24 Degrees - Confort Productivity and Energy Consuption

24°C Study:
Comfort, Productivity
and Energy Consumption
Published by the British Council for Offices, January 2008
Research conducted by Arup
24°C Study: Comfort, Productivity and Energy Consumption
Contents
2
Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 COMFORT AND PRODUCTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Existing guidance and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3
ABOUT THE BRITISH COUNCIL FOR OFFICES

Established in 1990, the British Council for Offices’ mission is to research, develop and communicate best practice in
all aspects of the office sector. It delivers this by providing a forum for the discussion and debate of relevant issues
and works to promote co-operation and understanding between landlord and tenant, investor and developer, and owner
and occupier – therefore encouraging efficiency and innovation in the office sector. The BCO has over 1,200 members,
who are organisations and individuals involved in creating, acquiring or occupying office space, both private and public
sector. The diverse nature of the BCO membership puts it in a unique position to advance the collective understanding
of its members, and the industry more generally, facilitating the creation of more effective office space.
4
Foreword
At the BCO Conference 2006 in Dublin, the BCO was challenged

to use its influence on office development to take a lead in
the debate on carbon reduction and the associated climate
change. Jack Pringle, then President of RIBA, supported by
Robin Harris, then Vice-President of Corenet, called upon the
BCO to revise its recommendation on summer time
temperatures in offices from 22 to 24°C.
Although it is possible for most offices to simply change the

setpoint for the office temperature we felt that it was
important to investigate the impact of this change on comfort,
productivity and energy use before we made any changes to
the BCO Specification. The Technical Affairs Committee, chaired
by Neil Pennell, commissioned Arup to research this
proposition to see if it was workable. The first stage of the
project is this desk top study which was undertaken by
Dr Gavin Davies and his team at Arup. Although the report
does not identify considerable savings in energy usage or
carbon emissions, we were sufficiently encouraged to take the
project to the next stage to see the effects of raising the mean
temperature to 24°C.
This report found that increasing the standard office

temperature appears to be feasible, however, a range of
practical measures will have to be adopted in order to
mitigate any negative impact on comfort and productivity. For
example, occupiers will need to consider adopting a relaxed
dress code to ensure that people are comfortable at the higher
temperature, and even though productivity levels are
incredibly difficult to assess, they should be considered. The
next stage will be a case study where the mean office
temperature will be raised to 24°C during the summer months.
I hope that you will be interested in the findings in this

report and we will look forward to Summer 2008 when we
will get to put the theory into practice. I would like to
express the BCO’s thanks to all those who got involved in
this project in particular the steering group which was made
up of representatives of RIBA and Corenet.
Dr Ian Selby
Director of Research and Policy
5
Executive summary
Currently the British Council for Offices recommends that the environments from which he was able to develop a comfort
temperature within an air-conditioned office should be equation relating the sensation of comfort (technically a
controlled to 22°C and that the space should have an balance between heat generated and heat lost from the
acceptable level of humidity; that is, the relative humidity body) to the following parameters:
should be within the range 40-60%. It is now widely
• Air temperature.
accepted that there is a need to reduce carbon emissions to
both reduce the rate of climate change and, equally • Temperature of the surroundings.
important, our dependence upon fossil fuels. Buildings are
• Air speed.
responsible for a significant component of the United
Kingdom’s carbon emissions and so any reduction will be a • Humidity.
useful contribution to the achievement of Government • Type of clothing.
targets in this area. One way to do this is to increase the
• Type of activity.
internal temperature in offices when cooling is used. The
British Council for Offices would like to increase the setpoint This method is the basis for the current British and
by 2°C, but have some concerns as to the effect on both International comfort standard.
occupant comfort and productivity. They therefore
commissioned Arup to carry out a review of existing research The adaptive approach is based on surveys and looks at how
in these areas and also to assess the likely impact on energy people respond in general. The most important result from
consumption The results of the study are summarised here. this work is that people will accept higher temperatures
inside buildings if, for example:
COMFORT • They can adjust the way they dress – take jackets off –
The study was solely concerned with thermal comfort – that remove ties.
is the feeling of being ‘hot’ or ‘cold’. Other aspects such as • Alter air movement – by desk fans for example.
noise and glare are unlikely to be affected by the change in
• Have control of blinds.
internal temperature. Furthermore, the study focussed on air-
conditioned buildings rather than free-running buildings. • The external temperature has been high for a number of days.
While the change of 2°C might appear small, in practice
Current guidance from the Chartered Institution of Building
because of the way the space temperature controls function,
Services Engineers includes both approaches for air-
maximum space temperatures of 2°C above the set value may
conditioned and naturally-ventilated buildings. In practice,
occur (and indeed are permitted in the BCO specification).
the two are not really very different; the first allows an
This means that 26°C could occur during hot weather. Due to
examination of the detail, and the second takes real human
sensors being mainly unable to measure operative
behaviour into account.
temperature, it is difficult to prescribe setpoint temperatures
based on operative temperatures alone, but it is suggested From an examination of these approaches it has been
that the air temperature setpoints are such that the concluded that a peak temperature of 26°C will be
operative comfort range is ensured. acceptable if a relaxed dress code can be adopted – that is,
open necks and no jackets. At this temperature, humidity
Researchers in the area of thermal comfort fall into two
becomes of greater importance than previously. However, the
camps; these are usually referred to as the Fanger approach
current specification of a maximum of 60%RH should be
and the adaptive approach. The late P.O. Fanger carried out a
acceptable.
large number of comfort studies on people in controlled
6
The study recognises that it is unlikely that people in air- This is because some types only supply the minimum or near
conditioned buildings will accept temperatures much higher minimum amount of fresh air required for a healthy
than 26°C and so designers will need to take care to environment and make use of a secondary source of cooling
address features such as solar shade. It may also be that a (water coils) to remove the majority of the heat gain.
more considered approach be taken in the design of the Examples are fan coil systems and active chilled beams.
heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Systems that provide all the cooling in the air supply
(variable air volume for example) handle much more air and
there is scope for ‘free cooling’ if the external temperature is
PRODUCTIVITY
not too high. Using a computer model written specifically
There has been far less research in this area than in that of
for this project the following systems were studied:
comfort. This is probably because it is quite difficult to define
productivity. Furthermore, the effect that temperature has on • Fan coil units.
productivity is less clear and depends heavily on the type of
• Variable air volume.
work being done. For example, typing speeds are shown to be
slower at higher temperatures, while memory improves with a • Active chilled beams.
slow increase in temperature up to 26°C. Along the same lines • Under floor air supply systems.
as the placebo effect of thermal comfort, psychology also
affects productivity. According to the Hawthorne Effect, if Performance was predicted for three locations within the
management shows an effort to improve conditions (regardless United Kingdom, London, Manchester and Edinburgh. In each
of whether an improvement has actually been implemented), case the reduction in cooling energy and carbon dioxide
occupants generally become more productive. emissions due to the 2°C change was calculated for a typical
office building that meets current building regulations.
It is possible that ‘people are most productive at work when Humidity was controlled to a maximum of 60%RH.
they are least aware of their surroundings’. Apart from the
obvious implication of thermal, aural and visual comfort the In addition to the savings made because air is not being
statement also implies there are no management issues that cooled as much, there is a more subtle potential saving
could reduce motivation. Research has identified possibility. Reduced cooling of the supply air means that the
management as a key issue in productivity. One researcher temperature of the water supply to the cooling coil could be
has attempted to correlate productivity with space increased. This would result in an improvement in the
temperature suggesting around a 3% drop in productivity at efficiency of the refrigeration plant, possibly by up to 7.5%.
26°C from that achieved at 22°C. However the researcher
has low confidence in the relationship. There is therefore The predictions suggested, with the exception of the under
scant evidence to suggest that increasing the setpoint by floor supply system, savings of 6% (11%), 4%( 10%) and
2°C will have a noticeable effect upon productivity. 3.5% (9.5%) in London, Manchester and Edinburgh
respectively. The figures in parenthesis indicate the effect of
an improvement in the efficiency of the refrigeration plant.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS The reduction as the building moves North is simply due to
The effect of a change in internal temperature on the amount lower outside air temperatures. The predicted saving for the
of energy required to heat spaces is fairly obvious in that the under floor system are less at 1.1% (9%), 0.5% (7.5%) and
closer the internal temperature is to that outside the less heat 0.3% (7.5%) respectively. This is because air is supplied to
required. Things are not quite so simple when cooling. This is the space at a higher temperature (say 18°C as opposed to
because the main sources of heat gain to the space, solar 12-14°C). Because the fuel used is assumed to come from a
radiation, office equipment and lighting are not affected by single source, grid supplied electricity, the percentage
the space temperature. The gains from people do reduce as reductions in energy and carbon emissions are identical.
temperatures increase but only marginally. In addition current
levels of insulation mean that conduction of heat through the Clearly the air-conditioning is only one source of carbon
building fabric is unlikely to be seriously affected. The load dioxide emissions from the building. If all sources are taken
imposed by air infiltration through the façade may under some into consideration then, using typical building performance
circumstances be affected but many designs attempt to figures, the maximum predicted reduction in electrical power
pressurise the building and so reduce this to an insignificant consumption is about 0.7%. The reduction in carbon
load. The main influence of an increase in internal emissions could be slightly higher, but this will depend upon
temperature will be on the amount of energy required to cool the mix of fuels.
the fresh air supplied by the air-conditioning system to room
These savings are small but are a contribution to the
temperature. The study concentrated on this issue.
reduction of carbon emissions at virtually no cost and with a
The design of the air-conditioning system will influence the reduction in the fuel bill. It may also be possible to use a
amount of energy saved by an increase in space temperature. slightly smaller capacity plant and so reduce the capital cost.
7
1. Introduction
Currently the British Council for Offices recommends that the

temperature within an air-conditioned office should be
controlled to 22°C and that the space should have an
acceptable level of humidity; that is, the relative humidity
(RH) should be within the range 40-60%. It is now widely
accepted that there is a need to reduce carbon emissions to
both reduce the rate of climate change and, equally
important, our dependence upon fossil fuels. Buildings are
responsible for a significant component of the United
Kingdom’s carbon emissions and so any reduction will be a
useful contribution to the achievement of Government
targets in this area. One way to do this is to increase the
internal temperature in offices when cooling is used. The
British Council for Offices would like to recommend an
increase in the setpoint by 2°C, but have some concerns as
to the effect on both occupant comfort and productivity.
They therefore commissioned Arup to carry out a review of
existing research in these areas and also to assess the likely
impact on energy consumption. This is in two main sections:
• Comfort and productivity.

• Energy consumption.
The first contains a review of current guidelines and research

while the second contains an analysis of the effect of
temperature on the energy consumption and hence carbon
emissions for four typical air conditioning systems.
8
2. Comfort and productivity
The purpose of this study is as follows: view. This study focuses on the comfort aspects of air-
conditioned office spaces. The definition of ‘air-conditioned’
• To summarise existing guidance and standards related to is the control of air temperature and relative humidity.
comfort in the built environment.
• To conduct a state-of-the-art literature review on comfort 2.1.1 Thermal Comfort
in air-conditioned offices. Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which
• To ascertain the effects of increasing the office control expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is
setpoint temperature from 22°C (±2°C) to 24°C (±2°C) assessed by subjective evaluation” (ASHRAE). The following
during summer conditions. is a list of environmental factors affecting thermal comfort:
• To conduct a state-of-the-art literature review on • Air temperature.
productivity and the anticipated effects of increasing the
indoor design temperature by 2K on productivity. • Radiant temperature.
• Air speed.
The study of comfort is inevitably one that combines both
objective (quantitative) and subjective (qualitative) findings. • Humidity.
Both types of findings will be reported here. As the main
Additionally, there are personal factors that affect thermal
reason for carrying out this literature review is to understand
comfort, and these are as follows:
the ramifications of increasing the indoor design temperature
on an office environment, the focus of the report is on • Clothing insulation – measured in clo (1 clo = 0.155m2 °C/W).
thermal comfort rather than other forms of comfort such as
• Activity level – measured in met (1 met = 58.2 W/m2).
visual, aural, and olfactory comfort. This is not to say that
the other parameters are unimportant, as studies have found A typical business suit has an insulation level of 1 clo, and
them to have impacts on workplace performance; however, normal office work corresponds to an activity level of 1 met.
these studies fall outside the scope of this review.
As the aim of this study is to look at increasing the control
Similarly, the review of productivity is limited to studies setpoint temperature in offices specifically, the following
conducted in office environments and to studies related to assumptions were made:
indoor temperatures rather than other factors.
• Offices are air-conditioned.
2.1 DEFINITIONS • Occupants are seated; sedentary or near-sedentary physical

When designing for mechanical heating and/or cooling, it is activity level.
important to distinguish what the reason is for tempering
Occupants are clothed between 0.5 and 1.0 clo (ASHRAE).
the environment. That is, is it a question of health and
safety, or is it a question of comfort? If it is a question of
2.1.2 Productivity
health and safety, a wider range of indoor temperatures is
Productivity, like comfort, is difficult to define objectively as
allowed as long as temperatures do not reach levels that
many subjective factors affect workplace performance.
induce heat or cold stress in the upper and lower extremes,
However, it can be defined broadly as the ratio of output to
respectively, of the temperature range. If, however, it is a
input (CIBSE, TM24:1999). What constitutes the output and
question of comfort, a much narrower range is considered
input, however, is something that is not clearly and
tolerable by occupants of the indoor space. Clearly, there are
absolutely defined.
temperatures outside a comfortable range at which an
occupant is not at risk from a health and safety point of
9
A comfort zone is defined by -0.5 < PMV < 0.5, or 80%

2.2 EXISTING GUIDANCE AND STANDARDS
occupant acceptability, which is the same as ASHRAE
2.2.1 BRITISH COUNCIL FOR OFFICES GUIDE 2005 Standard 55-2004 (see Section 3.3). This 80% allows for
The British Council for Offices Guide 2005: Best practice in 10% dissatisfaction with general thermal comfort and an
the specification for offices currently specifies the following additional 10% dissatisfaction due to local thermal
design conditions for air-conditioned offices: discomfort. Guide A points out that “the ‘predicted mean
vote’ (PMV) combines the influence of air temperature, air
Summer: movement and humidity with that of clothing and activity
• Design indoor temperature: 22°C ± 2°C level into one value on a thermal sensation scale”. However,
the PPD assumption of uniform clothing may actually
Note: The industry standard for summertime relative overestimate discomfort since, in reality, personal choice of
humidity limits is 50% ± 10%.
clothing is at play.
Winter:
2.2.2.1 Temperature
• Design indoor temperature: 20°C ± 2°C
Guide A states that “temperature is usually the most
• A minimum recommendation of 35-40% RH has been set important environmental variable affecting thermal comfort”,
by the BCO if the fresh air rate equals or exceeds 2.0 and a change of 3K correlates to 1 scale unit difference on a
l/s/m2 thermal sensation scale for sedentary subjects.
For buildings without mechanical cooling, the BCO guide For offices in the summertime, Guide A, Table 1.5
states that predicted thermal comfort is based on “the recommends a temperature range between 22°C and 24°C for
percentage of occupied hours for which particular internal offices in which the assumed activity level is 1.2 met and
temperatures are expected to exceed 25°C”. The thermal clothing insulation level is 0.7 clo.
comfort is measured using the percent people dissatisfied
(PPD) method from the International Standard, ISO 7730, Temperature differences in the vertical should be limited to
aiming for a maximum PPD of 10%. a maximum of 3K between the ankles and head, but
temperature differences in the horizontal may be desirable as
The BCO guide also points out a 1999 field study by de Dear this allows occupants to choose to move from a less
et al. in which the preferred temperature was determined to comfortable to more comfortable location.
be 23.5°C.
2.2.2.2 Air Speed and Movement
2.2.2 CIBSE Guide A: Environmental Design The recommended upper limit for air speeds in a
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers mechanically-ventilated building is 0.3 m/s, according to
(CIBSE) published the 2006 version of CIBSE Guide A: Guide A. Air speeds greater than this would be considered
Environmental Design, and Chapter 1 addresses unacceptable due to draught dissatisfaction, which is a
“Environmental criteria for design”. Guide A is a best practice function of air speed, local air temperature, and fluctuations
guide which is based on the ISO Standard 7730. Guide A in air speed. The draught rating (DR) is given by the
uses an operative temperature to convey the combined following equation:
effects of air temperature and mean radiant temperature. The
operative temperature is defined as follows: DR = (34–Tai )(v–0.05)0.62(0.37vTu + 3.14) (Equation 3.2.2.1)
Tc = HTai + (1–H)Tr (Equation 3.2.1) Where:
Where: v = local mean air speed (m/s)
Tc = operative temperature (°C) Tu = local turbulence intensity (%)
H = hr / (hc + hr) CIBSE Guide A points out that acceptable operative

temperatures can rise with increased air speeds. This
hr = surface heat transfer coefficient by radiation
phenomenon will be discussed further in a later section.
hc = surface heat transfer coefficient by convection Also, as activity levels increase, so do the relative air speeds
over the body surface.
Tai = indoor air temperature (°C)
Tr = mean radiant temperature (°C)
10
2.2.2.3 Gender and Age Differences Figure 1 shows the comfort bands for buildings with
CIBSE Guide A explains differences between genders and age heated/cooled operation.
groups. In general, the clothing insulation level for women
is lower than that for men, so women tend to vote lower on 30
a thermal sensation scale. Regarding age, there is not much
variation as the lower metabolic rate in older people is 25
Indoor temperature limits (°C)

compensated by a lower evaporative loss.
20
2.2.2.4 Adaptive Approach 15

Humphreys and Nicol proposed using an adaptive approach
to designing for the indoor environment. Their approach is 10
Comfort temperature – upper limit (°C)
based on extensive field studies of subjects in their everyday Comfort temperature – lower limit (°C)
5
work environment rather than in a climate chamber. Thus,
the effects of the subjects ‘adapting’ to the thermal 0
environment by adjusting say, their clothing insulation level 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Outdoor running mean temperature (°C)
or behaviour, would be accounted for in the thermal comfort
predictions. Humphreys and Nicol argue that occupant
adjustments are a result of recent past experience. For Figure 1 80% comfort zones (±2K) in offices related to the
example, if yesterday was too cold, occupants would be more running mean of the outdoor temperature
likely to increase clothing insulation levels the next day.
Based on this logic, historical daily mean external air The adaptive approach allows operative temperature to drift
temperatures are weighted according to their proximity to so long as it occurs slowly over the period of a few days.
the current day. The following equation gives the running
mean external air temperature for day n: Note: A similar approach is proposed for a revised Dutch
comfort standard (Raue et al.).
Trm(n) = (1–αrm)Te(d–1) + αrmTrm(n–1) (Equation
3.2.4.1)
2.2.2.5 Additional Recommendations
Where: When the operative temperature is high, CIBSE Guide A
recommends the following measures:
Trm(n) = running mean temperature (°C)
• Relaxing the office dress code.
αrm = a constant between 0 and 1 that defines • Allowing individual control (e.g., adjusting blinds, moving
the rate at which the running mean away from sunny areas).
temperature responds to external temperature
• Permitting flexible working hours.
Te(d–1) = daily mean external temperature for • Increasing air movement.
the day before the previous day (°C)
• Providing hot or cold drinks (Note: Hot drinks trigger a
Trm(n–1) = running mean temperature for day (n-1) (°C) sweating response.)
For heated and/or cooled buildings, the upper and lower

comfort bands are given by the following equations,
respectively:
a) Tcom = 0.09Trm + 24.6 (Equation 3.2.4.2)
b) Tcom = 0.09Trm + 20.6 (Equation 3.2.4.3)
Where Tcom = comfort temperature (°C)
11
2.2.3 ASHRAE STANDARD 55-2004 Figure 2 shows the relationship between PPD and PMV.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) last updated their thermal Percentage people dissatisfied (PPD)
comfort standard in 2004, following ISO 7730:1995. ASHRAE 100
Standard 55-2004: Thermal Environmental Conditions for %

80
Human Occupancy uses the operative temperature to
determine a comfort zone. An operative temperature for
65
given values of humidity, air speed, metabolic rate, and
clothing insulation, combines the dry-bulb air temperature 40
with the mean radiant temperature into a single value.
20
2.2.3.1 Assumptions
For office settings, it is assumed that the metabolic rates -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
would be between 1.0 and 1.3 met, and the clothing Predicted mean vote (PMV)
insulation would be between 0.5 and 1.0 clo. It is also
assumed that the conditions are at steady state, and the Figure 2 Percentage Persons dissatisfied (PPD) as a function
occupants are healthy adults at atmospheric pressure up to of predicted mean vote (PMV)
an altitude of 3000m. They must also be in the office space
for at least 15 minutes. 2.2.3.3 Acceptability Criteria
In this ASHRAE standard, a comfort zone is defined by -0.5 <
2.2.3.2 PMV-PPD Index PMV < 0.5, or 80% occupant acceptability. This 80% allows
The standard also illustrates the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) for 10% dissatisfaction with general thermal comfort and an
and Percent People Dissatisfied (PPD) method of determining additional 10% dissatisfaction due to local thermal
the comfort zone, as developed by Fanger. His studies were discomfort. The standard does not mandate operating
carried out in climate chambers, which are carefully setpoints. Instead, it notes that the standard should be
controlled environments that are not entirely representative applied in a context-specific way. That is, the space and
of everyday office work environments. However, they provide occupants of a particular space need to be identified and
the advantage of being able to adjust certain variables while specified. Additionally, all factors need to be considered
keeping others constant. together and not in isolation.
The PMV-PPD index uses a heat balance model to arrive at

2.2.3.4 Effect of Air Speed
predictions of thermal comfort, and the heat balance model
An important point that ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 makes is
accounts for clothing insulation, metabolic rate, and
that comfortable operative temperatures can be increased by
environmental parameters. A deep-body temperature of 37°C
increasing air speeds. Figure 3 highlights this phenomenon.
is sought as the point for the human thermo-regulatory
system.
Temperature rise (°C)
0 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4
The 7-point ASHRAE thermal sensation scale is defined as 300 1.6
follows: 250
-10°C -5°C 0° 5°C 1.4
-18°F -9°F 9°F
(tr -ta) 1.2
Air speed (m/s)
Air speed (fpm)
+3 hot 200
10°C 1.0
+2 warm Limits for light, 18°F
150 0.8
+1 slightly warm primarily sedentary
activity 0.6
100
0 neutral 0.4
-1 slightly cool 50
0.2
-2 cool 0
-3 cold 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Temperature rise (°F)
PPD is related to PMV by the following equation:
4– 0.2179PMV 2)
Figure 3 Air speed required to offset increased temperature
PPD = 100 – 95e(-0.03353PMV (Equation 3.3.2.1)
12
The following two relationships show the effectiveness of 2.2.4 ISO 7730:2005
increasing air speed on heat removal: The revised International Standard ISO 7730:2005 supersedes
the 1995 version (the basis for the ASHRAE Standard 55-
• If mean radiant temperature is high and air temperature is 2004 and CIBSE Guide A). This particular ISO standard is
low, increasing the air speed will be effective at removing
intended for moderate thermal environments. For hot
heat.
environments, refer to ISO 7243, and for cold environments,
• If mean radiant temperature is low and air temperature is refer to ISO TR 11079.
high, increasing the air speed will not be as effective at
removing heat.
2.2.4.1 Temperature Variations with Time
Due to draught issues, the maximum air speed is limited to Some rules of thumb for temperature variations with time are
0.8 m/s, and the associated temperature rise is 3K. given as follows:
Increasing air speeds to increase operative temperatures are • Peak-to-peak variations within 1K will not affect thermal
more effective when clothing insulation levels are low and comfort, and steady-state recommendations can therefore
activity levels are high (i.e., sweating is more effective). be assumed.
• Steady-state methods can also be applied when
2.2.3.5 Local Thermal Discomfort temperature drifts or ramps are less than 2.0K/h.
The following are types of local thermal discomfort
mentioned in the standard and their respective allowable • The PMV-PPD method can be used to predict thermal
percent dissatisfied: comfort after an up-step in operative temperature, as “the
new steady-state thermal sensation is experienced
• Draughts (<20%) immediately.”
• Vertical temperature variation (<5%) • After a down-step in operative temperature, the initial
PMV is usually too high, for “the thermal sensation drops
• Asymmetric radiant field (<5%) at first to a level beneath the one predicted by PMV”, but
• Warm and cold floors (<10%) after about 30 minutes, a steady state is reached.
2.2.3.6 Humidity 2.2.4.2 Additional Recommendations

The recommended maximum humidity ratio is 0.012. Note ISO 7730:2005 recommends that the clothing insulation
that this upper limit applies where systems are in place to level be representative of the occupants, taking into account
control humidity. Olesen and Brager conclude that humidity local climate and clothing habits. Also, one should account
has a relatively small effect on preferred ambient temperature for other forms of adaptation like body posture and reduced
within the comfort range. No lower humidity limit is set by activity.
the standard as lower humidity limits are usually associated
with non-thermal comfort factors such as dry skin/eyes, Annex A.4 gives example design criteria for specific space
irritated mucous membranes, and static electricity generation. types under certain conditions. For a single or landscape
office, the design criteria for summer operative temperature
2.2.3.7 Adaptation is 24.5°C ± 1°C. This is based on the assumption that
ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 is an improvement upon the occupants have a clothing insulation of 0.5 clo, and the
previous 1992 version in that it has an added section on turbulence intensity of the air is approximately 40% (mixing
adaptation, which is very similar to the CIBSE ventilation).
recommendation. However, in the context of the standard, it
is only applied to naturally-conditioned spaces.
2.2.3.8 Future Recommendations

In future revisions of ASHRAE Standard 55, the buildings may
be broken down into different classes of environments so that
more stringent criteria can be applied to buildings that need a
high performance of thermal comfort and vice versa.
The importance of personal control over the thermal

environment is also pointed out. This personal control may
include adjustment of thermostats, posture, behaviour,
dress, etc.
13
2.3.1.2 Scale Variations

2.3 REVIEW
Differences in thermal sensation scales affect people’s
2.3.1 REVIEW OF COMFORT STUDIES thermal comfort votes. Note the subtle differences between
The following sections cover additional information on the ASHRAE scale in Section 3.3.2 and the Bedford Scale,
recent thermal comfort studies that has not been covered by shown as follows:
the standards or guidance mentioned previously.
Bedford Scale:
2.3.1.1 Demographic Variations +3 much too hot

Many papers point to the importance that thermal comfort is +2 too hot
highly dependent on the various nuances of an individual. +1 comfortably warm
Unfortunately, standards and guides tend to give
0 comfortable
recommendations for an average healthy adult with a given
-1 comfortably cool
set of assumptions as mentioned in the above sections.
Therefore, any nuances become lost in the average -2 too cool
assumptions. A few of the main demographic factors that -3 much too cool
can alter thermal comfort votes significantly are listed and Though both scales are based on 7 points, the descriptions
explained as follows: associated with each vote on the two scales do not
• Weight – One study shows that there is up to 20% necessarily correspond to the same connotation of thermal
variation in thermal comfort satisfaction due to weight comfort.
because of its effect on how sensitive a person is to
temperature differences (Ong). Someone who is lean will 2.3.1.3 Acceptable Temperature Bands
be more sensitive to the cold than someone who has more Nicol and Humphreys (2007) note that the UK Health and
body fat. Safety Executive guidance publication, Thermal Comfort in
• Gender – Due to differences in dress codes and the Workplace, gives an acceptable thermal comfort range
conventions, discomfort due to cold temperatures is most between 13°C and 30°C for most people in the UK. Nigel A.
commonly experienced near the head and neck for males Oseland monitored eight different air-conditioned offices in
and at the ankles for women. Although the difference in England (with over 1,300 respondents total) and concluded
gender is usually captured by the clothing level used to that the acceptable temperature range for all occupants of
predict thermal comfort votes, there is also an asymmetric air-conditioned buildings is between 21.8°C and 24.4°C. This
thermal effect that should be accounted for. (Note: This corresponded with thermal sensation (TS) values between 3.5
points to the general importance of addressing local
and 4.5 on a 7-point scale, with TS = 4 being the neutral
thermal discomfort as well.)
thermal sensation. The severity of the discomfort caused by
• Fitness – A person’s general activity level affects his/her varying operative temperatures is shown in Figure 4.
thermal sensation. For example, someone who exercises
regularly, takes regular breaks, or gets out of his/her chair 7
for a short walk will have a higher activity level than
someone who is sedentary for the entire duration of the 6
Mean reported thermal sensation
day. The more active individual will also have a higher

tolerance of thermal discomfort. 5
• Psychology – People’s expectations of their thermal 4

Neutral
environment have an impact on their assessment of
thermal comfort. On one hand, de Dear and Brager argue 3 Ventilation
that occupants of naturally-ventilated buildings have Air conditioned, 21.5-28.5°C
(r = 0.99)
different expectations than occupants of air-conditioned 2
Naturally ventilated
buildings. These expectations are based on cultural and (r = 0.97)
cognitive variables based on occupants’ understanding of 1
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
their environment. On the other hand, Nicol and
Binned operative temperature (°C)
Humphreys (2002) argue that “Whilst expectation does
have a part to play in the interaction between people and Figure 4 Graph of thermal sensation vs operative temperature
their environment, it is more in defining the temperature in air-conditioned offices
they will expect in a particular situation than in their
attitude to the building services”. This provides the basis
for their running-mean outdoor temperature approach to
adaptive comfort.
14
Oseland also concluded that the “acceptable range of The adaptive method, Nicol and Humphreys (2007) argue,
temperatures in naturally ventilated offices in winter and does not require knowledge of clothing levels or activity
summer [is] wider than that found in air-conditioned offices levels, but rather, it is based on observations of behavioural
by up to 2.5°C (4.5°F). It may, therefore, be possible to relax patterns of occupants. Also, physical measurements were
the temperature control strategy in air-conditioned buildings taken alongside the survey of occupant thermal comfort.
in order to conserve energy without causing discomfort”.
A few conclusions related to thermal comfort were drawn
It is important to note that sensors in thermostats rarely from the SCATs project. Firstly, there is a relationship
measure operative temperature. They usually measure between the comfort temperature and the running mean
temperatures nearer the air temperature, but the actual outdoor temperature, and this relationship is observed to
temperature measured depends upon the design and be that shown in Equation 4.1.5.1 for heated or cooled
placement of the sensor. It is, therefore, not possible to buildings.
generalise thermostat setpoints as purely air temperatures or
operative temperatures alone. However, the air-conditioning Tc = 0.09Tm + 22.6 (Equation 4.1.5.1)
setpoint should ensure that resulting operative temperatures
Note: This is an average of the two equations shown in CIBSE
allowing for temporal and special changes stay within the
Guide A.
operative band of 24°C ± 2°C.
Equation 4.1.5.1 shows that the office comfort temperature
2.3.1.4 Individual Control can be increased as the outdoor temperature increases.
One recurring point in many of the papers is that there is a
psychological need for individual control over one’s thermal Secondly, “the characteristic time subjects take to adjust
environment. When an individual has the ability to modify fully to a change in the outdoor temperature is about a
his/her thermal environment, he/she will be more satisfied week”.
with the environment (Ong). Ong also argues that this is very
Thirdly, a temperature variation of ±2K is acceptable for
much a physiological need as well, for humans “operate within
thermal comfort, but there is no one temperature at which
a very narrow range of thermal conditions and we are
all occupants will feel thermally satisfied.
physiologically sensitive to changes in our thermal balance”.
Hence, the ability to modify our thermal environment It is important to note that no increase in discomfort was
according to varying needs throughout the day, based on noticed after installation of the ACA (McCartney & Nicol).
recent past activity, seems to be more crucial than setting a
designated temperature band to adhere to.
2.3.2 ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT OF INCREASE IN INTERNAL
Ong also notes that having spatial diversity across an office TEMPERATURE ON COMFORT
floor plate allows occupants to choose their thermal If the summer indoor design temperature is increased by 2K,
environment locally. there will be interrelated changes to the following items:
• Air temperature
2.3.1.5 SCATs Project
The Smart Controls and Thermal Comfort (SCATs) project was • Radiant temperature
coordinated by the Oxford Brookes University and was carried out • Air speed
in five different countries – France, Greece, Portugal, Sweden,
and the UK. The seven tasks of the project were as follows: • Relative humidity
• Occupant heat gain
• Task 1: Development of instrumentation for field studies
• Clothing
• Task 2: Carry out thermal comfort field studies across
Europe • Regional variations
• Task 3: Develop an adaptive control algorithm (ACA) using • Gender

the task 2 data • Occupant demographics
• Task 4: Develop new control systems for both air-
conditioned (AC) and naturally-ventilated (NV) buildings As air temperature increases inside the space, so will the
radiant temperature. Ideally (but probably not possible), air
• Task 5: Test the energy implications of using the ACA via speed should be increased to reduce the effect of a 2K
computer simulations
increase. Relative humidity is shown to have little effect on
• Task 6: Test the ACA in NV buildings thermal comfort within the comfort range, but higher
• Task 7: Test the ACA in AC buildings temperatures can hold more moisture.
15
Occupant sensible gains decrease while latent heat gains 27

increase. Relative humidity and thermal comfort will be
26
discussed further in Section 4.3.3.
Comfort temperature (°C)

25
An increase in design temperature should be counteracted by
24
a relaxation in the office dress code so that building Upper T
Lower T
occupants can have a degree of control over their thermal 23
environment and so that evaporative losses can be 22

facilitated.
21
People living in hot climates may be better adapted to

20
higher temperatures already. Culture and customs may either Day of year
impede or aid thermal comfort depending on how relaxed the
Figure 5 Adaptive comfort ranges using London TRY
dress code can be.
Thermal discomfort reported by men usually tends toward the

positive side of the PMV scale (i.e., warm, hot). That
27
reported by women, on the other hand, usually tends toward
the negative side of the PMV scale (i.e., cool, cold). 26
Therefore, a 2K increase in design temperature will most

25
likely be favourable among female occupants, but be a cause
24
of concern among male occupants. Upper T
Lower T
23
As was mentioned previously, occupant demographics can be
highly variable and should be analysed on an individual 22
basis. 21
20
2.3.2.1 Adaptive Comfort Ranges Based on Temperature Day of year
Increase
Analysis was carried out using Equations 3.2.4.2 and 3.2.4.3
Figure 6 Adaptive comfort ranges using Manchester TRY
on weather data for three UK cities – London, Manchester,
and Edinburgh. The resulting comfort ranges for an entire
year based on the adaptive approach is shown in the graphs
below. The first set of three graphs is based on the Test
27
Reference Year (TRY) data, which are representative of an
average year. The second set of three graphs is based on the 26
Design Summer Year (DSY) data, which are representative of
25
a hot year.
24
Upper T
Based on the TRY graphs, one can see that a peak indoor Lower T
23
design temperature of 26°C is acceptable for a typical year.
Furthermore, the DSY graphs show that the same peak indoor 22
design temperature is even more acceptable for hot years.

21
Most of the graphs show that there is only just over 1.5°C
variation between the winter and summer comfort 20
Day of year
temperatures.
Note that the comfort ranges are simply the setpoint Figure 7 Adaptive comfort ranges using Edinburgh TRY
temperatures recommended by the SCATs project with a ±2°C
band, which is also what the BCO allows.
16
27 2.3.2.2 Comfort Based on Clothing Levels

Quantitative analysis was also carried out to determine the
26
effect of clothing levels and air speed on thermal comfort
25 using the heat-balance approach set out by Fanger.

24
Upper T In the following figures, it is assumed that the indoor air
Lower T
23 temperature is the same as the operative temperature. That
22
is, indoor air temperature and mean radiant temperature are
the same.
21
As typical office conditions are at a clothing level of 1.0 clo
20
Day of year (occupants wearing suits) and an activity level of 1 met, the
first graph shows comfort predictions for 1 clo and 1 met.
Figure 8 Adaptive comfort ranges using London DSY
70
60
27
50
26
PPD (%)
40
25 0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

30
24
Upper T
Lower T 20
23
10
22
0
21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Temperature (°C)
20
Day of year
Figure 11 Comfort predictions for 1 clo and 1 met
Figure 9 Adaptive comfort ranges using Manchester DSY At a temperature of 24°C, the PPD just about satisfies the
10% PPD maximum recommendation. However, at a
temperature of 26°C, the PPD doubles.
27
The next two graph show comfort predictions for reduced
26 clothing levels of 0.7 and 0.5 clo, respectively and the same
activity level of 1 met.
25
24
Upper T 60
23 Lower T
50
22
40
21
PPD (%)
0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

30
20
Day of year
20
Figure 10 Adaptive comfort ranges using Edinburgh DSY 10
0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Temperature (°C)
Figure 12 Comfort predictions for 0.7 clo and 1 met
17
60 The influence of radiant temperature on comfort is

demonstrated in Figures 14-16 which has been calculated for
50 an activity level of 1 met. These figures clearly demonstrate
the significant effect that surface temperature can have on
40
comfort. The lower limit of mean radiant temperature of
PPD (%)
0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

30 22°C is thought to be a practical minimum with a typical
chilled ceiling installation. The validity of the use of the
20 Fanger comfort equations with chilled surfaces has is
demonstrated in papers by Hodder and Loveday.
10
0 40
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Temperature (°C) 35
1 MET and 0.05m/s air speed
CLO=1 CLO=0.7 CLO=0.5
Persons dissatisfied (PPD) (%)

30
Figure 13 Comfort predictions for 0.5 clo and 1 met
25
As the clothing level is reduced, the PPD also reduces, and 20
for a clothing level of 0.5 clo, which is not unreasonable for
15
summer office dress, an indoor temperature of 26°C yields a
PPD that is well within the 10% maximum limit, even at low 10
air speeds. One can see from all three graphs that increasing 5
air speed reduces the PPD even further.
0
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Mean radiant temperature (°C)
2.3.3 HVAC SYSTEM AND BUILDING FAÇADE EFFECTS
The previous discussion has not considered the possible Figure 14 Comfort predictions for 0.05 m/s and 1 met
effects of the type of space conditioning system employed or
the influence of the design of the façade. Both will affect 40
comfort through, in the case of the façade, radiant

35
temperatures, and in that of the HVAC system, both radiant CLO=1 CLO=0.7 CLO=0.5
30
temperatures and air speed and possibly relative humidity.
25
2.3.3.1 Air Speed 20
The effect of air speed is demonstrated in Section 4.2.2 15

where it is shown that as space temperatures rise, comfort
10
improves with increasing air speed. This suggests that
ceiling air supply systems providing significant mixing might 5
be preferred. Typical air speeds for these systems lie in the 0

22 23 24 25 26 27 28
range of 0.1 to 0.2 m/s whereas floor systems generally Mean radiant temperature (°C)
generate air speeds below 0.1 m/s.
Figure 15 Comfort predictions for 0.1 m/s and 1 met
2.3.3.2 Radiant Temperature
40
The analysis presented in Section 4.2.2 assumed that the
temperature of the space surfaces was close to that of the 35
temperature of the air. This is not necessarily the case in CLO=1 CLO=0.7 CLO=0.5
30
particular in locations close to the façade and where chilled
25
surfaces are employed by the HVAC system. The operative
20
temperature described in Section 3.2 shows that at low air
speeds air and radiant temperatures have an equal influence 15
on the comfort temperature. It is therefore important to 10

minimise both the solar transmission and the use of solar-
5
absorbing elements in components of the glazing system
0
adjacent to the occupied space.
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Mean radiant temperature (°C)
Figure 16 Comfort predictions for 0.15 m/s and 1 met
18
2.3.3.3 Relative Humidity 2.3.4 PRODUCTIVITY IN OFFICES

The effect of relative humidity as predicted by the Fanger
2.3.4.1 Technical Memoranda TM24:1999
comfort equation is shown in Figures 17 and 18. These are
The CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM24:1999 provides a state-
for a mean air speed of 0.1m/s and clothing levels of 1 and
of-the-art literature review of the effects of the physical
0.5 clo, respectively.
environment on workplace productivity, especially that of
90 ‘white-collar’ knowledge-based workers in offices. One
80
complication to measuring productivity based on
environmental factors, however, is that productivity is
70
60
highly dependent on motivation and the ability to perform a
Relative humidity % task. As is stated in TM24, “Aronoff and Kaplan propose that
50 30 40 50 60 70
CLO=1 Vel=0.1m/s
the greater the knowledge component of the work, the more
40
difficult it is to develop reliable measures of productivity”.
30 However, Wyon (1993) argues that the effect of
20 environmental factors on productivity can be typically on
10 the order of 5-15%. Clearly, there is some controversy in
0 correlating productivity and the environment.
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Operative temperature (°C) Although conditions conducive to optimum comfort do not
necessarily equate to optimum productivity, TM24 states that
Figure 17 Effect of relative humidity at 1 clo and 0.1 m/s
in general, “optimum conditions for comfort are the most
appropriate for performance”. As a reminder, productivity is
70
defined as the ratio of output to input, and output of work
60 can be measured in the following seven terms:
50 • Quantity.
Relative humidity %
30 40 50 60 70
40
CLO=0.5
• Quality.
Vel=0.1m/s
30 • Accuracy.
20 • Withdrawal.
10 • Absenteeism.
0 • Tardiness.
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Operative temperature (°C) • Turnover.
Figure 18 Effect of relative humidity at 0.5 clo and 0.1 m/s The general conclusion drawn from the literature review is
that “the optimum temperature depends on the subject’s
These figures indicate that as the operative temperature is activity (task), clothing and adaptation”. Tests done in a lab
increased, comfort decreases with increasing relative or in an industrial setting show that there is a drop in mental
humidity. This is because as relative humidity increases, performance at temperatures greater than 33°C. However,
more heat is required to be lost by perspiration, so there is a these tests have not been extended to office-type settings.
tendency for people to feel warmer. This decrease in thermal
comfort is relatively small and confirms the CIBSE guidance One other important general point to note on productivity is
that humidity within the range of 40% to 70% is generally the Hawthorne Effect, where workers are more motivated if
acceptable. Furthermore, relaxing the clothing levels they believe that management are taking an active interest
improves the PPD at a higher operative temperature. in their well-being, even if the actual environmental
conditions are made worse.
2.3.4.2 Studies on the Effect of Temperature on

Productivity
A few studies showing the effect of temperature on
productivity have been reviewed in TM24. Conclusions drawn
from the various studies mostly relate to tasks involving
manual labour and factory work.
19
Wyon’s 1974 study on typewriting performance shows that In their latest analysis of the various relevant studies,
“typewriting speed…was 40 to 50% slower at 24°C than at Seppänen et al. found that “performance increases with
20°C. However,…there was no significant difference in temperature up to 21-22°C, and that performance decreases
performance after one week”. This gives confidence in the with temperature above 23-24°C”.
adaptive theory. In a different study on mental performance,
Wyon et al. (1979) conclude the following: The authors have also developed an equation relating
productivity to room temperature.
• At 28°C, sentence comprehension and a multiplication
task were performed more slowly. P = 0.1647524T – 0.0058274T 2 + 0.0058274T 2
+ 0.0000623T 3 – 0.4685328 (Equation 5.2.1)
• At 26°C, memory recognition was optimised.
• A slow increase in temperature adversely affected Where:
concentration and clear thinking, while increasing the
temperature slowly (up to 26°C) improved memory and cue P = productivity relative to maximum value
utilisation.
T = room temperature (°C)
• Temperature did not have a noticeable effect on spelling,
vocabulary, reading, creativity, manual dexterity, and However, the authors give a caveat noting a high level of
perseverance. statistical uncertainty in this relationship.
Figure 19 Shows the relationship between temperature and 2.3.6 Studies Using Self-Assessment Surveys
performance (Wyon 1986). Humphreys & Nicol’s (2006) SCATs project looked at self-
assessed surveys of productivity. The surveys were conducted
+50
for over 4500 subjects in the 5 aforementioned countries.
Comfort range
+40
Accidents Of the environmental variables considered – room temperature,
+30
humidity, air movement, horizontal illuminance, noise level,
Change in productivity (%)
+20
+10
CO2 concentration, and country – the perceived productivity
Temperature (°C) had the highest dependence on country, followed by room
0
10 15 20 25 30
-10 temperature. The maximal productivity occurred between 21°C
-20
dexte rity and 25°C, falling slightly at temperatures outside this range.
Manual re Mental performance
-30 figu For example, the marginal means of perceived productivity
vit y of
siti
-40 sen dropped from 0.00 at 24.8°C to -0.15 at 26.2°C. According to
and Work rate
ed
-50 Spe the self-assessment surveys, humidity, air movement, noise
level, and CO2 concentration had little effect on productivity.
Horizontal illuminance had a small effect on productivity.
Figure 19 Graph showing relationship between temperature
and performance The authors also point out that an increase in overall
comfort had a positive correlation with perceived
It is clear from Figure 19 that overall mental performance productivity, and they conclude that overall comfort is a
decreases with increasing temperature. good indicator and predictor of perceived productivity.
2.3.7 New Methodology

2.3.5 STUDIES USING OBJECTIVE INDICATORS
A new method called Chaos Theory is being considered by
Seppänen et al. analysed 24 relevant studies that looked at
researchers at the Electronic Navigation Research Institute
objective indicators with measurable task output such as
(ENRI) in Tokyo to study the interrelationship between fatigue,
text processing, simple calculations, customer service
productivity, and thermal comfort. The Chaos Theory uses a
telephone time, and total handling time per customer for
non-dimensional variable known as the Ljpunov exponent,
call-centre workers. They have earlier concluded in a
which is a measure of fatigue based on speech samples using a
previous study that optimum productivity occurs at 22°C for
software program. The researchers are making two important
office-type work, with a 2% decrease in performance for
assumptions – one, that fatigue and productivity are
every degree C temperature increase for temperatures
correlated, and two, that fatigue and thermal comfort are
between 25°C and 32°C. For temperatures between 21°C and
correlated. At the time of the article, which appeared in 2002,
25°C, there is no effect of increased temperatures on
research has been limited to Japanese subjects, but Oxford
performance.
Brookes University are looking into funding for developing the
research further (McCartney & Humphreys).
20
In the case of productivity, the following are controversial

2.4 CONCLUSIONS
topics related to the effects of temperature (and other
The literature review of current work on thermal comfort and
environmental factors) on productivity:
productivity yield many differing conclusions, from different
suggestions on comfortable temperature bands to different • Does optimum temperature for comfort equate to optimum
methodologies and approaches to measuring productivity. temperature for productivity and performance?
With comfort and productivity highly dependent on
• When considering productivity in an office, which tasks
subjective variables, it is difficult to provide absolute
should be given more weight in the studies? Manual
recommendations without taking multiple factors into dexterity? Concentration? Memory? Spelling?
account, many of which are not easily quantifiable. For
example, thermal comfort votes can change depending on • Is it possible to simply extricate results showing the
which thermal sensation scale is used. effects of indoor air temperature alone on productivity, or
are there intricate dependencies on other factors that
The trend shown in the latest versions of the various thermal must be accounted for as well (e.g., management,
comfort standards and guides is for an adaptive approach to psychology, motivation, camaraderie, etc.)?
be taken for free-running buildings, and some also suggest One of the most significant impacts on both thermal comfort
this approach for heated or cooled buildings. A and productivity based on self-assessment surveys is
recommendation is for the indoor air temperature to change perceived control. Because individuals vary so much, it is
according to the running mean outdoor temperature, so that hard to please everyone, and what is considered comfortable
there is a gradual adjustment to the setpoint temperature for one person may not be considered comfortable for
between summer and winter operation during the mid- another. With individual control, people can adjust their
seasons. A gradual ramping up or down of the setpoint local environments until they are satisfied and comfortable.
temperatures with outdoor temperatures will take history and
past experience into account, allowing occupants to have Although not directly related to this study raising the
more appropriate clothing levels. setpoint may require more attention to design and
commissioning, in particular humidity control. This is
As seen from the adaptive comfort analysis carried out on because the headroom has been reduced.
the TRY and DSY data, an indoor design temperature of 24°C
– with an allowance for a peak temperature of 26°C – is
acceptable for thermal comfort. Comfort studies usually use
operative temperature as a reference. This may differ from
the control temperature. As mentioned earlier, thermostat
sensors rarely measure operative temperature, but
appropriate air temperatures should be attained to ensure
that the resulting operative temperatures fall within the
acceptable comfort range. Based on Fanger’s approach, it is
also shown that, at a peak operative temperature of 26°C,
reducing clothing levels will decrease the PPD. As a
consequence, it is suggested that a peak operative
temperature of 26°C is acceptable. It is also shown that
both the type of space conditioning system and building
façade are important when considering comfort conditions at
elevated air temperatures. Humidity is not shown to have a
very significant effect on thermal comfort in the office
environment.
21
3. Energy consumption
3.2.1 SYSTEM TYPES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The four selected systems were fan coil units, variable air
The British Council for Offices has commissioned Ove Arup &
volume, under floor air distribution and active chilled beams.
Partners, Ltd to carry out a study investigating the effect of
raising the cooling setpoint in office buildings from 22ºC to
24ºC. Specifically, there is an opportunity for the British 3.2.1.1 Fan Coil Units (FCU)
Council for Offices (BCO) to adjust their current guideline Figure 20 is a diagram showing how an FCU system operates.
recommendation of summer indoor design air temperature for Fresh air is introduced to the space from a central air
air-conditioned spaces from 22°C to 24°C. Therefore, the handling unit. The fan coil unit in the space draws in room
impacts of such an adjustment will need to be assessed in air and either heats or cools it depending on the gains and
terms of energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. losses in the space. The model assumed the following:
• Fresh air quantity – Minimum as specified by the BCO

In order to assess these impacts four typical office air
(16l/s per person) to meet fresh air supply demand for the
conditioning systems were modelled using a spreadsheet
occupants.
based system simulation model. The reason for using this
approach was to enable only those aspects of operation that • Supply temperature – 10ºC below room temperature.
are affected by the setpoint change to be isolated and • Humidity control – dehumidification only to maintain a
examined in detail without having to model the entire maximum space relative humidity of 60% via control of
building and system in detail which would have been supply air moisture content.
uneconomical and unnecessary.
Humidification is not modelled because this would only be
required when heating for which there is no proposed change
3.2 METHOD the air temperature setpoint.
The study took the form of the simplified modelling of four
system types. The approach taken was somewhat similar to
that used in the two most frequently used dynamic thermal
models (DTMs) in the UK where the plant performance is
calculated using a numerical representation of the
psychrometric chart. The psychrometric algorithms used
satisfy the requirements of CIBSE TM33 (CIBSE 2006) and
were also used to produce the reference data set for Test G10
– Air handling unit test. The calculations employed hourly
values of external dry bulb and wet bulb for the whole of the
appropriate CIBSE Test Reference Year. This section describes
those systems and the way in which they were modelled.
Figure 20 Diagram of a fan coil unit system
22
3.2.1.2 Variable Air Volume (VAV) 3.2.1.3 Under Floor Air Distribution (UFAD)
Figure 21 is a diagram of a VAV system. In this system air is Figure 22 shows a diagram outlining the principle of
supplied from a central air handling unit again at a operation of an under floor air distribution system. Air is
temperature about 10ºC below the room cooling setpoint. supplied from a central air handling unit to an under floor
The air supply rate is at a considerably greater rate than plenum and then to the room via swirl diffusers. This is
with the FCU system because all the cooling is carried out by designed to remove the heat gains from the occupied level
the supply air (as opposed to the fan coil system where a and take them for extract in the ceiling. As a result the
significant proportion of the cooling is dealt with by supply temperature is significantly higher than that for the
equipment installed within the space). In order to minimise other systems and gives rise to the potential for large
the energy required to heat and cool the air return, air is amounts of free cooling where outside air is used to achieve
mixed with the fresh air within the central plant in such the cooling rather than using the cooling coils. Assumptions:
proportions as to minimise the heating and cooling energy.
• Fresh air quantity – The minimum as specified by the BCO
Assumptions:
(16l/s per person) to meet the fresh air supply demands
• Fresh air quantity – The minimum as specified by the BCO for the occupants. The maximum level is 100% fresh air.
(16l/s per person) to meet the fresh air supply demands The proportion depends on the optimum mixing to
for the occupants. The maximum level is 100% fresh air. minimise cooling or heating energy demand.
The proportion depends on the optimum mixing to • Supply temperature – Typically 18ºC.
minimise cooling or heating energy demand.
• Humidity control – Dehumidification only to maintain a
• Supply temperature – 10ºC below room temperature. maximum space relative humidity of 60% via control of
• Humidity control – Dehumidification only to maintain a supply air moisture content.
maximum space relative humidity of 60% via control of
supply air moisture content. Extract through lighting fitting and ceiling void
Hot ventilated air

More mixing of room
air at low level
Solar V~0.6m/s
heat V~0.2m/s
transmission
V~2m/s
Figure 22 Diagram of an under floor air distribution system
Figure 21 Diagram of a variable air volume system
23
3.2.1.4 Active Chilled Beams (ACB) 3.2.2.1 Fan Coil Unit

Figure 23 is a diagram showing the principle of operation of For the fan coil unit the only variables affected by the
an active chilled beam system. Air is supplied from a central change in setpoint from 22±2ºC to 24±2ºC are the occupant
air handling unit into the chilled beam at a rate slightly gains and the energy required to condition the fresh air for
higher than that for the fan coil system. This supply air is supply to the space. The occupant gains are explained fully
used to entrain room air into the beam also where it passes in 3.2.4.1. The main gains in the space are met by the fan
over a cooling coil. Assumptions: coil unit itself and the actual magnitude of these gains are
only marginally altered by the change in setpoint.
• Fresh air quantity – Slightly more than the minimum
specified by the BCO (16l/s per person) to meet fresh air The calculation set up in a spreadsheet had the following
supply demand for the occupants. steps:
• Supply temperature – Typically 14ºC.
• Calculate the latent gains from the occupants and from
• Humidity control – dehumidification only to maintain a this then calculate the required moisture content of the
maximum space relative humidity of 60% via control of supply air to maintain a relative humidity below 60% in
supply air moisture content. the space.
• Calculate the cooling energy required to meet this
moisture content and the supply temperature.
3.2.2.2 Variable Air Volume

With a variable air volume system the entire system is
affected by the change in setpoint since the air supply rate
varies with the heat gains to the space.
Cooling coil
Primary air The order of calculation set up in the spreadsheet was as
follows:
• Calculate the necessary supply rate to offset the loads in

the space. These loads were produced using a dynamic
Recessed in false ceiling
thermal model simulating a single office module.
Figure 23 Diagram of an active chilled beam system • Calculate the required moisture content of the supply air
to maintain an in-room RH of less than 60%.
• Calculate the mixing of return air from the room and the
3.2.2 MODELLING THE SYSTEMS fresh air to minimise the amount of energy used in
The systems described above were modelled using the cooling the supply air. In reality this is known as an
spreadsheet simulation tool and the effect of changing the economiser and the spreadsheet is a simplified version of
setpoint from 22±2ºC to 24±2ºC compared for three climates this.
– Edinburgh, London and Manchester.
• Calculate the cooling energy required to take the mixed air
to the supply conditions.
The office module used to produce the load profiles was set
up as follows:
• Floor plan – Rectangular, 6m wide by 4.5m deep, 3m high.

• Glazing – 60% of façade area, U-value of 1.7 W/m2K,
g-value of 0.62 with roller blind.
• Constructions – Part L 2006 standard U-values, no exposed
thermal mass.
• Loads – Occupants at 1 person per 10m2, lighting at
12 W/m2 and small power at 20 W/m2.
24
3.2.2.3 Under Floor Air Distribution 3.2.4 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

The under floor air distribution system is, in many ways, like
3.2.4.1 Metabolic rate
the VAV system in that the supply air provides all the
The human body gives off heat in two forms known as
cooling to the space. However the supply rate and
sensible and latent. The sensible component is made up of
temperature are fixed. Generally speaking UFAD systems will
convection and radiation, and the latent component arises
not be used in areas where loads vary significantly and
from perspiration and exhalation. It is the latent heat that
where they are a supplementary cooling system will normally
has the greatest effect in the systems as it defines the
be installed. As such the model used only considered a core
moisture level of the supply air. For a given activity the
area of a building where loads will be, more or less,
total amount of energy given off by the human body is
constant.
constant but depending on the temperature of the air and
The order of calculation set up in the spreadsheet was as surfaces around the body the split between latent and
follows: sensible heat varies.
• Calculate the required moisture content of the supply air Figure 24 shows this variation of sensible and latent gain
to maintain an in-room RH of less than 60%. with temperature.
• Calculate the mixing of return air from the room and the
140
fresh air to minimise the amount of energy used in
cooling the supply air. In reality this is known as an 120
Sensible
economiser and the spreadsheet is a simplified version of Latent
Gain per person (W)
100
this.
• Calculate the cooling energy required to take the mixed air 80
to the supply conditions. 60
3.2.2.4 Active Chilled Beams 40
An active chilled beam system operates in a similar manner 20

to a fan coil unit system. The main difference is that the
0
supply air rate is normally about 25% higher. As such the
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
relative differences caused by the change in setpoint will be Temperature (°C)
the same. Because of this no specific model was produced
and the results for fan coil units should be considered where Figure 24 The effect of temperature on occupant heat gains
a chilled beam system is of interest.
3.2.4.2 Boiler and Chiller Efficiencies
One possible consequence of raising the setpoint is the
3.2.3 SYSTEM EFFICIENCIES
opportunity to increase the temperature of the chilled water
In order to consider the actual savings due to the change in
supplied to both the central air handling unit cooling coils
setpoint it was necessary to include the efficiency of the
and to any cooling coils in room units (such as fan coils or
chiller, its coefficient of performance (COP). This is the ratio
active chilled beams).
of the amount of heat removed by the chiller to the amount
energy required to do so. Due to the way chillers work The main effect of doing this is to increase the coefficient of
(pumping heat from one location to another) it is normal to performance of the chiller. The actual magnitude of this
have COP’s of 4 or more, in other words for every kWh change depends on the particular piece of equipment but
consumed by the chiller 4kWh of heat would be removed. For Figure 25 gives an idea of the magnitude of the increases in
the purposes of this study a COP of 4.25 was assumed. efficiency that might occur. The ‘cold side’ axis represents
Modern chillers with magnetic bearings can achieve COP’s the temperature of the water sent to the cooling coil and
greater than 7. the COP axis is the Carnot efficiency of the chiller. This is a
theoretical maximum efficiency that cannot be achieved in
practice but the relative improvement due to change of
temperature will be very similar.
25
This approach is clearly very approximate. In order to

3.3 RESULTS
provide an accurate assessment of the effect of an increase
in setpoint on chiller performance it would be necessary to 3.3.1 FAN COIL UNIT
use a detailed model of the compressor, heat rejection Figure 26 shows the percentage reduction in cooling carbon
device and the water circulation components including emissions relative to an emission rate of 11.3 kg CO2/m2 (an
pumps and cooling coil. Such work is beyond the scope of average rate from type 3 and 4 energy demands in the ECON
this study. 19 guide converted using a carbon intensity factor of 0.422
kg CO2/kWh). It can be seen that in London, where the
15
cooling demand is greatest, the saving amounts to about 6%
with around a 4% saving in Manchester and 3.5% in
14
Edinburgh. If the rise in setpoint is accompanied by an
improvement in the COP of the chiller of the order suggested
13
in Section 2.4.2 then these savings increase to 13%, 10%
COP
and 9.5% respectively.

12
7
11
6
10 5
10 12 14 16 18 20
‘Cold side’ 4
%
3
Figure 25 Graph showing the theoretical effect of changing
chilled water temperature 2
1
As an example a move from 12ºC to 14ºC gives a theoretical
increase in efficiency of around 7.5%. 0
London Manchester Edinburgh
Figure 26 Percentage reduction in cooling carbon emissions

for an FCU system
Figure 27 shows the changes in chiller energy consumption

for the FCU system. As expected the trend is the same as for
the overall carbon emissions. The saving for the London
climate is around 1.6 kWh/m2, 1.1 kWh/m2 for Manchester
and 0.9 kWh/m2 for Edinburgh.
1800
1600
1400
Change in energy (Wh/m2)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Figure 27 Breakdown of savings by energy (Wh/m2) for an

FCU system
26
0.8 0.7
0.7 0.6
Change in emissions (Kg CO2/m2)

0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0 0.0
London Manchester Edinburgh London Manchester Edinburgh
Figure 28 Breakdown of savings by carbon dioxide emissions Figure 31 Breakdown of savings by carbon dioxide emissions
(kg CO2 /m2) for an FCU system (kg CO2 /m2) for a VAV system
3.3.2 VARIABLE AIR VOLUME With this system it may be possible to reduce the amount of
Figure 29 shows the relative reductions in CO2 emissions from air supplied. However, because the room load is not
the VAV system. The results are largely the same as for the FCU significantly affected by an increase in design temperature a
system. Hence the breakdowns for energy and CO2 emissions reduced flow will have an influence on air movement within
shown in Figure 30 and Figure 31 and are also the same. the room, velocities will fall. This could result in an increase
in discomfort. In the case of new build, a reduced air flow
6 might be possible, but this would be case specific with the
savings highly dependent upon the way the heat gains vary.
5
For these reasons the effect of a reduction in airflow rate
4 has not been considered.
% 3
3.3.3 UNDER FLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION
2 Figure 32 shows the relative reductions in CO2 emissions for
the three climates. In this system the effect of climate is
1
more pronounced but the overall savings are significantly
0 smaller. In London a change of 3.6% is predicted with 0.9%
London Manchester Edinburgh in Manchester and 0.5% in Edinburgh. The reason for this
Figure 29 Percentage reduction in cooling carbon emissions difference will be related to the amount of cooling required,
for a VAV system and how much free cooling is achievable. Once again if the
suggested improvement in COP is achieved the savings could
increase to 9% in London and around 7.5% elsewhere.
1800
1600 4.0
1400 3.5
1200
3.0
1000
2.5
800
% 2.0
600
1.5
400
200 1.0
0 0.5
0.0
Figure 30 Breakdown of savings by energy (Wh/m2) for a VAV

system Figure 32 Percentage reduction in cooling carbon emissions
for a UFAD system
27
Figure 33 shows that the absolute energy savings are 3.3.4 CONTEXT
significantly lower than those for the FCU and VAV systems. To place the savings shown above in context the ECON 19
The main reason for this will be the relatively lower cooling benchmarks for offices have been used as representative of
energy used by the UFAD system since the higher supply typical buildings. For the type 3 (air conditioned) and type 4
temperature allows more free cooling to be used. (prestige air conditioned) buildings the cooling electrical
energy consumption is of the order of 11% of the total
1000
electrical energy consumption. This means that a saving of
900 6% in cooling energy represents an overall saving of 0.7% of
800 electrical energy. Figure 35 indicates the amount of carbon
700 that might be saved based on a 4,000m2 office (relatively

600 small) and a 20,000m2 office (large) are as follows. The
500 range for each system under each office size is due to the
400 three different climates.
300
Saving in tonnes CO2 per annum
200
100
System type Small office Large office
0 Fan coil unit 1.6 to 2.8 8 to 14
Variable air volume 1.4 to 2.6 7 to 13
Underfloor 0.2 to 1.6 1.2 to 8
Figure 33 Breakdown of savings by energy (Wh/m ) for a 2
Figure 35 Possible carbon savings

UFAD system
0.45
3.4 CONCLUSIONS
0.40 From the results it can be seen that the savings associated
0.35 with raising the cooling setpoint are not huge but also not
0.30 negligible. For a simple change in setpoint these savings
0.25 cannot be ignored. The potential for raising the chilled water
0.20 temperature could also yield useful savings.
0.15
In the case of the variable air volume system it may be
0.10
possible to reduce the amount of air supplied. However,
0.05 because the room load is not significantly affected by an
0.00 increase in design temperature a reduced flow will have an
influence on air movement within the room, velocities will
fall (Holmes 1974). This could result in an increase in
Figure 34 Breakdown of savings by carbon dioxide emissions discomfort. In the case of new build a reduced air flow
(kg CO2 /m2) for a UFAD system might be possible but this would be case specific with the
savings highly dependent upon the way the heat gains vary.
For these reasons the effect of a reduction in airflow rate
has not been considered.
28
4. Acknowledgements
The authors of this report would like to thank Fergus Nicol
and Hom Rijal for their time, valuable discussions, and
library resources. Also, they would like to thank David Wyon
and William Fisk for providing relevant papers and
references.
29
5. References
ASHRAE Standard 55-2004: Thermal Environmental Conditions McCartney, K J and Nicol, J F. Developing an adaptive control
for Human Occupancy. American Society of Heating, algorithm for Europe. Energy and Buildings 34. 623-635
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (2004) (2002)
British Council for Offices Guide 2005: Best practice in the Nicol, J F and Humphreys, M A. Adaptive thermal comfort
specification for offices. British Council for Offices (2005) and sustainable thermal standards for buildings. Energy and
Buildings 34. 563-572 (2002)
BS EN ISO 7730:2005: Ergonomics of the thermal
environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of Nicol, J F and Humphreys, M A. Maximum temperatures in
thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD European office buildings to avoid heat discomfort. Solar
indices and local thermal comfort criteria. ISO (2005) Energy 81. 295-304 (2007)
CIBSE Guide A: Environmental Design. Chartered Institution Olesen, B W and Brager, G S. A Better Way to Predict
of Building Services Engineers (2006) Comfort. ASHRAE Journal (August 2004)
CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM24:1999. Environmental Ong, B L. Designing for the individual: a radical reading of
factors affecting office worker performance: A review of ISO 7730. Standards for Thermal Comfort: Indoor Air
evidence. Chartered Institution of Building Services Temperature Standards for the 21st Century. 70-77 (1995)
Engineers (1999)
Oseland, N A. Acceptable Temperature Ranges in Naturally
CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM33:2006. Tests for software Ventilated and Air-Conditioned Offices. ASHRAE Transactions,
accreditation and verification. Chartered Institution of 104 (1). 1018-1030 (1998)
Building Services Engineers (2006)
Raue, A K, Kurvers, S R, van der Linden, A C, Boerstra, A C,
De Dear, R J and Brager, G S. Developing an Adaptive Model Plokker, W. Dutch Thermal Comfort Guidelines: From weighted
of Thermal Comfort and Preference. ASHRAE Transactions, temperature exceeding hours towards adaptive temperature
104 (1). 145-167 (1998) limits. Comfort and Energy Use in Buildings: Getting them
right. Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, United Kingdom (April
Hodder, S, Loveday, G D L, Parsons, K C, and Taki, A H. 2006)
Thermal Comfort in Chilled Ceilings and Displacement
Ventilation Environments: Vertical Radiant Temperature Seppänen, O, Fisk, W J, and Lei, Q H. Room Temperature and
Asymmetry Effects. Energy and Buildings 27, Issue 2, 167- Productivity in Office Work. Proceeding of Healthy Buildings
173 (1998) Congress 1. 243-247 (2006)
Holmes, M J. Designing Variable Volume Systems for Room Wyon, D P. The effects of moderate heat stress on
Air Movement. HVRA Application Guide 1/74, 1974. typewriting performance. Ergonomics 17. 309-318 (1974)
Humphreys, M A and Nicol, J F. Self-Assessed Productivity Wyon, D P. The effects of indoor climate on performance and
and the Office Environment: Monthly Surveys in Five productivity: a review. WS and Energi 3. 59-65 (1986) (in
European Countries. American Society of Heating, Swedish)
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. DA-07-066
(2006) Wyon, D P. Healthy buildings and their impact on
productivity. Indoor Air 1993: Thermal environment, building
Loveday, D L, Parsons, K C, Taki, A H, Hodder S G, and Jeal, technology, cleaning 6. 3-14 (1993)
L. Designing for Thermal Comfort in Combined Chilled
Ceiling/Displacement Ventilation Environments. ASHRAE Wyon, D P, Anderson, I B, and Lundqvist, G R. The effects of
Transactions. 104, Pt. IB. 901-911 (1998) moderate heat stress on mental performance. Scandinavian
Journal of Work Environment and Health 5. 352-361 (1979)
McCartney, K J and Humphreys, M A. Thermal comfort and
productivity. Indoor Air 2002 Conference.
30
COPYRIGHT: BRITISH COUNCIL FOR OFFICES 2008
All rights reserved by the British Council for Offices (BCO). No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted
in any form or by any means without prior written permission from the British Council for Offices.
The BCO warrants that reasonable skill and care has been used in preparing this report. Notwithstanding this warranty the BCO
shall not be under liability for any loss of profit, business, revenues or any special indirect or consequential damage of any nature
whatsoever or loss of anticipated saving or for any increased costs sustained by the client or his or her servants or agents arising
in any way whether directly or indirectly as a result of reliance on this publication or of any error or defect in this publication.
The BCO makes no warranty, either express or implied, as to the accuracy of any data used by the BCO in preparing this report
nor as to any projections contained in this report which are necessarily of a subjective nature and subject to uncertainty and
which constitute only the BCO’s opinion as to likely future trends or events based on information known to the BCO at the date
of this publication. The BCO shall not in any circumstances be under any liability whatsoever to any other person for any loss or
damage arising in any way as a result of reliance on this publication.
Steering Group
Neil Pennell, Land Securities and BCO
Steven Davidson, Land Securities and BCO
Robin Harris, Como Group and Corenet
Nigel Pavey, Chapman Bathurst and Corenet
Bill Gething, Feilden, Clegg, Bradley Studios and RIBA
Jenny MacDonnell, BCO
Research Team
Dr Gavin Davies, Arup
Professor Michael Holmes, Arup
Irene Pau, Arup
Matthew Collin, Arup
The British Council for Offices (BCO) exists

to research, develop and communicate best
practice in all aspects of the office sector.
It delivers this by providing a forum for the
discussion and debate of relevant issues.
The BCO works to promote co-operation and
understanding between landlord and tenant,
investor and developer and owner and occupier,
thereby improving efficiency and innovation in
the sector.
For further information contact:

British Council for Offices
78-79 Leadenhall Street
London
EC3A 3DH
Tel: 020 7283 0125
Fax: 020 7626 1553
Further information about the BCO, including a

membership application form, can be found on
the BCO’s website: www.bco.org.uk
Printed on paper made entirely

from recycled stock.
Design: Vere Hunt Design

www.verehunt.co.uk

24 Degrees - Confort Productivity and Energy Consuption

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

24 Degrees - Confort Productivity and Energy Consuption

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

24°C Study:

2 COMFORT AND PRODUCTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Existing guidance and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ABOUT THE BRITISH COUNCIL FOR OFFICES

At the BCO Conference 2006 in Dublin, the BCO was challenged

Although it is possible for most offices to simply change the

This report found that increasing the standard office

I hope that you will be interested in the findings in this

Currently the British Council for Offices recommends that the

• Comfort and productivity.

The first contains a review of current guidelines and research

2. Comfort and productivity

2.1 DEFINITIONS • Occupants are seated; sedentary or near-sedentary physical

A comfort zone is defined by -0.5 < PMV < 0.5, or 80%

Tc = HTai + (1–H)Tr (Equation 3.2.1) Where:

Where: v = local mean air speed (m/s)

Tc = operative temperature (°C) Tu = local turbulence intensity (%)

H = hr / (hc + hr) CIBSE Guide A points out that acceptable operative

Tr = mean radiant temperature (°C)

Indoor temperature limits (°C)

2.2.2.4 Adaptive Approach 15

For heated and/or cooled buildings, the upper and lower

a) Tcom = 0.09Trm + 24.6 (Equation 3.2.4.2)

b) Tcom = 0.09Trm + 20.6 (Equation 3.2.4.3)

Where Tcom = comfort temperature (°C)

Standard 55-2004: Thermal Environmental Conditions for %

The PMV-PPD index uses a heat balance model to arrive at

2.2.3.6 Humidity 2.2.4.2 Additional Recommendations

2.2.3.8 Future Recommendations

The importance of personal control over the thermal

2.3.1.2 Scale Variations

2.3.1.1 Demographic Variations +3 much too hot

day. The more active individual will also have a higher

• Psychology – People’s expectations of their thermal 4

• Task 3: Develop an adaptive control algorithm (ACA) using • Gender

Occupant sensible gains decrease while latent heat gains 27

Comfort temperature (°C)

environment and so that evaporative losses can be 22

People living in hot climates may be better adapted to

Thermal discomfort reported by men usually tends toward the

Therefore, a 2K increase in design temperature will most

design temperature is even more acceptable for hot years.

27 2.3.2.2 Comfort Based on Clothing Levels

25 using the heat-balance approach set out by Fanger.

25 0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

Figure 10 Adaptive comfort ranges using Edinburgh DSY 10

Figure 12 Comfort predictions for 0.7 clo and 1 met

60 The influence of radiant temperature on comfort is

0.05m/s 0.1m/s 0.15m/s

Persons dissatisfied (PPD) (%)

comfort through, in the case of the façade, radiant

2.3.3.1 Air Speed 20

The effect of air speed is demonstrated in Section 4.2.2 15

be preferred. Typical air speeds for these systems lie in the 0

on the comfort temperature. It is therefore important to 10

Figure 16 Comfort predictions for 0.15 m/s and 1 met

2.3.3.3 Relative Humidity 2.3.4 PRODUCTIVITY IN OFFICES

2.3.4.2 Studies on the Effect of Temperature on

2.3.7 New Methodology

In the case of productivity, the following are controversial

3.2.1 SYSTEM TYPES