Fundamentals of the Hydrocarbons

(i) Organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen only are called hydrocarbons.

(ii) Petroleum and coal are main sources of hydrocarbons.

(iii) Hydrocarbons are broadly classified as

Saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes or paraffins

1. Alkanes have general formula CnH2n+2 where n ranges from 1 to n,

e.g., CH4, C2H6, C3H8 ...........

methane ethane propane

2. Alkanes are also known as paraffins due to their less reactive nature. (latin : Parum = little;
affins = affinity)

3. Each carbon atom in alkane is sp3 hybridized and its four bonding orbitals are directed
towards the four corners of regular tetrahedron at an angle of 109o 28' or 109.5o.

The tetrahedral of alkane is described below, e.g., C2H6

4. All the C-C & C-H bonds are strong sigma bonds.

Bond C-C (sp3-sp3) C-H (sp3-s)

Bond length 1.54 A 1.112 A

Bond energy 82.76 k cal mol-1 98.67 k cal mol-1

5. Carbon-carbon chain in alkanes consisting of more than two carbon atoms is not linear but zig-
zag as usually written for the sake of convenience of representation.

6. Isomerism in alkanes :

(a) Alkanes with at least four carbon atoms show isomerism.

 (b) The no. of isomers of alkanes increases with increase in carbon atoms.

Alkanes C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 C8H18 C10H22

Possible Isomers 2 3 5 9 18 75

(c) Monosubstituted alkanes with at least 3 carbon atoms show isomerism

CH3CH2CH2X and CH3CHXCH3 : Position isomerism

(d) Disubstituted alkanes with at least two carbon atoms show isomerism e.g.

CH3CHX2 and CH2XCH2X : Position isomerism

7. The simplest alkane CH4

(a) is also known as marsh gas or fire damp.

(b) constitutes 40% of coal gas.

(c) is mean source for the preparation of synthesis gas.

8. The main source of alkanes is petroleum and natural gas.

9. Natural gas contains about 80% methane, 10% ethane and 10% rest mixture of higher
members. It also contains small amounts of H2, N2 and CO2 etc.

10. Alkyl groups : Residual part left after the removal of one H from an alkane is known as alkyl
groups. According to IUPAC nomenclature these are named by replacing 'ane' by 'yl'.
General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes

(i) Decarboxylation :

(a) Decarboxylation means removal of CO2 from molecules having - COOH gp.

(b) Saturated monocarboxylic acid salt of sodium potassium on dry distillation with soda lime gives
alkane.

RCOONa R-H

or RCOONa + NaOH R-H + Na2CO3

(c) The alkane formed always contains one carbon atom less than the original acid.

(d) The yield is good in case of lower members but poor for higher members.

(e) Soda lime is prepared by soaking quick lime CaO in caustic soda solution and then drying the
products. It is generally written as NaOH + CaO. Its reaction is milder than caustic soda. Otherwise the
reaction will occur violently. Also CaO used alongwith NaOH keeps it dry (NaOH is hygroscopic) to aid
fusion.

(f) The decarboxylation of sodium formate yields H2.

HCOONa + NaOH H2 + Na2CO3

 CH3COONa + NaOH CH4 + Na2CO3

methane

(ii) Wurtz reaction:

(a) A solution of alkyl halide in ether on heating with sodium gives alkane.

R-X + 2Na + X-R R-R + 2NaX

(b) An alkyl halide on Wurtz reaction leads to the formation of symmetrical alkane having an even
number of carbon atoms.

(c) Two different alkyl halides, on Wurtz reaction give all possible alkanes.

CH3X + Na + C2H5X → CH3CH2CH3 + CH3CH3 + CH3CH2CH2CH3

The different steps are:

CH3X + 2Na + C2H5X → CH3CH2CH3 + 2NaX

CH3X + 2Na + C2H5X →CH3CH3 + 2NaX

C2H5X + 2Na + C2H5X → C2H5C2H5 + 2NaX

General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes

(d) The separation of mixture into individual members is not easy because their boiling points are
near to each other and thus Wurtz reaction is not suitable for the synthesis of alkanes containing odd
number of carbon atoms.

(e) If Zn is used in place of Na, the reaction is named as Frankland method.

(f) Limitations of wurtz reaction :

(a) Methane can not be obtained by this method

(b) The reaction fails in case of tertiary halides

(g) Mechanism : The mechanism of Wurtz reaction is although not clear however two mechanisms
are proposed for this reaction.

(a) Involving intermediate formation of an organometallic compound:

RX + 2Na → [RNa] + NaX

Intermediate

RX + [RNa] → R-R + NaX

(b) Involving intermediate formation of free radicals:

RX + Na → [R] + Nax

Free radicals

R + R → R-R

Alkane

(iii) By the reduction of alkyl halides:

(a) Alkyl halides on reduction with nascent hydrogen form alkanes.

R-X R-H + HX

(b) The nascent hydrogen may be obtained by any one of the following

(i) Zn + HCI

(ii) Zn + CH3COOH

(iii) Zn-Cu couple in ethanol

(iv) Red P + HI

(v) Al-Hg + ethanol

(c) Alkyl halides can also be reduced catalytically to alkane by H2/Pd or LiAIH4 or by H2/Ni.

(d) The yields are generally high and the hydrocarbons formed are pure.
Note : Zn-Cu couple is prepared by adding Zn granules in aqueous CuSO4 solution where copper is
deposited on the Zn pieces.

(iv) By hydrogenation of alkenes : Sabatier and senderen's method :

(a) Alkenes and alkynes on catatlytic hydrogenation give alkanes

CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3-CH3

CH≡CH + 2H2 CH3-CH3

(b) Catalyst Ni is used in finely divided form. If Pt or Pd are used as catalyst, reaction occurs at
normal temperature. Also some times Raney nickel is used as catalyst. It is obtained by boiling Ni-AI
alloy with NaOH, when AI dissolves leaving Ni in finely divided state. The filtered, washed and died Ni is
known as Raney Nickel. Raney Ni is effective at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.

General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes

(v) Kolbe's electrolysis method:

(i) Alkanes are formed, on electrolysis of concentrated aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt
of saturated mono carboxylic acids

(ii) Electrolysis of an acid salt gives symmetrical alkane. However, in case of mixture of carboxylic
acid salts, all probable alkanes are formed.

R1COOK + R2COOK R1-R2 + 2CO2 + H2 + 2NaOH

(R1-R1 and R2-R2 are also formed).

(vi) By Grignard reagents:

(i) Organic compounds in which a metal atom is directly linked to carbon atom are known as
organometallic compound.

e.g. HC≡CNa, (C2H5)4 Pb, (C2H5)2 Zn

(ii) Alkyl or aryl magnesium halide (R-MgX) are also called Grignard reagents or organometallic
compounds.

(iii) Grignard reagent on double decomposition with water or with other compounds having active
H(the hydrogen attached on O, N, F or triple bonded carbon atom are known as active hydrogen) give
alkane.

General Methods of Preparation of Alkanes

(vii) By reduction of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones or fatty acids and their derivatives:

(i) The reduction of either of the above in presence of red P & HI gives corresponding alkane.

(viii) By Reduction of Carbonyl compounds :

 (i) The reduction of carbonyl compounds by amalgamated zinc and conc. HCI also yields alkanes.
This is Clemmensen reduction.

CH3CHO + 2H2 CH3CH3 + H2O

CH3COOH + 2H2 CH3CH2CH3 + H2O

(ii) Carbonyl compounds may also be reduced to alkanes by Wolf Kishner reaction

(ix) By the hydrolysis of AI or Be carbides:

(i) Only CH4 can be obtained by the hydrolysis of Be or Al carbides.

AI4C3 + 12H2O 4AI(OH)3 + 3CH4

Be2C + 4H2O 2Be(OH)2 + CH4

Note :

1. Calcium carbide reacts with water to give acetylene.

2. Magnesium carbide, Mg2C2 reacts with water to give propyne.

3. CH4 can be obtained by passing a mixture of H2S and CS2 through red and Cu tube

CS2 + 2H2S CH4 + 4Cu2S

(x) By hydroboration of alkenes : Alkenes on hydroboration give trialkyl borane as a result of

addition of diborane on olefinic bond. This trialkyl borane on treatment with acetic acid or propanoic
acid yields alkane.

2R - CH=CH2 2(RCH2CH2)3B 2RCH2CH3

(xi) ByCorey-House synthesis : Alkyl chloride say chloroethane reacts with lithium in presence of
ether to give lithium alkyl then reacts with CuI to give lithium dialkyl cuprate. This lithium dialkyl
cuprate now again reacts with alkyl chloride to given alkane.

CH3CH2CI + 2Li CH3CH2Li + LiCl

2CH3CH2Li + CuI → Li(CH3CH2)2 Cu + LiL

Li(CH3CH2)2Cu + CH3CH2CI → CH3CH2CH2CH3 + CH3CH2Cu + LiCl

Physical Properties of alkanes

1. Physical nature:

(a) State:

(i) All are colourless & possess no characteristic odour.

(ii) Lower alkanes (C1 to C4) are gases, middle one (C3 to C17) are liquids and higher are solids.

(iii) The boiling point of alkanes increases with increase in molecular weight due to increase in van
der waals forces with increase in molecular weight i.e.,

B.pt. order : pentane < hexane < heptanes

(iv) Also the branching in alkanes gives a decrease in surface area (as the shape approaches to
spherical) which results in decrease in van der Waals forces. That is why b.pt. of isomeric alkanes who
the order : pentane > isopentane > neopentane

(v) The melting points of alkanes do not show a regular trend. Alkanes with even number of carbon
atoms have higher m.pt. than their adjacent of odd number of carbon atoms.

M.pt. order : propane < ethane < methane

(-187.7oC) (-172.0oC) (-182.5oC)

(vi) The abnormal trend in m.pt. is probably due to the fact that alkanes with odd carbon atoms
have their end carbon atom on the same side of the molecule and in even carbon atom alkane, the end
carbon atom on opposite side. Thus alkanes with even carbon atoms are packed closely in crystal
lattice to permit greater intermolecular attractions.
(b) Density : The density of alkanes increases with increase in molecular weight and becomes
constant at 0.76 g/ml. Thus all alkanes are lighter than water.

(c) Solubility :

(i) Alkanes being non polar and thus insoluble in water but soluble in non polar solvents e.g.,
C6H6, CCI4, ether etc.

(ii) The solubility of alkanes decreases with increase in molecular weight.

(iii) Liquid alkanes are themselves good, non polar solvents.

Chemical nature of Alkanes

Alkanes are quite inert substances with highly stable nature. Their inactiveness has been explained as:

(i) In alkanes all the C-C & C-H bonds being stonger sigma bonds and are not influenced by acids,
alkalies, oxidants under ordinary conditions.

(ii) The C-C (completely non polar) & C-H (weak polar) bonds in alkanes- are practically non polar
because of small electronegativity difference in C (2.6) and H (2.1). Thus polar species i.e.,
electrophiles or nucleophiles are unable to attack these bonds under ordinary conditions.

Inspite of less reactive nature, alkanes show some characteristic reactions.

(1) Oxidation: Oxidation of alkanes gives different products under different conditions.

(a) Complete oxidation or combustion : Alkanes burn readily with non luminous flame in presence
of air or oxygen to give CO2 & water along with evolution of heat. Therefore alkanes are used as fuels.

CnH2n+2 + [(3n+1)/2]O2 → nCO2 + (n+1)H2O; ΔH = -ve

CH3 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O; ΔH = -ve

(b) Incomplete oxidation : Incomplete oxidation of alkanes in limited supply of air gives carbon
black and carbon monoxide.

2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O

CH4 + O2 → C + 2H2O
 carbon black

(c) Catalytic oxidation :

(i) Lower alkanes are easily converted to alcohols and aldehydes under controlled catalytic
oxidation.

(ii) Higher alkanes on oxidation in presence of manganese acetate give fatty acids.

CH3(CH2)nCH3 + 3O2 CH3(CH2)nCOOH

(d) Chemical oxidation : Tertiary alkanes are oxidized to tertiary alcohols by KMnO4

2. Substitution reactions :

(i) Substitution in alkanes shows free radical mechanism. For mechanism see free radical
substitution.

(ii) Following substitution reactions in alkanes are noticed.

(a) Halogenation :

(i) Replacement of H atom of alkane by halogen atom is known as halogenations.

(ii) Halogenation of alkane is made on exposure to
halogen + alkane mixture to ultraviolet light or at elevated temperature.

R-H + X2 R-X + HX

(iii) The extent of halogenations depends upon the amount of halogen used.

(iv) The reactivity order for halogens shows the

order : F2 > CI2 > Br2 > I2

(v) F2 reacts violently even in dark and reaction may be controlled by diluting fluorine with N2,
whereas iodination is very slow and reversible. Therefore iodination is made in presence of HgO or
HIO3 (oxidants which decompose HI)

[CH4 + I2 ↔ CH3I + HI] × 5

5HI + HIO3 → 3I2 + 3H2O

4CH4 + 2I2 + HIO3 → 5CH3I + 3H2O

(vi) The reactivity order for H atom in alkane shows the order:

tertiary hydrogen>secondary hydrogen>primary hydrogen> CH4

(vii) The halogenations is catalysed by dibenzoyl peroxide.

(b) Nitration :

(i) Replacement of H atom of alkane by -NO2 group is known as nitration.

(ii) Nitration of alkane is made by heating vapours of alkanes and HNO3 at about 400oC to give
nitroalkanes. This is also known as vapour phase nitration.

CH4(g) + HNO3(g) CH3NO2 + H2O

(iii) During nitration, C-C bonds of alkanes are also decomposed due to strong oxidant nature of
HNO3 to produce all possible nitroalkanes.

(iv) The nitration of alkane also shows the order:

T.H. > S.H. > P.H. > methane

(v) The nitration of alkanes follows free-radical mechanism

HONO2 HO + NO2

C3H7-H + HO → C3H7 + H2O

C3H7 + NO2 → C3H7NO2

(c) Sulphonation :

(i) Replacement of H atom of alkane by -SO3H is known as sulphonation.

(ii) Lower normal alkanes are not suphonated, but higher normal alkanes show sulphonation (hexane
onwards) when heated with oleum (i.e., conc. H2SO4) at 400oC.

C6H14 + H2SO4 → C6H13SO3H + H2O

(iii) Lower members are sulphonated in vapour phase sulphonation.

(iv) The reactivity order for sulphonation is T.H. > S.H. > P.H. Thus isobutene is easily sulphonated as
it contains tertiary hydrogen atom.

(v) Sulphonation of alkanes also follows free radical mechanism.

HOSO3H HO + SO3H

C3H13-H + OH → C6H13 + H2O

C3H13 + SO2H → C6H13SO3H

3. Isomerization :

(i) The process of conversion of one isomer into other is known isomerization.

(ii) Straight chain alkanes on heating with AICI3 + HCI at about 200oC and 35 atm pressure are
converted into branched chain alkanes.

4. Aromatization :

(i) The process of conversion of aliphatic compound into aromatic compound is known as
aromatization.

(ii) Alkanes having six to 10 carbon atoms are converted into benzene and its homologues at high
pressure and temperature in presence of catalyst.
 C6H14 + 4H2

5. Dehydrogenation : Alkanes are dehydrogenated on heating in presence of catalyst to produce

corresponding alkenes.

C3H8 C3H6 + H2

6. Pyrolysis :

(i) The decomposition of a compound on heating in absence of air is known as pyrolysis.

(ii) The phenomenon of pyrolysis of alkane is also known as cracking.

(iii) Alkane vapours on passing through red hot metal tube in absence of air decomposes to simpler
hydrocarbons. The product formed during cracking depends upon

(a) nature of alkane

(b) temperature and pressure

(c) presence or absence of catalyst

(iv) The ease of cracking in alkanes increases with increase in molecular weight and branching in
alkane.

(v) Fission of C-C bonds produces alkane and alkenes whereas fission of C-H bonds produces alkene
and hydrogen.

(vi) Presence of Cr2O3, V2O2, MoO3 catalyses C-H bond fission and presence of SiO2, AI2O3, ZnO
catalyses C-C bond fission.

(vii) The no. of products obtained during cracking increases with increase in molecular weight of
alkane undergoing cracking.

(viii)

(ix) Cracking has an important role in petroleum industry. Higher alkanes are converted into lower
one (petrol C6 to C11) by cracking.