LISELLE CUSTODIO 200805059 ENE 31

1.) Define potable and palatable. What makes water potable and what make it palatable. Also, explain why
provide water that is both palatable and potable is important

Water can be both palatable and potable. The word "potable" means pure or purified, thus potable drinking
is water that is purified enough to be safe for drinking. It is fit for consumption by humans and may be naturally or
artificially potable. On the other hand, the word "palatable" means pleasant to taste, thus palatable water is water
that is pleasant to taste. For water to be palatable it should be free of detectable taste and odours originating from
decaying organic matter, living organisms, metallic products of corrosion, industrial waste pollution, chlorination,
high mineral concentrations, dissolved gases. Having potable water is more essential than having palatable water.
Safe water for drinking ensures health of people while palatable water is based more on the experience of drinking
water sometimes with, sometimes without effect on the person drinking it.

2.) Fill the table below. It shows the typical waste compounds by commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities
that have been classified as priority pollutant

Formula Name Where it is commonly used
As Arsenic strengthening alloys of
copper and especially lead,
compound used as most
common semiconductor in
use after doped silicon,
wood preservative, used in
treatment of cancer,
chemical weapon in military,
colouring, pyrotechnics
Ba Barium Dominating application is as
a scavenger or “getter”
removing the last traces of
oxygen and other gases in
television cathode ray tubes.
Barium sulfate is weighting
agent in drilling new oil
wells, radiocontrast agent
for X-ray imaging, and
pigment
Cd Cadmium 86% of cadmium was used in
batteries, predominantly in
rechargeable nickel-
cadmium batteries. Also
used in cadmium pigments
(yellow), coatings, and
plating. Also used in bearing
alloys, due to a low
coefficient of friction and
very good fatigue resistance.
Cr Chromium Important alloying material
for steel. The relative high
hardness and corrosion
resistance of unalloyed
chromium makes it a good
surface coating.
Chromium(III) salts are used
in the tanning of leather. It is
also a material for high
temperature refractory
applications, like blast
furnaces.
Pb Lead Lead is used in building
construction, lead-acid
batteries, bullets and shots,
weights, as part of solders,
pewters, fusible alloys and as
a radiation shield.
Concern (Associated Harmful
Effects)
Widespread arsenic contamination
of groundwater has led to a
massive epidemic of arsenic
poisoning. It is poisonous to
multicellular life, due to the
interaction of arsenic ions with
protein thiols.
At low doses, barium acts as a
muscle stimulant and at higher
doses affects the nervous system
eventually leading to paralysis.
Higher doses result in cardiac
irregularities, weakness, tremors,
anxiety, and dyspnea. Death can
occur from cardiac and respiratory
failure. Acute doses around 0.8
grams can be fatal to humans.
The most dangerous form of
occupational exposure to cadmium
is inhalation of fine dust and fumes,
or ingestion of highly soluble
cadmium compounds. Inhalation
can result initially in metal fume
fever but may progress to chemical
pneumonitis, pulmonary edema,
and death. Contaminated food can
develop itai-itai disease and renal
abnormalities, including proteinuria
and glucosuria.
People can be exposed to
chromium through breathing,
eating or drinking and through skin
contact with chromium or
chromium compounds. Health
hazards of chromium are skin
rashes, upset stomachs and ulcers,
respiratory problems, weakened
immune systems, kidney and liver
damage, alteration of genetic
material, lung cancer, death
Lead is a poisonous metal that can
damage nervous connections and
cause blood and brain disorders
such as dementia. Symptoms are
abdominal pain, headache,
irritability, joint pain, fatigue,
anemia, peripheral motor
neuropathy, and deficits in short-
Human Limits (Threshold
inhibitory effect)
The acute lethal dose of inorganic
arsenic to humans has been
estimated to be about 0.6
mg/kg/day. This means that for a 70
kg adult, a toxic dose is 42 mg or
0.042 grams. Exposure to high levels
of inorganic arsenic - greater than
100 ppm parts of arsenic in food or
water - can also be fatal.
The average barium concentration
was 7.3 mg/L, which corresponds to
a dose of 0.20 mg/kg/day.
The estimated fatal dose of barium
carbonate, a rodenticide, is about 5
grams for a 70 kg human, for barium
chloride is estimated at about 1
gram for a 70 kg human. Lowest
published lethal dose is is reported
to be about 0.8 grams.
For both NAG and protein HC, the
BMDs (BMDLs) of U-Cd were 0.5-1.1
(0.4-0.8) microg/L and 0.6-1.1 (0.5-
0.8) microg/g creatinine. For
estimated GFR, the BMDs (BMDLs)
were 0.8-1.3 (0.5-0.9) microg/L and
1.1-1.8 (0.7-1.2) microg/g creatinine.
Acute oral toxicity ranges between
1.5 and 3.3 mg/kg. The acute oral
toxicity for chromium(VI) ranges
between 50 and 150 µg/kg.
In children, subclinical lead
poisoning [blood lead level >1.4
umol/L (> 30 u g/dL)]. Symptomatic
lead poisoning develops at blood
lead levels exceeding 3.9 umol/L (80
ug/dL).
In adults, symptomatic lead
poisoning usually develops when

Hg Mercury Mercury is used in
thermometers, barometers,
manometers,
sphygmomanometers, float
valves, some electrical
switches, and other scientific
apparatus. It remains in use
in scientific research
applications and in amalgam
material for dental
restoration. It is used in
lighting.
Se Selenium It possesses antioxidant
activity, and demonstrates
antioxidant properties in
humans.
Initial evidence has
suggested that selenium
supplementation reduces
the risk of developing
prostate cancer in men.
Selenium is used to treat and
prevent selenium deficiency
Ag Silver Many well known uses of
silver involve its precious
metal properties, including
currency, decorative items
and mirrors. The contrast
between the appearances of
its bright white color in
contrast with other media
makes it very useful to the
visual arts. It has also long
been used to confer high
monetary value as objects
(such as silver coins and
investment bars) or make
objects symbolic of high
social or political rank.
term memory and the ability to
concentrate. Convulsions, coma,
and death due to generalized
cerebral edema and renal failure
occur in the most severe cases.
Exposures to very small amounts of
these compounds can result in
devastating neurological damage
and death. For fetuses, infants and
children, the primary health effects
of mercury are on neurological
development. Even low levels of
mercury exposure such as result
from mother's consumption
methylmercury in dietary sources
can adversely affect the brain and
nervous system.
Symptoms of selenosis include a
garlic odor on the breath,
gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss,
sloughing of nails, fatigue,
irritability, and neurological
damage. Extreme cases of selenosis
can result in cirrhosis of the liver,
pulmonary edema, and death.
Silver itself is not toxic but most
silver salts are, and some may be
carcinogenic, can cause
neurological damage, organ
damage and arteriosclerosis. Silver
and compounds containing silver
(like colloidal silver) can be
absorbed into the circulatory
system and become deposited in
various body tissues leading to a
condition called argyria which
results in a blue-grayish
pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and
mucous membranes. Although this
condition does not otherwise harm
a person's health, it is disfiguring
and usually permanent.
blood lead levels exceed 3.9 umol/L
(80 ug/dL). Some individuals
develop symptoms and signs at
lower blood lead levels [1.9 to 3.9
umol/L (40 to 80 u g/dL)] and/or
with briefer periods of exposure.
"Benchmark Dose Lower Limit"
(BMDL) of 58 micrograms per liter
(µg/L) of blood from a selective
reading of existing science.
Intake of mercury be reduced to 1.6
µg per kg body weight per week.
This new recommendation changes
the prior recommendation for a
dietary limit of 3.3 µg per kg body
weight per week.
Exceeding the Tolerable Upper
Intake Level of 400 micrograms per
day can lead to selenosis. A dose of
selenium as small as 5 milligram
(5000 µg) per day can be lethal for
many humans.
Small doses of silver seem harmless
for most people while large doses
taken in great excess can be toxic.
Silver content given to a 150 pound
adult between 150 and 570 liters of
10 PPM colloidal silver, or between
75 and 285 liters of 20 PPM colloidal
silver, or between 50 and 190 liters
of 30 PPM colloidal silver can cause
neurological damage, organ damage
and arteriosclerosis. The 10 gram
estimated lethal dose for humans
from Goodman and Gillman (56) is
equivalent in silver content to 1000
liters of 10 PPM colloidal silver.

3.) BOD Calculations. What is BOD and UBOD? Also, determine the 1-day BOD and ultimate first day BOD for a
wastewater whose 5-day 20°C BOD is 250 mg/L. The reaction constant k (base e) = 0.23 d-1. Lastly, what would
have been the 5-day BOD if the test had been conducted at 25°C?
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand test is used to measure waste loads to treatment plants, determine plant
efficiency (in terms of BOD removal), and control plant processes. It is also used to determine the effects of
discharges on receiving waters. The “ultimate BOD” is the amount of oxygen required to decompose all of the
organic material after “infinite time”.
 Most biological processes speed up as the temperature increases and slow down as the temperature
drops. The rate of utilization is affected by temperature the relationship for the change in the reaction rate constant
(K) with temperature is expressed as

4.) The following test results were obtained for a wastewater sample taken at an industrial facility. All the tests
were performed using a sample size 100ml. Determine the concentration of total solids, total volatile solids, and
total suspended solids, and dissolved solids for two samples.
5.) Given the conceptual diagram below, describe the various hydrological processes.

6.) Explain the difference between ppm in air pollution and ppm in water pollution. Explain the effect of
temperature and pressure on readings made in ppm.
Parts per million is a unit of concentration often used when measuring levels of pollutants in air, water, body
fluids, etc. One ppm is 1 part in 1,000,000. The main difference is that the local, state or national standards for
allowable pollutants vary for air and water pollution. Temperature and pressure affects the readings on the ppm as it
affects the volume of water and air as stated in the Ideal Gas Law. When volume of water or air is affected, its ratio
to the volume of solute is also affected; therefore readings made in ppm also change.

7.) Answer the following using the various Gas Laws.

a. What is the density of oxygen at a temperature of 273.0 K and at pressure of 98.0 kPa?

b. A sample of air contains 8.583 moles/m3 of oxygen and 15.93 moles/m3 of nitrogen at STP. Determine the (b1)
partial pressure of oxygen and (b2) the partial pressure of nitrogen in 1.0 m3 of the air.
8.) A power plant in a college town is burning coal on a cold, clear winter morning at 8:00 am with a wind speed of
2.6m/s and an inversion layer with its base at a height of 697m. The effective stack height is 30m. Calculate the
distance downward XL at which the plume released will reach the inversion layer and begin to mix downward.

9.) Discuss the state the theoretical principle on which each of the following air pollution control device operates:
a. Packed tower
These utilize liquids or plain water in order to clean bulk quantities of objectionable gases.
b. Adsorption column
Vertical tube in which a rising gas is partially absorbed by a liquid in the form of falling droplets.
c. Afterburner or catalytic combustor
A catalytic converter works by using a catalyst to stimulate a chemical reaction in which the by-
products of combustion are converted to produce less harmful and/or inert substances, therefore reduce
flue gas emissions.
d. Cyclone
A funnel-shaped device for removing particles from air or other fluids by centrifugal means; used to
remove dust from air or other fluids, steam from water, and water from steam, and in certain applications to
separate particles into two or more size classes. Also known as cyclone classifier.
e. Baghouse
The Baghouse is a generic name for Air Pollution Control Equipment (APC) that is designed around
the use of engineered fabric filter tubes, envelopes or cartridges in the dust capturing, separation or filtering
process.

f. Venturi scrubber
A gas-cleaning device in which liquid injected at the throat of a venturi is used to scrub dust and mist
from the gas flowing through the venturi.
g. electrostatic precipitator
removes dust particles from gases using force induced by electric charge

10.) Differentiate between acute and chronic health effects from air pollution. Explain why it is difficult to define a
causal relationship between air pollution and health effects.
Air pollution has both acute, short but sever course, and chronic, recurrent suffering, effects on human
health. Health effects range anywhere from minor irritation of eyes and the upper respiratory system to chronic
respiratory disease, heart disease, lung cancer, and death. Air pollution has been shown to cause acute respiratory
infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults. It has also been shown to worsen the condition of people with
pre-existing heart or lung disease. Health impact of air pollution depends on the pollutant type, its concentration in
the air, length of exposure, other pollutants in the air, and individual susceptibility. Different people are affected by
air pollution in different ways.
The difficulty in defining the causal relationship between air pollution and human health is due to the confounding
by weather, co-pollutants, or exposure misclassification of ambient air. Results will always be inconsistent which
explains the significant variability of the association.

11.) Define and discuss extensively the relevance in water quality of the following pathogen, SDWA, VOC, SOC,
DBP, THM, and SWTR.

SDWA - The Safe Drinking Water Act and its amendments encompass the federal regulations governing drinking
water systems. SDWA was originally passed by Congress in 1974 to protect public health by regulating the nation's
public drinking water supply. The law was amended in 1986 and 1996 and requires many actions to protect drinking
water and its sources: rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and ground water wells. (SDWA does not regulate private
wells which serve fewer than 25 individuals.) SDWA authorizes the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA) to set national health-based standards for drinking water to protect against both naturally-occurring and
man-made contaminants that may be found in drinking water. US EPA, states, and water systems then work
together to make sure that these standards are met.

There are a number of threats to drinking water: improperly disposed of chemicals; animal wastes; pesticides;
human wastes; wastes injected deep underground; and naturally-occurring substances can all contaminate drinking
water. Likewise, drinking water that is not properly treated or disinfected, or which travels through an improperly
maintained distribution system, may also pose a health risk.

Originally, SDWA focused primarily on treatment as the means of providing safe drinking water at the tap. The 1996
amendments greatly enhanced the existing law by recognizing source water protection, operator training, funding
for water system improvements, and public information as important components of safe drinking water. This
approach ensures the quality of drinking water by protecting it from source to tap.

Source Water Protection

Operator Certification
Drinking Water State Revolving Fund
Consumer Information

VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds are ground-water contaminants of concern because of very large environmental
releases, human toxicity, and a tendency for some compounds to persist in and migrate with ground-water to
drinking-water supply. VOCs are organic compounds that can be isolated from the water phase of a sample by
purging the water sample with inert gas, such as helium, and, subsequently, analyzed by gas chromatography. Many
VOCs are human-made chemicals that are used and produced in the manufacture of paints, adhesives, petroleum
products, pharmaceuticals, and refrigerants. They often are compounds of fuels, solvents, hydraulic fluids, paint
thinners, and dry-cleaning agents commonly used in urban settings.

SOC - Synthetic Organic Chemical are potentially a health risk to consumers. Chemicals below have Maximum
Contamination Level in mg/l as determined by US EPA Regulations.

Acrylamide (0.0005) Ethylbenzene (0.7)

Alachlor (0.002) Heptachlor (0.0004)
Aldicarb (0.01) Heptachlor epoxide (0.0002)
Aldicarb sulfoxide (0.01) Lindane (0.0002)
Aldicarb sulfone (0.04) Methoxychlor (0.4)
Atrazine (0.002) Monochlorobenzene (0.1)
Carbofuran (0.04) Polychlorinated biphenyls (0.0005)
Chlordane (0.02) Pentachlorophenol (0.2)
Dichloroethylene (0.07) Styrene (0.005)
DBCP (0.0002) Tetrachloroethylene (0.005)
Dichioropropane (0.005) Toluene (2.0)
Dichlorobenzene (0.6) TP (0.05)
D (0.1) Toxaphene (0.005)
EDB (0.00005) Dichloroethylene (0.1)
Epichlorohydrin (0.002) Xylene (10.0)
Activated carbon is generally used to remove organics. Flow rates should be restricted to 2 gpm per square
foot of the filter bed. Reverse osmosis will remove 98 to 99% of the organics in the water. Ultrafiltration (U7F) and
nanofiltration (NF) both will remove organics. Anion exchange resin also retains organics, but periodically needs
cleaning.

DBP - Disinfection Byproducts DOBs are a family of chemicals formed when these disinfectants, used to kill
microorganisms in water, react with naturally occurring organic matter. DBPs include haloacetic acids (HAA) and
trihalomethanes (THM). HAA5 is the sum of five HAAs: monochloroacetic, dichloroacetic, trichloroacetic,
monobromo-acetic, and dibromoacetic acids. TTHM is the sum of four chlorine and bromine-containing
trihalomethanes: chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform.. There are many known
DBPs, as well as possibly as yet unidentified DBPs in disinfected water. Since TTHM and HAA5 typically occur at
higher levels than other known DBPs in drinking water, their presence may be an indicator for a range of DBPs.
THM - Trihalomethanes (THMs) are a group of organic chemicals that often occur in drinking water as a result of
chlorine treatment for disinfectant purposes and, therefore, are also known as "disinfection byproducts" or DBPs.
THMs are formed when chlorine reacts with naturally occurring organic material found in water such as decaying
vegetation. Typically, the following four THMs are found as a result of chlorination: trichloromethane (chloroform),
bromodichloromethane (BDCM), ibromochloromethane (DBCM), tribromomethane (bromoform).

SWTR - Surface Water Treatment Rule seeks to prevent waterborne diseases caused by viruses, Legionella, and
Giardia lamblia. These disease-causing microbes are present at varying concentrations in most surface waters. The
rule requires that water systems filter and disinfect water from surface water sources to reduce the occurrence of
unsafe levels of these microbes.
The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) was published in the Federal Register by the Environmental
Protection Agency on June 29, 1989. Significant revisions were ordered in August, 1996, when the Safe Drinking
Water Act was reauthorized by Congress. This rule contains provisions that require disinfection and filtration for all
public water systems that use surface water or a source that is ground water under the direct influence of surface
water. Only those systems that were able to demonstrate compliance with the stringent source water quality criteria,
meet the inactivation (contact time) requirements, and maintain an effective watershed control program obtained
an avoidance to filtration.
The rule established Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for Turbidity, Heterotrophic Plate Count
(Bacteria), Giardia Lamblia cysts, Legionella, and enteric viruses. The SWTR also published approved testing
methodologies for the purpose of determining compliance. Approved testing procedures can be found in the
Standard Methods text or 40 CFR Part 141. The monitoring requirements are dependent on the type of filtration
and/or disinfections treatment employed by the system.

12.) Sketch water softening plant and filtration plant, labelling all of the parts and explaining their functions.
Hard water becomes hard if it contains a lot of dissolved calcium or magnesium. Calcium and magnesium can
cause "scale" to form inside pipes and reduce water flow. It reacts with soap to form a sticky scum and reduces
water ability to conduct heat. One solution is to use a water softener.

SOFT HOT HARD HOT

WATER WATER

BYPASS SHUT-OFF
SOFT VALVE HARD VALVE
VALVE WATER WATER
WATER
To do the ion replacement, the water in the house runs
HEATER through a bed of small plastic beads or through a
SOFTENER chemical matrix called zeolite. The beads or zeolite are
covered with sodium ions. As the water flows past the
sodium ions, they swap places with the calcium and
magnesium ions.

SALT
STORAGE
Calcium and
ZEOLITE magnesium ions are
replaced with sodium
soaked in ions.
regenerate the
SODIUM beads or zeolite.
solution

WATER SOFTENING PLAN

 Process of forming floc particles
when a chemical coagulant or
flocculent such as alum or ferric
chloride is added to the wastewater.

the process of Allow sludge to build up and

forming semisolid accumulate in a basin. Anaerobic
lumps in a liquid processes may occur, causing gas
Filtration is the process of production.
separating suspended solid
matter from a liquid, by
causing the latter to pass
through the pores of some Wastewater enters the
substance, called a filter. basin and very fine
particles in the water
are separated by
means of gravity. The
water must be in the
basin long enough for
the desired particle size
to be removed. Smaller
particles require longer
Flouridation - the addition of a periods for removal and
fluoride to the water supply (to thus larger basins.
prevent dental decay)
Disinfection - Disinfectants are
A polymer is added to help
antimicrobial agents that are
thicken the sludge. This
applied to non-living objects to
combined with a large belt
destroy microorganisms
press help dewater the
primary and secondary
sludges to a processible
level.
WATER FILTRATION PLANT

13.) What is hardness of water? Using diagrams and chemical reactions, explain how water becomes hard.
Water as moisture hits the earth and filters through layers of rock and dirt, it picks up minerals like calcium
and magnesium which concentrate the hardness of the water. Hard water is measured by the amount of hardness
minerals (calcium & magnesium) in water. These amounts are measure in grains per gallon (GPG).

The use of this scale is based on appliance

tolerance to hard water, i.e. dishwasher, kettle, tubes,
etc. One solution is softening water through salt but this
is not the most neccessary solution. Sodium ions can
only replace and absorb hardness ions after it reached
its hardness saturation and regenerates. Alternatively,
potassium solution can also be used.
Hard water is produced when calcium
carbonate dissolves in the water. Slightly acidic water
reacts with carbon dioxide gases and forms a slightly
acidic solution.

carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

The weak carbonic acid slowly reacts with and dissolves away the calcium carbonate in the minerals it passes
over.
calcium carbonate + carbonic acid calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Calcium hydrogen carbonate is formed in the reaction which later dissolves and creates calcium ions. This
Ca2+(aq) makes water hard.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + HCO3−(aq)

14.) Write the equations for the dissolution of chlorine gas in water and the subsequent dissociation of
hypochlorous acid. Also, explain the difference between free available chlorine and combined available chlorine,
and explain which one is the more effective disinfectant.

CI gas is moderately soluble in water with a maximum solubility of about 1 % at 10°c. When chlorine is added
to water, it first reacts with any iron, manganese or hydrogen sulphide that may be present in water. Then Cl will
react with organic substances (including bacteria). Some of these reactions, which consume chlorine, are able to kill
micro-organisms in the water. The chlorine will react with organic compounds in water and form trihalomethanes
(THM). It will also react with reducing agents such as hydrogen sulphide, ferrous ions, manganous ions, and nitrite
ions. Chlorine may be added to water in the form of chlorine gas, hypochlorite, or chlorine dioxide. All types of
chlorine will kill bacteria and some viruses, but only chlorine dioxide will effectively kill Cryptosporidium, Giardia,
protozoans, and some viruses. Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in metal cylinders. The gas is
difficult to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At high concentrations, chlorine gas can even be
fatal.

Reactions of Chlorine with Water

When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction occurs:

The chlorine reacts with water and breaks down into hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid.

Chlorine + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid

Cl2 + H2O –> HOCl + HCl

Hypochlorous acid may further break down, depending on pH:

Hypochlorous Acid <-> Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion

HOCI <-> H+ + OCl-

The double-sided arrows in the equations mean that the reaction is reversible. Hypochlorous (HOCL) acid
may break down into a hydrogen ion and a hypochlorite (OCL) ion, or a hydrogen ion and a hypochlorite ion may join
together to form hypochlorous acid.

15.) Sketch a series of curves that show the deoxygenation, reaeration, and DO sag in a river. Show the effect of a
change in the deoxygenation or reaeration rate on the location of the critical point and the magnitude of the DO
deficit.

Zone of Degradation:
This zone is situated just below the outfall sewer while
discharging its contents into the stream. In this zone,
water is rendered dark and turbid, having the formation of
sludge deposits at the bottom. The DO is reduced to 40%
of the saturation values. There is an increase in CO2
content, and re aeration is much slower than
deoxygenation. The decomposition of solid matter takes
place in this zone and anaerobic decomposition prevails
over aerobic decomposition.
Zone of Active Decomposition:
This zone is just the continuation of degradation zone and is marked by heavy pollution. Water in this zone
becomes grayish and darker than the previous zone. The DO concentration in this zone falls down to zero. Active
anaerobic organic decomposition takes place, with the evolution of Methane (CH4), Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), Carbon
dioxide (CO2)and Nitrogen (N2) bubbling to the surface with masses of sludge forming black scum. Fish life is absent
in this zone but bacterial flora will flourish with the presence of anaerobic bacteria at upper end and aerobic bacteria
at the lower end. However, near the end of this zone, as the decomposition slackens, re aeration sets in and DO
again rises to its original level of 40% (of saturation value).
Zone of Recovery:
In this zone, the process of recovery starts, from its degraded condition to its former purer condition. The
stabilization of organic matter takes place in this zone. Due to this, most of the stabilized organic matter settles as
sludge, BOD falls and DO content rises above90% value.
Clear Water Zone:
In this zone, the natural condition of stream is restored with the result that(i) Water becomes clearer and
attractive in appearance.(ii) DO rises to the saturation level, and BOD drops to the lowest value.(iii) Oxygen balance
is attained.

Oxygen sag is a dip in the amount of dissolved oxygen in a body of water. This can be caused by several
things, ranging from a drop in water flow to an increase in waste in the water. Occasionally when waste is
introduced into a body of water, bacteria will begin to consume the waste. As they consume the waste, the bacteria
use up oxygen, causing the overall amount of oxygen in the water to drop.

Dissolved Oxygen Analysis produces a graph of the measured concentrations of Dissolved Oxygen in water
samples collected (1) upstream from a significant Point Source (PS) of readily degradable organic material (pollution),
(2) from the area of the discharge, and (3) from some distance downstream from the discharge, plotted by sample
location.

Deoxygenation and Reaeration Curves

When the wastewater (pollution load) is discharged into the stream, the DO content of the stream goes on depleting.
This depletion of DO content is known as deoxygenation. The rate of deoxygenation depends upon the amount of
organic matter remaining to be oxidized at any time, as well as temperature of the reaction. The variation or
depletion of DO content of the stream versus time is depicted by the Deoxygenation curve in the absence of aeration.

Deoxygenation in Rivers
The DO in rivers and streams is depleted by the bacterial oxidation of the suspended and dissolved organic
matter discharged to them by both natural and man-made sources and by the oxygen demand of sludge and benthic
deposits.

Reaeration in Rivers
The sources of oxygen replenishment in a river are reaeration from the atmosphere and photosynthesis of
aquatic plants as algae. The amount of reaeration is proportional to the dissolved oxygen deficiency. The amount of
oxygen supplied by photosynthesis is a function of the size of the algal population and the amount of sunlight
reaching the algae.
16.) Explain why the pH of pure rainwater is about 5.6. Also define acid rain, explain why it is of high concern, and
explain the role of calcerous soils in protecting lakes from acidification.

The acidity of rainwater comes from the natural presence of three substances (CO2, NO, and SO2) found in the
troposphere (the lowest layer of the atmosphere). CO2 has the largest concentration among mentioned gases in the
atmosphere. This CO2 reacts with the H2O (water vapor) in the atmosphere for the following reaction:

CO2 + H2O ---> H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

then that dissociates:

H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate ion)

the bicarbonate ion can then dissociate:

HCO3- ---> H+ + CO3- (carbonate).

All of these reactions are reversible as well and is what makes bicarbonate a really good buffer. Bicarbonate is the
same buffer used in human blood.

Human uses of the combustion processes increase the concentrations of acid-producing oxides in the atmosphere.
Although CO2 is present in a much higher concentration than NO and SO2, CO2 does not form acid to the same
extent as the other two gases. Thus, a large increase in the concentration of NO and SO2 significantly affects the pH
of rainwater, even though both gases are present at much lower concentration than CO2. 25% of the acidity of rain
is nitric acid (HNO3) while the other 75% is the presence of H2SO4 in rainwater.

Acid rain triggers a number of inorganic and biochemical reactions with deleterious environmental effects, making
this a growing environmental problem worldwide.

 Many lakes have become so acidic that fish cannot live in them anymore.
 Degradation of many soil minerals produces metal ions that are then washed away in the runoff, causing
several effects:
3+
o The release of toxic ions, such as Al , into the water supply.
2+
o The loss of important minerals, such as Ca , from the soil, killing trees and damaging crops.
 Atmospheric pollutants are easily moved by wind currents, so acid-rain effects are felt far from where
pollutants are generated.

However, some lakes have alkaline mineral deposit which protect lakes from acidity. Calcareous soils and
limestone outcrops which contain Ca CO 3 (calcium carbonate) are dominant in the landscape and provide a "buffer"
against acid rain. CaCO3 reacts with acid rain to balance the ph level of water to 7.

17.) Explain the term “greenhouse effect”, its hypothesized cause, and why it is being debated (pro and con).
 The atmosphere of Earth is a mixture of different gases such as Nitrogen (78%) Oxygen (21%) Argon (less
than 1%), other inert gases (Neon, Krypton), Carbon dioxide (0.04%), Methane (0.0018%), Water Vapors and traces
of other gases (including Ozone). Each gas behaves like a filter – it can absorb certain wavelengths, it can scatter
other wavelength. The radiation in the visible wavelengths is scattered by the atmosphere and partly finds its way to
Earth surface. Earth surface warms up and radiates back to the atmosphere in longer wavelength known as infrared.
Infrared is absorbed by the greenhouse gases; The heat that is trapped, unable to escape to space, creates the
greenhouse effect. The gases are referred to as greenhouse due to the nature of greenhouse traps heat from the sun
for plants to grow during winter.

The presence of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere produces the greenhouse effect, which
keeps the atmosphere warm. The warm atmosphere is very essential for the survival of life on Earth in the following
ways:
ADVANTAGES
 Precipitation of water, formation of clouds, rainfall etc. life in the biosphere depend on these
resources.
 The warm atmosphere helps in the growth of vegetation and forest etc. These are sources of food,
shelter etc.
 This effect helps in rapid bio-degradation of dead plants and animals.
DISADVANTAGES
 Global Warming - In the last century the Earth's surface temperature has risen by over 1 F.
Accelerated warming has taken place over the last two decades and the ten hottest years were
recorded in the last 15 years of the century, 1998 being the hottest year. Scientists expect the
temperature to rise an additional 0.6 to 2.5 C in the next 50 years and 1.4 5.8 C. (with significant
regional variation) in the next 100 years. The impact of a change in the Earth's temperature on
climate can be gauged by the fact that at the peak of the last ice age (18,000 years ago) the
temperature was only 7 F colder than it is today.
 Rising sea levels - Globally sea levels have risen 4-8 inches over the last century. The high
temperatures have already started melting polar ice caps sea icebergs and glaciers. This has released
enormous amount of water. Warmer temperatures also heat water and make it expand; thus ocean
levels need more space and further rise. The level of sea is likely to rise by several inches to up to 3
feet during this century. This would lead to vast coastal flooding, huge expense by Governments and
individuals to safeguard oceanfront property, submerging of low-lying coastal countries. It would
also cause the conversion of fresh water habitats and eco-systems into saltwater areas endangering
vegetation, crops, animals and water supply along the coast.
 Climate Change - Global warming has already occurred and will continue to do so. Evaporation will
increase as climate warms and there will be an increase in average global precipitation. Local climate
conditions are likely to change depending on the modifications of local rainfall patterns.
 Human Health and Heat stress - The number of very hot days is expected to rise in many areas
around the globe. Heat stress occurs in such conditions and the young, old and poor people are
more susceptible to it. High temperatures will reduce work efficiency of human beings.
 Alteration of Habitats and Ecosystems - Many of the worlds habitats and ecosystems depend on a
delicate balance of rainfall, temperature and soil type. A complex food chain supply exists based on
these factors. Higher temperatures and precipitation changes are likely to cause diverse changes
such as increased forest susceptibility to fire, disease and insect damage also, deserts may expand
into existing grass lands. Similarly, changes in ocean temperature will adversely affect the marine life.
If future changes occur as rapidly as some scientists predict, plants, animals and marine life may not
be able to adapt quickly enough to survive.
 Cooling of the Stratosphere - Increasing concentration of greenhouse gases are expected to cause
cooling of stratosphere. This could happen because most of the thermal IR radiation will be trapped
and absorbed at lower altitudes; little will be left to warm the stratosphere. Cooling of stratosphere
would mean enhanced greenhouse effect i.e., greater global warming.

One good argument is that the greenhouse effect is definitely a natural occurrence. It's what keeps the
earth's temperature from significantly falling at night, unlike the planets that lack an atmosphere whose day and
night temperature may differ by hundreds of degrees.
18.) Discuss the natural and anthropogenic origin of the six criteria air pollutants and identify the likely
mechanisms for their removal from the atmosphere.

19.) Discuss the photochemistry of ozone in the upper atmosphere using the pertinent chemical reactions. Discuss
the hypothesized effect on chlorofluorocarbons on these reactions.

20.) Explain why lake breezes and land breezes occur, and how a lake breeze adversely affects the dispersion of
pollutant. Also explain why valleys are more susceptible to inversion than flat terrain.

The wind which moves inland daily with cool moist air is called the sea breeze, and that which moves
seaward is the land breeze. In general, the sea breeze is the stronger of the two winds especially among those
tropical coasts flanked by cold ocean currents.

1. Warm air over land rises

2. Sea Breeze moves inland as a mesoscale cold front
3. Cumuli develop aloft and move seaward
4. Upper level return land breeze
5. Cool air aloft sinks over water
6. Sea Breeze (meso-cold) Front

A few hours after sunrise, the pressure gradient will have built up sufficiently to allow the sea breeze to
begin moving inland. As the sea breeze moves inland, the cooler sea air advances like a cold front characterized by a
sudden wind shift, a drop in temperature and a rise in relative humidity. A temperature drop of 2 to 10 C degrees
(3.6 to 18 F degrees) within 15 to 30 minutes is not an uncommon occurrence as the sea breeze front advances.

1. Cool air over land sinks

2. Land Breeze moves out over water
3. Relatively warmer water heats air which then rises
4. Upper level return sea breeze
5. Cool air over land sinks

Lake breezes, like sea breezes, are driven by the difference in pressure between warmer air over land and
cooler air over water. Such temperature contrasts are the result of differences in heat flux for land and water
surfaces. Lake-breeze circulations usually develop a few hours after sunrise and dissipate near sunset.

The exacerbation of air pollution problems in coastal environments is well known. One of the commonly
occurring effects related to the onshore flow of relatively cool marine air is fumigation of pollutants downwind of
the shoreline. Another commonly occurring in coastal areas is plume trapping. Fumigation and plume trapping often
occur in association with lake breezes. However, lake breezes introduce their own unique problems. The first is the
ability of lake breezes to transport pollutants in three dimensions. Lake breezes are quasi-closed circulations and
pollutants emitted into them can be recirculated over the near-shore area. That is, pollutants emitted into the inflow
layer get lofted in the frontal region and disperse into the return flow aloft. A fraction of these pollutants may be
forced into the inflow layer again by the descending branch of the circulation. Remaining pollutants reside in the
residual layer aloft.

Lake breezes and smog episodes have been observed under similar meteorological conditions in Great Lakes
Region of eastern North America. The region includes several major metropolitan areas with significant sources of
pollution. The hourly averaged ozone and PM2.5 concentrations on days with lake breezes are significantly higher
than that on days without lake breezes. A significant feature of Lake Breeze impact is that, at a particular location,
the passing of Lake Breeze front may cause the ozone concentration to increase rapidly by tens of ppb. However, the
arrival of Lake Breeze can also have different impacts at different locations. For example, at one location, lake breeze
front resulted in a sharp increase in the NOx concentration and little change in the ozone concentration; and at
another location, it brought a small increase in the NOx concentration and a sharp increase in the ozone
concentration. It indicates the source of pollutants and the origin of the air mass over the lake are critical to the lake
breeze impact on air quality for lakeshore and inland locations.

Vertical cross-section diagram

showing a typical lake-breeze circulation as it
penetrates inland. Arrows show air motions
within the circulation including the inflow,
the frontal updraft, and the return flow. The
surface location of the lake-breeze front is
shown in magenta. Blue lines indicate the
lifting condensation level (LCL), green outlines
indicate entrainment zones, and orange
outlines indicate capping inversions.