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16.885J/ESD.35J
Aircraft Systems Engineering
Introduction to Aircraft
Performance and Static Stability
Prof. Earll Murman
September 18, 2003
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Today’s Topics
• Specific fuel consumption and Breguet range
equation
• Transonic aerodynamic considerations
• Aircraft Performance
– Aircraft turning
– Energy analysis
– Operating envelope
– Deep dive of other performance topics for jet transport
aircraft in Lectures 6 and 7
• Aircraft longitudinal static stability
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
W
ln TO represents aircraft weight/structures effect on range
W empty
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Losses
due to
Max (L/D)
10 shock
Concorde
waves
1 2 3
Mach No.
Ref: Shevell
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
8
divergence
M<1
I. M < Mcr
8
M<1
M>1
V
8
divergence
M>1 M<1
V
8
divergence
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
sin P=1/ Mf
P Mf
Mn=Mfcos/ P = Mach angle,
/ the direction
disturbances
travel in
supersonic flow
• For subsonic freestreams, Mn < Mf - Lower effective “freestream”
Mach number delays onset of transonic drag rise.
• For supersonic freestreams
– Mn < 1, / > P - Subsonic leading edge
– Mn > 1, / < P - Supersonic leading edge
• Extensive analysis available, but this is gist of the concept
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Competing Needs
• Subsonic Mach number
– High Aspect Ratio for low induced drag
• Supersonic Mach number
– Want high sweep for subsonic leading edge
• Possible solutions
– Variable sweep wing - B-1
– Double delta - US SST
– Blended - Concorde
– Optimize for supersonic - B-58
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Supercritical Airfoil
Supercritical
airfoil shape
Cp keeps upper
surface velocity
Cp, cr
from getting too
large.
Uses aft camber
x/c
to generate lift.
V
8
Gives nose
down pitching
moment.
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Horizontal Turn
ht path
W = L cosI, I = bank angle Flig
R = V2/g(n2-1)1/2 z
Fr φ
And turn rate Z = V/R is
Z= g(n2-1)1/2 / V
R
W R
R
L
L
θ
L
R
θ W
Let TÝ Z
Vertical plane
2.0 Kθ = turn rate
Horizontal plane
turn rate Pull Over
KZ = (n+1)/(n2-1)1/2
1.5
Turn rate ratio, Kθ
Pullover from in
verted attitude
Vertical maneuver Vertical Maneuver
1.0
Pull-up from level attitude
KZ = n/(n2-1)1/2
0.5
Pull Up
0 KZ = (n-1)/(n2-1)1/2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Load factor, in 'g's
V-n diagram
CL < CLmax
2nmax W
V*
Load factor n
U fCL, max S
Structural damage
possible Z
q > qmax
Stall area
Lowest
possible R 0 V
8
V*
CL < CLmax
Summary on Turning
• Want large structural load factor n
• Want large CL,MAX
• Want small V
• Shortest turn radius, maximum turn rate is
“Corner Velocity”
Excess Power
Power Required
Power
PR = DV = qS(CD,0 + C2L/SARe)V PA
Excess
= qSCD,0V + qSVC2L/SARe power PR
= USCD,0V3/2 + 2n2W2/USVSARe
8
Power Available
Excess power
PA = TV and Thrust is approximately depends upon
constant with velocity, but varies velocity, altitude
linearly with density. and load factor
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
S&C Definitions
L' • L’ - rolling moment
• Lateral motion/stability
M
• M - pitching moment
• Longitudinal
Elevator deflection
motion/control
N
• N - rolling moment
• Directional motion/control
M
Moment coefficient: CM
q Sc
f
Rudder deflection
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Aircraft Moments
dC αL dC αL
d d
p e= p e=
lo lo
ts ts
Lif Lif
αL=0
α αa
Lift coefficient vs geometric angle of attack, α Lift coefficient vs absolute angle of attack, αa
CM,0 Slop
e = dC
M,c
dα g
a
αe αa
(Trimmed)
C must be positive
M,0
wC
M,cg must be negative
wD a
Implied that De is within flight range of angle of attack
for the airplane, i.e. aircraft can be trimmed
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
Moment Around cg
M M L (hc h c) l L
cg ac wb ac t t
wb
L
Divide by q Sc and note that C t
f L,t q S
f t
lS
C C C (h h ) t t C , or
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac cS L,t
wb
lS
C C C (h h ) V C , where V t t
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L ,t H cS
wb
16.885J/ESD.35J - Oct 1, 2002
C C C (h h ) V C
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L,t
wb dCL wb
CLwb Da, wb awbDa, wb
Cl dD
Cl, max
Cl, t atDt at (Dwb it H )
dC αl
e=
d where H is the downwash at the
s lop
Lif
t
tail due to the lift on the wing
§wH ·
αL=0 H H 0 ¨ ¸Da, wb
αstall
α ©wD ¹
§ wH ·
CL, t atDa, wb ¨1 ¸ at (it H 0 )
© wD ¹
Today’s References
• Lockheed Martin Notes on “Fighter Performance”
• John Anderson Jr. , Introduction to Flight, McGraw-
Hill, 3rd ed, 1989, Particularly Chapter 6 and 7
• Shevell, Richard S., “Fundamentals of Flight”, Prentice
Hall, 2nd Edition, 1989
• Bertin, John J. and Smith, Michael L., Aerodynamics
for Engineers, Prentice Hall, 3rd edition, 1998
• Daniel Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual
Approach, AIAA Education Series, 3rd edition, 1999,
Particularly Chapter 17
– Note: There are extensive cost and weight estimation
relationships in Raymer for military aircraft.