12.

MOTION IN CENTRAL POTENTIAL

We are now in a position to treat motion in three dimensions, at least an impor-

tant class of three-dimensional motion²motion under a central potential, a po-
tential that depends only on the distance r from a center. We can use the angular
momentum eigenstates of chapter ll to deal with the angular part of the mo-
µ tion, and all that remains is to treat the radial part. How so?
The key point is the conservation of angular momentum. When is angular
momentum conserved? If you think classically, you will say, "when there is no
torque," which is true for central potentials. But torque thinking is not useful
in quantum mechanics, so here we approach things differently. When is angu-
lar momentum conserved? In quantum mechanics, the answer is,`when there is
rotational symmetry, when the Hamiltonian of the system is invariant under ro-
tations. Of course, such an important assertion needs a proof, and one of the
first tasks in this chapter is to construct such a proof.
Clearly, with angular momentum conservation, the central-potential prob-
lem becomes one of finding the simultaneous eigenstates of the Hamiltonian and
the angular momentum. The knowledge of the eigenstates of the latter is then
used to simplify the simultaneous eigenstate problem.
Central-potential problems are important in classical mechanics, and Kep-
ler motion is the showpiece example. The same is true for quantum mechanics.
The major, and historically the most important, central-force motion in quan-
tum mechanics is the Kepler motion found in the hydrogen atom, but this will
be treated in chapter 13. Instead, in this chapter we will consider a few peda-
gogical examples of quantum mechanical motion under central potential (con-
sider them as practice problems) with only an occasional glimpse at real-world
applications.
232

V CHAPTER 12 Motion in Central Potential 233

l The classical Kepler problem is a two²body problem. Many quantum cen-
r tral²potential problems in the real world are also two²body problems. But we
V know how to solve only one-body.Schrodinger equations exactly. Therefore,
be-
g » fore all else, let¶s go through the machinations of how to convert the two²
body
. problem into a doable one-body problem following the basic idea already de-
. » veloped in section 9.3.
Q 1
l l _ 12.1 REDUCTION OF TWO-BODY TO ONE-BODY PROBLEM _
. l The Hamiltonian for two²body central force motion in three dimensions is
i given as
` 22
l H=&+ Ji + V(|rl²r2|) (12.1)
` Zml
V which is a six²dimensional Hamiltonian. As in chapter 9, the trick of the
reduc-
` tion of the two-body problem to one-body is to replace the two initial bodies
1- T (ml,m2) by two new bodies (M,;4) where
me . I
m·· L M = m, + mz
h _rl
mn- Y; and
{1.
nw . 1 1 1
@" V ° ²· : ²~ ²|- ²²
I V li ml m2
In V The massive particle moves free of any potential. The light particle of re-
11 . » . . . . .
w - 1 duced mass p moves within the central potential of interest.
Mathematically,
EI l what we do is a coordinate transformation in three-dimensional space taking
us`°
, ¤ to the center-of²mass reference frame (fig. 12.1) defined by ·
W, n .
nd l ³ 1
@ . r _r mz O' FIGURE 12.1
. V l 2 r Transformation to the cer1ter²of²
mass coordzhare system 17/ustreted.
[Wi _ ml 1-2 l³l {ai Coordihate system with origzh O
_m ² rl R 17xed zh space; {bi coordxhate
M V 1. 1 system with orxgrh at the center of
|1*·l _ O O mass {O'}. _
jv-
lw 1 ta) (bl
@2. µ
233

2
234 Quantum l\/lochanics
/l//R:m,r, +µm;r;; r:rl ²r;
P : ni +1u; P/1¢;(Pi/´7i)² (pz//vm
ln terms of these new variables, the Hamiltonian, equation (12.1), is
easily seen
to be
_ P2 p2
H = ²- + ² + V 12.2
ZM ZH (IPI) ( )
This is the Hamiltonian of two independently moving particles, and
therefore
the reduction has been achieved. As you know, whenever the
Hamiltonian is the
sum of two independent parts, the eigenvalue problem can be
separated. The
Hamiltonian of the one-body Schrodinger equation for the particle u
(eq. [12.3] "
below) easily follows via the same procedure as in section 9.3 (note
that p =
²ihV,). We will now solve this Hamiltonian by finding its important
sym-
metry²symmetry under rotation.
12.2 ROTATIONAL SYIVIMETRY AND SEPARATION
OF VARIABLES
The Hamiltonian for the central-potential problem (two-body or one-
body) is
given as "
2I2
_ H: K + 1/tm):-Lv2+ vm (12.3)
2p 2p
where for the two-body problem reduced to one-body, u l1as to be
interpreted
as the reduced mass.
Let¶s consider the symmetry of this Hamiltonian under rotation of the
co-
ordinate system. Suppose we rotate the coordinate system about the z-
axis by
an angle 8. The rotated coordinates, call them x', y', and z', are related
to the
original coordinates x, y, and z via the relations
I x¶=xcos19²ysin0
y' =xsin0 +ycos0
Z, : Z
The inverse relations are
234

CHAPTER 12 l\/lotion in Central Potential 235

x : ,v¶ cos 0 + y' sin 0
y : ².>c¶ sin 0 + y' cos 0
Z = Z' (12,5)
( To prove the invariance of H under the rotation above, we first note
that
rw I ('YWJ +),/2 + Z/2)l/2 I (JYZ +y2 _+_ Z2)!/2 ;_ I.
; Thus the potential term does not change with rotation. For the kinetic
energy
term we note
-_ V2 = [(6/0x¶)2 + (3/6y¶)2 + (0/3z¶)2]
° = [(8x/0x¶)(6/dx) + (0y/6x¶)(0/Gy)];
+ [(6x/0y¶)(0/0x) + (dy/0y¶)(0/0y)]2 + (0/Gz)2
Pi- = [cos 0(8/6x) ² sin 0(0/0y)]2
+ [sin 0(3/Ox) + cos 0(6/0y)]2 + (0/6z)2
2 v2
_ Accordingly, the Hamiltonian, kinetic plus potential, remains
unchanged un²
( der rotation. If there is an invariance, there should be a conservation
law, and
1 we will see that there is an operator connected with rotation that
commutes with
the rotationally invariant Hamiltonian.
__ To find this operator, consider an infinitesimal rotation about the z-
axis,
; g that is, put cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = 0 in equation (12.4):
x' = x ² 0y
P y' =y + 0x .
ie z' = Z (12.6)
Let i,b(x,y,z) denote an eigenfunction of H
Hi!»(><,y,z> = E¢<x,y.z) (12.7)
Now we impose the condition that
;;,4 H¢<x¶,y¶,z¶) = Ei0<x¶,y¶,z¶>
235

236 Quantum Mechanics

Or, substituting for x', y', and z' from equation (12.6), we have
HWX ² 0y,y + 0x,z> = E¢(x ² 0y,y + 0x,z>
lf we Taylor²expand 1/» in the above equation, keeping terms only
up to the first
order in 0, and then subtract equation (12.7) from it, we get
.8888
H²-²,,=E²-²,,
(X6}; }¶3x)¢(X}¶Z) (X8); )¶8x)x0(X}¶Z) Th
. - Sp
88
= ²· ²² ² H , .
(X ay y ax) wry z)
But . -
88i
- ... H = - L
X 8y y 8x fz Z
where Lz, you recognize, is the z-component of angular momentum. In
this
way, we see that Lz commutes with H, [Lz,H] = O, as far as operation
on (L is
concerned. However, the functions ¤,b(x,y,z), being eigenfunctions of
H, form
a complete set and any wave function can be expanded in terms of
them. It fol-
lows that the commutation relation
[H,LZ] = 0 (12.8)
holds true in general.
Similarly, by considering the invariance of the Schrodinger equation
under
infinitesimal rotations about the x- and y-axes, we can easily show that
lH,Lx] = [H.Ly] = 0 (12-9)
Since all three components of angular momentum commute with H,
we con-
clude that the angular momentum is the conserved quantity we have
been look-
ing for. ¶ .
Note also that for infinitesimal rotation about the z-axis
¢(x'.y¶,z> = (1+iLz0/h)i!»(X.J*,Z) (12.10)
l The "R3
Consequently, Lz is recognized as the generator of infinitesimal
rotation about Moment
the z-axis (in the same spirit that we recognize the Hamiltonian H as
the gen-
erator of translations in time; see equation [6.26]).
Coming back to the treatment of the central²potential Hamiltonian,
how
do we take advantage of the conserved quantities, namely, LX, Ly, and
Lz dis-
236

cmeree 12 Morten an Central Potential 237

covered above'? There is a slight problem; these operators do not form
a com-
muting set and therefore cannot 0// have simultaneous eigenvalues
with H, and
cannot 0// be used as labels for the eigenstates of H. There is, however,
the op-
erator L2, which commutes with all the L, (i = x,y,z) and with H.
Accord-
ingly, we seek simultaneous eigenvalues of H, L2, and L, (the last one
by
convention). Note that since we are going to calculate eigenstates in
three dimen-
e · sions, we must.bave.tlveeJabrs'1tfrrttenttme above three
eigenvalues provide
these labels.
The Hamiltonian in For the Hamiltonian, equation (12.3),/ the potential
energy term is already in
Spherical Coordinates spherical coordinates; thus the job is to express
the kinetic energy in terms of
r. 0. and d>. To this end, we will use equation (1 1.17) for the V
operator to eval-
uate V3:
81818
v2 = ² ²l- ² ² + H ²
(er 8r eg r 80 cqi rsin0 845)
8+e18+Q18
‡ e - ² ² ²+ H
r8r gr 80 °5rsin0 8d>
0 if We can perform the required differentiations easily by using
equation (11.15).
°·_ µ ;¶ The rest is algebra. In this way we obtain the very useful
equation for the Lapla-
T cian v2 in spherical coordinates:
i 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 02
v2:-- 2- Jr-- µ0- -L-² 12.11
__ _ r2 8r <r 8r) r2 sin0 80 Sm 80 r2 s1n20 8¢2 ( )
··² Now notice that the (0, qi)-part of the operator above is but ²
L2/rz/52 since L3
__ Jr is given by equation (11.20). Consequently, we have ·
1 0 0 L2
2:-n2v2=-02 -- 2- -- 12.12
__ 9 p lrz 8r (r 8r/ hzrzl ( )
1 1-. l
Finally, the central²field Hamiltonian in spherical coordinates can be
writ-
iv;°;` ten down:
A 02 1 0 0 L2
H:---- 2- -- +1/ 12.1;
2p lr2 02 lr 0// hzrz (rl ( ll
.].101
The "Radial There is a shortcut to equation (12.12), but it¶s tricky. We
can try to use the def-
lbcut Momentum" Operator inition L : r >< p and take its scalar
product with itself:
; gétl-
L2=<rxp>~<r¤p>=r2p2²<r²p>2 <12.1¢»
how

237

238 Quantum Mechanics E

but this is not kosher in quantum mechanics because we are dealing
with prod-
ucts of noncommuting operators. Actually, the first term is okay, but is
there
a way to symmetrize the difficult second term on the right²hand side
that works'?
We may start by defining the operator 4
i
p, = ²ih8/8r (12.15i ,
You may call this operator the "radial momentum/¶ but beware! lt is
not a her-
mitian operator, and therefore not measurable and not an observable.
Clearly,
-8888
· :²`h ²+ ²+ ² =-`}i²= , 12.16
rp 1 <x6x yay zaz) zrar rp ( )
It turns out that the proper symmetric way to write the operator product
(r·p)2 is
(r-plz = pfp, (12-17)
Let¶s check this out. Using equation (12.17), let¶s assume that the
proper way
to symmetrize L2 in equation (12.14) is
L2 = r2p2 ²p,r2p, (12.18)
This gives for p2
pz = (1/r2><1¤,r¶p, + L2)
and this is the same as equation (12.12). The advantage of equation
(12.18) is
the ease with which you can memorize 1t. It gives you an alternative
way to
memorize the Laplacian in spherical coordinates.
The Radial Equation Now let¶s label the states as |nlm), as planned, n
being a quantum number re-
lated to the energy eigenvalue, and you already know what I and m
signify. We
are interested only in the bound-state problem right now, thus no
generality is
lost by assuming discrete energy levels. The eigenvalue equation for
the Hamil-
tonian
H|nlm) = Elnlm)
becomes for spherical coordinate representation
238

CHAPTER 12 Motion in Central Potemra 23 E

1; U 1 a a ` 2 1* ·
é <r9olH|n/nz) : <r0o| ² F (rz + ln/nz
J = %E (r0qb}n/ni)
Since the Hamiltonian contains additive terms that act on separate
subspaces,
i the angular and radial spaces, respectively, the Schrodinger equation
for the
eigenfunction
<r9<1>|~/m> = ¢,.im(r>
clearly is separable in the angular and radial parts, the angular part
being the
eigenfunction of L2. Accordingly, we factorize gb,,,,,, in the form
¤//¤im(F) = R"z(F)}7m(9¢)
µ;i where the quantum number n (as the quantum number related to
energy) will
emerge from the solution of the radial equation. And since
if L2Km(9¢)=!(/+1)h2}Oni(0¢>
E?) we get for the radial equation
1 d 2 d 2p hz/(i+1)
·:, ²²² ² ²E²V -²²² R,, =O 12.1
at [,2 slr dr) + A ~> 2,.,2 ~> < 9>
·· Notice that the radial equation has explicit reference to I; thus it is
that we have
used the label I(as well as n) for the radial function R. _
qi; § 12.3 SOLUTION OF THE RADIAL EOUATION
µ° FOR BOUND STATES
In this section we will first study the radial equation (12.19) in a
general way,
jg- and second, solve it for the simplest situation you can imagine. We
will assume
v,:: that rV(r) is nonsingular. And also that r2 V(r) ²> O, as r ²> 0.
;_- ig Consider normalization²the total wave function ¢,,,,,,(r) must
be nor-
;,;- malized: .
\/vi1[¶nlm(r>0y¢)i2d3r :1

239

240 Quantum l\/lechanics

Substitute for il,,,,,, = l¼,,,(r)l},,,(6¶.o), and realize that the spherical
harmozx;.
are normalized functions integrated over the solid angle of r. This
gives
f r2dr[R,,,(r)|°= 1 (12.20
U
\Ve will be interested for now in finding only the bound-state
solntion<
(E< O) of the radial equation and take up the continuum solutions
much later
(see chapter 23). The reason is partly historical. Historically, atomic
physie;
dominated the early development of quantum mechanics, and the study
of
bound states tells us much that there is to know about atoms. The
continuunt
solutions enter for the treatment of scattering problems. Scattering is a
useful.
` in fact essential, probe for nuclei and elementary particles but until
recently has
played a relatively minor role in atomic physics.
For bound states, the system remains localized and the probability of
find- \
ing it at very large distances from the center of the field must go to 0.
Thus we
have to impose the following boundary condition on R,,,:
rR,,,(r) ²> O as r²> c¤ (12.21a)
Note that this boundary condition also ensures square integrability, the
normal-
ization condition, equation (12.20). There is also a requirement for r ²
>0
rR,,,(r)²>0 as r²‡O (12.21b)
Why? The reason is that otherwise we would have a finite probability
for find- Examp
ing the particle in a sphere of arbitrarily small radius about the origin.
sphem
Since both of the above boundary conditions refer to rR,,,(r), we may
as
well rewrite the radial equation for the function
univ) = rR,.i<r> (12-22)
Since
ldrzd u,,,_ d2+2du,,,_ld2u,,, /7
r2 dr dr r _ dri r dr r r dr: "
the radial equation actually is simpler in terms of u,,,(r) and is given as
aiu, 2p h2l(l+1) _
f + F Em- VU} ² T und") ² 0 (l2·23)
This equation has to be solved under the boundary conditions

240

CHAPTER 12 l\/lotion in Central Potosi e` 241

rr,,,(r) #0 as r²~()
rxonics 1r,,,(r)²‡ O as r~ <>¤ rll.L¢»
You can see the similarity of the radial Schrodinger problem expressed
in t}1·>
I1 20) fashion with the one²dimensional Schrodinger equation. Of
course, there is ti:
° "` boundary condition at the origin (in the one-dimensional case this
can be sizzv
 ulated by erecting an infinite potential barrier at the origin); and there
is abs
jlurigng something extra in the form of a repulsive potential energy
h2l(l_+ l) ltr;.
_;], may This is called the cezirryugal barrier.
physics The origin of the centrifugal term can be understood in the
following man:
gudry gf ner using classical correspondence. For a particle of mass pt
moving in a circu-
1[muum lar orbit of radius r, classically there is a centrifugal force
directed radiali;.
ruseful, outward (fig. 12.2). The magnitude of the force is puz/r :
L2/pr}, wher:
mtv has L : pur for zi circular orbit. The potential corresponding to
such a force is
· L2/2urZ (since F: -0 Wdr), In quantum mechanics we must replace L:
by ,1s
05 {md- eigenvalue l(l+ 1)/52, hence we obtain the quantum
mechanical expression for
Thus we the centrifugal potential.
Figure 12.3 shows a typical attractive central potential V(r), the
centrifu-
gal potential, and the effective potential, the sum total of the two:
(12.21a) , '
?IQ"(r) : V(r) + h2l(l+ 1)/2urz (12.25)
normal-
., () You can see that the effect of the centrifugal term is to reduce the
effective
depth of the well and to introduce a repulsive potential (a barrier) at a
short
rr2.21b) range.
{0, {md. 1 Example: Particle in a Now a useful practice problem²the
case of a quantum object trapped in a
HV Spherical Box spherical box. A spherical box is defined as a
potential problem as follows:
e may as µ
V(r) :0, forr<t1
(]2_22) V(r) : o¤, forr>u
FIGURE 12.2 L
la} A particle moving in a circular 2ttr·2
orb/t of angular momentum l;
lb} the centrifugal potential. V
I as @ &
(12.23) '
(¤) (bi

241
 242 Quantum l\¶lecImntcs
.L FIGURE 12.3
f 1, wl The c0111r1/11;1a1'1?12t@1711¤/ 11.11
I lg? se11e1a.¶ wa/tw.; cf /, 111,1 1/its (.111. t 1 .·
< p¤1s2nt1a/a11r/ the ehéctwu p;1:s~" .
E /01 1/te same va/ues 01/
E /2/»r /= l
`E /2// I : 2
Q2 / K 1:;
Eu
E
LJ

µ la)
\
2/ I; [
.; I: 2
/ 1: 3

ES
n.
2
E
R Coulomb
potential
tbl
The radial equation (12.19) inside the box becomes
112 2 11 111 + 1)
²+²²²²²R +kZR =O 12.26
[dr; r dr rz (F) (F) ( >
where we have introduced k2 = 2uE/hz, Make a change of variables to the
di²
mensionless p : kr. The radial equation now reads
11212 2 dR 1 1+ 1
²;+²4+[l²$]R=O (12.27)
do 1> dn 0

242

w;p²=¤ q xw H Ur my rm ·» Un 243
Mm # Q VJU gn/H
< J
 JN0) : mm/,.
./;11~1;\~¤na/¤17² cosy/7>
NM: [(1/pµ»²1/Mun/y»43//#)»¤~,» nz zxy
www Ch u nommliznuou ccnsnam Smcerhc mv: runuucm mus: xmxish ur
nlm
um nf rhu hm, r : u, ue num huxlner nnpmc me ccndiuun
. Tm mgcuvuhm nrc Alxcrcfmc gnen by nlm zcmus of Llw splucrmm
Bend nmo-

mn; ¤> ueli mumnrxzc Ahn: nzmmnu, hwunsc neun! rmcu ucc nr; num
nlm xbm
_' name amlwrs nec luwcrcnse mms).

243(gk bisa di ocr)

244 r,.»1r ,·,1²² my

·¤, ·`², ,,² ,>·,, ,,, ¶ ,· ' .,
,,,,,1,,,·~²,r,,, ,1²~, ,· 111,, \²» * I + ¶ ` Il; 1
,-1, 9,, ,l~,), ,,.,, I, W 11, ,_,
¶ ,rrr M » · 4
é ,, 7 1
v 4 ¶ ¶ ., ; 1
/ ² ,, : 1
I : U .5 (xhmp)
1: 1 r>(pr1¤¤p¤1; $~5¤
/:2 D(dir1µ11>¤)
I : 1 F M11-ml
rx round 1¤ he U1;. 12.41.
1S,lI'11D,ZS,\I·,2R1G,ZD,e1n
A rmumle remure is 11-1: ordering "1h¤¤rcm" mar mc ;¤h1A1o11s rcsrul.
1[r1v¤ so-
_ 12.4 THE [SPHERICAL) SGUARBWELL POTENTIAL
12.5)
zu 1µ¤n>¤ 41231)

244
245
246
um rw ·.v»;»¤rm
rh: r ,
7 wm :0 [rz W
rrcmed in ehapur 4, and me procedure rc ubuin the engumnlue ecndnmn is
nlm
ax r = n. The musn general sulmion for equation (12 14:4), .· < n, is gwen
as
umn and ser E = 0. Therefore,
uv? =A:ink,,,r UZJSJ
 rr ²· 0 as r²‡ ¤¤, m discard rh: gruwing expnnenual. Henee rhe soluuun
for z >
ur,) = Cexp(-²k,,r) 412.36)
The marching an r : a of mese xwc mhrzzons rr hm earned um by equaung
rhe
have nm much mrercu an me mm-ncnr, smee we are cuucerned mm wm
rhc ei-
gemalues): me pur
M 4r rz, rr df rw,
whrch is the dexrrcd equauun lar the eigenvalues »|E| uf rh: probkm
\E\ : /Bk},/2u (lz 38)

247