( r R )) / σ )
and thus, there holds

R
Fu = 2 ∫ Q(− (SFM +10⋅ n log10 ( r R)) / σ )rdr
2
R 0
Next task is to compute this integral
38
By using the substitution

SFM 1 r
a=− , b = − 10n log10 e x = a + b ln  
σ σ R
we obtain
 x−a
r = R exp  
 b  r = 0 ⇒ x → −∞
1  x−a r =R⇒a
dr = R exp   dx
b  b 
and
2
a
 2( x − a) 
Fu = ∫ Q ( x ) exp  dx
b −∞  b 
39
We proceed using integration by parts
∫ uv 'dx = uv − ∫ u ' vdx

 2( x − a) 
now u = Q ( x) v ' = exp 
b

 
1  1   2( x − a) 
u'= exp  − x 2  b
v = exp 
2π  2  
2  b 
and we get
x=a
2  b  2( x − a)  b 1
a
 x2 2 ( x − a )  

Fu = Q( x) exp   + ∫−∞ exp  − 2 + b dx 
b 2  b  2 2π
 x =−∞ 
1
a
 x2 2 ( x − a ) 
= Q(a ) + ∫
2π −∞
exp  − +
 2 b
 dx

40
We can still go forward by completing the

squares:
x2 2 ( x − a ) 1 2  2   2   2a
2 2
1  2 4  2a 2
− + = −  x − x− = − x −2 x+  −  −
2 b 2 b  b 2  b  b   b   b
2 2
1 2  1  2  2a
=− x−  +   −
2 b 2b b
2  2 (1 − ab )
2
1
=− x−  +
2 b b2
Then cell coverage probability admit the form

 2 (1 − ab )  1  1 2 
a 2
Fu = Q(a) + exp 
 b 2 
 2π
∫−∞ exp  − 2  x − b  dx
 
41
2
We still need to substitute t = x − Then
a−
2 b
 2 (1 − ab )  1 b
 1 2  2 (1 − ab )    2 
Fu = Q(a ) + exp 
 b 2 
 2π
∫−∞  2 
exp − t dx = Q ( a ) + exp 
 b 2 
 
1 − Q 

a −
b

 
and finally we are able to write the

 2 (1 − ab )    2 
Fu = Q(a ) + exp  2  1 − Q  a − 
 b   b 
SFM 1
a=− , b = − 10n log10 e
σ σ
Coverage probability on the edge of the cell 42

1
Path loss exponent n=3
0.95
Shadow fading margin is
0.9
6dB (x)
0.85
9dB (o)
Cell coverage probability

0.8
12dB (*)
0.75
Remark: The SFM
difference between 95% and 0.7
80% coverage requirements is 0.65
large 0.6
0.55
0.5
-5 0 5 10 15
Shadow Fading Margin [dB]
43
Path loss exponent n=4 1
Shadow fading margin is 0.95
6dB (x) 0.9
9dB (o)
Cell coverage probability

0.85
12dB (*)
0.8
Remark: The SFM
difference between 95% and 0.75
80% coverage requirements is 0.7
even larger than in case n=3. 0.65
0.6
0.55
-5 0 5 10 15
Shadow Fading Margin [dB]
44
Fast Fading
45
Recall: Fast Fading
Scatterers
Especially the changes in

component signal phases
a1 (t )e jφ1 ( t ) create rapid variations in
sum signal
a1 (t + t0 )e jφ1 ( t +t0 )
Sum signal at time t S (t ) = a1 (t )e jφ1 (t ) + ... + a5 (t )e jφ5 ( t )

Sum signal at time t+t0 S (t + t0 ) = a1 (t + t0 )e jφ1 ( t +t0 ) + ... + a5 (t + t0 )e jφ5 ( t +t0 )
46
Fast fading
In link budget a fast fading margin
is needed because
If fast power control is applied, then
some headroom is needed
especially in uplink since MS power
reservations are limited. If power
control fails, the whole uplink may
beak down
Although link adaptation
(=adaptation of channel coding and
modulation) would be used instead
of fast power control, there can be
need for fast fading margin; fast
fading can be crucial for slowly Fading time scale depends
moving users on the user speed.
47
Ideal fast power control
Fast power control aims to convert the channel

so that mean power of the signal in the receiver
is constant
Transmitted power
from MS
Ideal case Response of the

physical channel
Channel seen by
BS receiver (AWGN
channel)
Time
48
Limited power control dynamics
At the cell edge MS power control starts to hit its maximum
value.
=> Number of erroneous frames is increasing
=> Data rate is decreased when QoS degrades
=> in the worst case connection breaks down
Longer and longer times with ‘bad connection’ temporal

length of the fades depends on the user speed
Maximum TX
power value
MS travels towards cell edge/coverage hole =>

mean transmission power needs to be increased
49

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Cellular Network Planning

Path loss is distance dependent mean

Shadow fading is used to model variations in

Standard deviation e.g. +/-8 dB

Distance between TX and RX in logarithmic scale

Especially the changes in

Sum signal at time t S (t ) = a1 (t )e jφ1 (t ) + ... + a5 (t )e jφ5 ( t )

Outdoor path loss models are usually given in the form

(*) L= A+ 10 ⋅ n ⋅ log 10 ( R ) (in decibels)

Note that n defines the exponential attenuation of the signal. Typically

A and B constants fc Carrier frequency (MHz)

C constant gives distance dependency and should be fitted to

a ( hm ) = (1.1log10 f c − 0.7 ) hm − (1.56 log10 f c − 0.8 )

3.2 ( log10 (11.75hm ) ) − 4.97 200

Antenna gain function can be in most cases be ignored!

Path Loss [dB] (Okumura-Hata Model)

large city when 140

f = 450 MHz (□) 130

f = 900 MHz (*) 120

Note: There would be huge differences in coverage if

Impact of base station 165

antenna height: 160

Path Loss [dB] (Okumura-Hata Model)

Distance measured 130

between TX and RX 125

Note: we consider only 17

The rooftop-to-street diffraction

Comparison with some measurements made by Nortel in 1996 for a base

Path Loss [dB]

Street width = 12m 135

Building spacing = 60m

Path Loss [dB]

Street orientation = 90 degrees 125

Check how to use this model 24

Path Loss [dB]

Violet marks = range without penetration loss

- This model is quite pessimistic (high path 70

- Signal is dying soon round the corner 25

would the coverage be without 160

Answer: Cell range would increase

Shadow fading is modeled by log-normal

In link budget shadow fading is taken into account

Pcov = P {L + SFM > L }

Using the distribution (2) we find that

From this equation we can solve SFM for given

Function 1-Q is the cumulative density function

We can estimate the value of SFM by using the

Example: Let Pcov=0.95 10

and let σ=6dB. Then we

and hence, SFM=11.6dB -4

Next we compute the cell coverage probability in

Let us compute the single cell coverage

The cell coverage probability is obtained by averaging

The coverage probability at distance r is given

Pcov (r ) = P{X > − SFM − 10n log10 ( r R ) | r}

and thus, there holds

By using the substitution

We proceed using integration by parts

∫ uv 'dx = uv − ∫ u ' vdx

We can still go forward by completing the

Then cell coverage probability admit the form

and finally we are able to write the

Coverage probability on the edge of the cell 42