Chapter 7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE

◎ Because so few real flows can be solved exactly by analytical

methods alone, the development of fluid mechanics has depended
heavily on experimental results.
◎ Experimental work in the laboratory is both time-consuming
and expensive. One obvious goal is to obtain the most
information from the fewest experiments.
◎ Dimensional analysis is an important tool that often helps us to
achieve this goal.
◎ The dimensionless parameters that we obtain also can be used
to correlate data for presentation using the minimum possible
number of plots.
◎ When experimental testing of a full-size prototype is either
impossible or prohibitively expensive, the only feasible way of
 attacking the problem is through model testing in the laboratory.
◎ If we are to predict the prototype behavior from measurements
on the model, it is obvious that we cannot run just any test on any
model. The model flow and the prototype flow must be related by
known scaling laws.

7.1 Nature of Dimensional Analysis

◎ Most phenomena in fluid mechanics depend in a complex way
on geometric and flow parameters.
◎ Determine the drag force on a sphere: F=f(D, V, ρ, μ)?
◎ If the experimental procedure were repeated for 10 values of
each variable, simple arithmetic shows that 104 separated tests
would be needed.
◎ Assuming each test takes 0.5 hour and we work 8 hours per
 day, the testing will require 2.5 years to complete. Needless to
say, there also would be some difficulty in presenting the data.
◎ Fortunately, we can obtain meaningful results with
significantly less effort through the use of dimensional analysis.
F ⎛ ρVD ⎞
= f1 ⎜ ⎟
ρV D
2 2
⎝ μ ⎠
◎ The form of the function still must be determined
experimentally. However, rather than needing to conduct 104
experiments, we could establish the nature of the function as
accurately with only 10 tests.
◎ The Buckingham Pi theorem is a statement of the relation
between a function expressed in terms of dimensional parameters
and a related function expressed in terms of nondimensional
 parameters.
◎ Use of the Buckingham Pi theorem allows us to develop the
important nondimensional parameters quickly and easily.

7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem

◎ Given a physical problem in which the dependent parameter is
a function of n-1 independent parameters, we may express the
relationship among the variables in functional form as
q1=f(q2, q3,…..qn)
where q1 is the dependent parameter, and q2, q3, …, qn are the n-1
independent parameters.
◎ Mathematically, we can express the functional relationship in
the equivalent form
g(q1, q2, q3,…..qn)=0
where g is an unspecified function, different from f.
7.3 Determing The Π Groups
◎ The functional relationship among the Π parameters must be
determined experimentally.
◎ The procedure outlined above, where m is taken equal to r (the
fewest independent dimensions required to specify the
dimensions of all parameters involved) almost always produces
the correct number of dimensionless Π parameters.
◎ In a few cases, trouble arises because the number of primary
dimensions differs when variables are expressed in terms of
different systems of dimensions, the value of m can be
established with certainty by determing the rank of the
 dimensional matrix; that rank is m.
◎ The n-m dimensionless groups obtained from the procedure
are independent but not unique.
◎ Experience suggests that viscosity should appear in only one
dimensionless parameter. Therefore μ should not be chosen as a
repeating parameter.
◎ Choosing density ρ, with dimensions M/L3, velocity V, with
dimensions L/T, and characteristic length L, with dimension L, as
repeating parameters generally leads to a set dimensionless
parameters that are suitable for correlating a wide range of
experimental data.
7.4 Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
◎ Forces encountered in flowing fluids include those due to
 inertial, viscosity, pressure, gravity, surface tension, and
compressibility.
◎ The ratio of any two forces will be dimensionless. We have
previously shown that the inertial force is proportional to ρV2L2.
To facilitate forming ratios of forces, we can express each of the
remaining forces as follows:

◎ Inertia forces are important in most fluid mechanics problems.

 The ratio of the inertia force to each of the other forces listed
above leads to five fundamental dimensionless groups
encountered in fluid mechanics.
◎ Reynolds number, Re: the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces. Flows with “large” Re generally are turbulent. Flows in
which the inertia forces are “small” compared with the viscous
forces are characteristically laminar flows.
ρVL ρV 2 L2
Re = =
μ μVL
◎ Euler number (Pressure Coefficient, CP), Eu: the ratio of
pressure forces to inertial forces. The factor 1/2 is introduced into
the denominator to give the dynamic pressure. In the study of
cavitation phenomena, the pressure difference, Δp, is taken as
 Δp=p-pv, where p is the pressure in the liquid stream, and pv is the
liquid vapor pressure at the test temperature. Combining with ρ
and V in the stream yields the dimensionless parameter called the
Cavitation number, Ca.
Δp ΔpL 2
p − pv
Eu = = , Ca =
1 1 1
ρV 2
ρV L
2 2
ρV 2

2 2 2
◎ Froude number, Fr: the ratio of inertial forces to gravity
forces. Fr less that unity indicate subcritical flow and values
greater than unity indicate supercritical flow.
V 2
ρV 2 2
L
Fr =
2
=
gL g ρ L3
◎ Weber number, We: the ratio of inertial forces to surface
 tension forces.
ρV 2 L ρV 2 L2
We = =
σ σL
◎ Mach number, Ma: the ratio of inertial forces to forces due to
compressibility. For truly incompressible flow (under some
conditions even liquids are quite compressible), c= ∞ so that
M=0.
V V V ρV 2 2
L
M= = = ,M =
2

c dp Ev Ev L2
dρ ρ

7.5 Flow Similarity and Model Studies

◎ To be useful, a model test must yield data that can be scaled to
 obtain the forces, moments, and dynamic loads that would exist
on the full-scale prototype. What conditions must be met to
ensure the similarity of model and prototype flows?
◎ Geometric similarity: the model and prototype must be the
same shape, and that all linear dimensions of the model be related
to corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a constant scale
factor.
◎ Kinematic similarity: Two flows are kinematically similar
when the velocities at corresponding points are in the same
direction and are related in magnitude by a constant scale factor.
Thus two flows that are kinematically similar also have
streamline patterns related by a constant scale factor. Since the
boundaries form the bounding streamlines, flows that are
kinematically similar must be geometrically similar.
◎ If compressibility or cavitation effects, which may change
even the qualitative patterns of flow, are not present in the
prototype flow, they must be avoided in the model flow.
◎ Dynamic similarity: when two flows have force distributions
such that identical types of forces are parallel and are related in
magnitude by a constant scale factor at all corresponding points,
the flows are dynamically similar.
◎ The requirements for dynamic similarity are the most
restrictive. Kinematic similarity requires geometric similarity;
kinematic similarity is a necessary, but not sufficient, requirement
for dynamic similarity.
◎ To establish the conditions required for complete dynamic
similarity, all forces (viscous forces, pressure forces, surface
tension forces, etc.) that are important in the flow situation must
 be considered. Test conditions must be established such that all
important forces are related by the same scale factor between
model and prototype flows. What are the conditions for
ensuring dynamic similarity between model and prototype
flow?
◎ The Buckingham Pi theorem may be used to obtain the
governing dimensionless groups for a flow phenomenon; to
achieve dynamic similarity between geometrically similar flows,
we must duplicate the independent dimensionless groups; by so
doing the dependent parameter is then duplicated.
7.5.1 Incomplete Similarity
◎ We have shown that to achieve complete dynamic similarity
between geometrically similar flows, it is necessary to duplicate
the independent dimensionless groups; by so doing the dependent
parameter is then duplicated.
◎ In many model studies, to achieve dynamic similarity requires
duplication of several dimensionless groups. In some cases,
complete dynamic similarity between model and prototype may
not be attainable.
◎ Determining the drag force of a surface ship is an example of
such a situation. Resistance on a surface ship arises from skin
friction on the hull (viscous forces) and surface wave resistance
(gravity forces). Complete dynamic similarity requires that both
Reynolds and Froude numbers be duplicated between model and
 prototype.
◎ In general it is not possible to predict wave resistance
analytically, so it must be modeled. This requires that
◎ The square points are calculated from values of total
resistance measured in the model test.
◎ Resistance of the full-scale ship can be calculated from
model test results using the following procedure.
◎ The viscous drag on the model is estimated using the
analytical methods. The estimated frictional resistance
coefficients are plotted in Fig. 7.1 as diamonds.
◎ The model wave resistance is calculated as the difference
between total drag and estimated friction drag. The estimated
wave-resistance coefficients for the model are plotted as circles.
◎ The prototype wave resistance is calculated using Froude
number scaling by equating wave-resistance coefficients for
model and prototype. The points plotted as circles in Fig. 7.2 for
the prototype are identical to model coefficients at corresponding
 Froude numbers.
◎ The skin friction drag calculated analytically for the prototype,
shown in Fig. 7.2 by the diamonds, is added to the scaled
wave-drag coefficients to predict the total drag coefficients for
the prototype (square points).
◎ Because the Re cannot be matched for model tests of surface
ships, the BL behavior is not the same for model and prototype.
The Re is only (Lm/Lp)3/2 as large as the prototype value. The
model BL is “tripped” or “stimulated” to become turbulent at a
location that corresponds to the behavior on the full-scale vessel.
“Studs” were used to stimulate the BL for the model test results
shown in Fig. 7.1.
◎ A correction sometimes is added to the full-scale coefficients
calculated from model test data. This correction accounts for
 roughness, waviness, and unevenness that inevitably are more
pronounced on the full-scale ship than on the model.
◎ Comparisons between predictions from model tests and
measurements made in full-scale trials suggest an overall
accuracy within ±5 percent.
7.6 Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential Equations