Lecture Notes

Fundamentals of Computers
Unit 1: An overview of Computer System
Week 1: Introduction to computer, Generation of computers, Types of
computers, Anatomy of digital computers

A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of

information and then ‘process’ that information, or data, or carry out actions with
the information, such as calculating numbers or organizing words. In other
words,

Computer: A machine that can receive and store information and change or
process it.

Information: Knowledge that is communicated.

Data: The representation of information in a formalized manner suitable for

communication, interpretation and processing, generally by a computer system.

DATA

Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Results

INFORMATION

Characteristics of a Computer:
1. Automatic: Given a job, a computer can work automatically without any
interruption of human.

2. Speed: Computer can perform data processing tasks jobs at a very high
speed.
 3. Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. Computers errors are due to
incorrect input data that can be fed by humans. If the data is accurate
then computers cannot provide any mistaken result.

4. Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of

concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any
error and without grumbling.

5. Versatility:Computers can do anything without knowing about complexity

of task given to it.

6. Power of Remembering: Computer can save any amount of data and we

can later on recall that data for our own purpose.

7. NO IQ: Computer is a machine so it can’t take decision. It can do what it is

asked to do.

8. NO Feeling: Computer has no feelings it can’t be biased. Computer can

take decision based upon the data or information given to it.

Generation of Computers:
The first machine that could be programmed is attributed to Charles Babbage
(1822).Babbage's machine could be programmed to follow a series of steps,
where each step could be a combination of four basic operations (+,-,*,/). The
machine had a logical structure that resembled the modern computer. It had
a calculator section called the mill (CPU) and a storage unit which consisted
of a group of counters. Each group had about fifty wheels. A thousand fifty
digit numbers could be stored in the storage unit.

FIRST GENERATION

(1945-1956)

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-
order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used.

Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to
operate.

This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed.

Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for
their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.

SECOND GENERATION

(1956-1963)
Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful second generation
computers used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control
Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others.

These second generation computers were also of solid state design, and contained transistors in place
of vacuum tubes.

They also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape
storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs.

One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and
is considered by many to be the Model T of the computer industry.

By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information using second generation
computers.

THIRD GENERATION

(1965-1971)

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great
deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts.

The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed
the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.

The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz.
Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor.

As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip.

Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that allowed machines
to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the
computer's memory.

FOURTH GENERATION

(1971-Present)

In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools.

The 1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the
personal computer even more affordable.

The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in
1982.

Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller
size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to
palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket).
 In direct competition with IBM's PC was Apple's Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. Notable for its
user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen
icons instead of typing instructions.

FIFTH GENERATION

(Future)

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable the
creation of fifth-generation computers.

Two such engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann's single central
processing unit design with a system harnessing the power of many CPUs to work as one.

Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little or no
resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems
assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in
assessing a patient's needs.

It will take several more years of development before expert systems are in widespread use.

Types of Computer:
Computers can be generally classified by size and power. Following are descriptions of
several different types ofcomputers.
Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that cansupport concurrent
programs. That means, they can perform different actions or‘processes’ at the same time. Mainframe
computers can be used by as many ashundreds or thousands of users at the same time. Large
organizations may use amainframe computer to execute large-scale processes such as processing the
organization’s payroll.
Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Again, they can performseveral actions
at the same time and can support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously.
In recent years the distinction between mini-computers and small mainframes hasbecome
blurred. Often the distinction depends upon how the manufacturer wants tomarket its machines.
Organizations may use a mini-computer for such tasks asmanaging the information in a small
financial system or maintaining a small databaseof information about registrations or applications.
Workstations are powerful, single-user computers. They have the capacity to storeand process large
quantities of data, but they are only used by one person at a time.
However, workstations are typically linked together to form a computer networkcalled a local
area network, which means that several people, such as staff in an office,can communicate with each
other and share electronic files and data.
 A workstation is similar to a personal computer but is more powerful and often comeswith a
higher-quality monitor. In terms of computing power, workstations lie inbetween personal computers
and mini-computers. Workstations commonly supportapplications that require relatively high-quality
graphics capabilities and a lot ofmemory, such as desktop publishing, software development and
engineeringapplications.
Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type ofcomputer in use
today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computerdesigned for an individual user.
Today, the world of PCs is basically divided betweenIBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible
machines, named after the two computermanufacturers. Computers may be called ‘desktop’
computers, which stay on thedesk, or ‘laptop’ computers, which are lightweight and portable.
Organizations andindividuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organization ofspreadsheets
and database management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerfulthan a few years ago, and today
there is little distinction between PCs andworkstations.

Anatomy of Computer:
Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software.
Hardware: The physical equipment required to create,use, manipulate and store electronic data.
Software: The computerized instructions that operate computer, manipulate the data and execute
particularfunctions or tasks.

All computers require the following hardware components:

Central processing unit (CPU): The chip or chips atthe heart of a computer that enable it to
process data, also known as a processor.
Memory: An area within a computer system that holdsdata waiting to be processed.

Input devices : the devices that allow data and instructions to enter a computer(such as a
keyboard, mouse, scanner)

Output devices: the devices that allow information to be represented (that is,given out) to the
user, such as a display screen or printer)

Secondary Storage

Data
Input Unit Output Unit
Information
Primary Storage

Arithmetic
Control Unit
Logic
unit
Input Unit:
1. It accepts the instructions and data from the outside world.

2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.

3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for processing.

Ex: Keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.

Output Unit:
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer.

2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.

3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Storage Unit:
a. It store, data and instructions required for processing which is received by input devices.

b. It store intermediate results of processing.

c. And finally it store final results which are produced by computer that should be given to
the output device.

There are two kinds of storage devices:

a) Primary storage:
 a. It is used to hold pieces of program instructions and data, intermediate
results of processing and recently produced results.

b. The primary storage can hold information only while the computer system
is on.

c. The primary storage normally has limited storage capacity.

b) Secondary storage:

a. It is used to hold the program instructions, data and information which can
be used for processing later.

b. It is very cheap than compare to primary memory, so they are available in

very large size.

c. The data which was saved on it, can’t be lost when computer goes off.

Arithmetic Logic Unit:

It is the unit which is actually responsible for performing arithmetic calculations and also
logical operations.

Control Unit:
It the part of computer system that manages and coordinates the operations of all other
components of computer. Basically this unit provides control of computer to work.

Central Processing Unit:

The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of the computer. It carries out all of the
instructions given in a program, such as a word processing or spreadsheet program.

Arithmetic Unit + Control Unit = Central Processing Unit