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Qiaochu Yuan
Department of Mathematics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Outline
1 Introduction
What’s Going On?
Background
2 The Three Proofs
Proof 1: Linear Independence
Proof 2: Partial Fraction Decomposition
Proof 3: Diagonalization
3 Unifying the Proofs
The shift operator
4 Conclusion
Fibonacci-type Sequences
Fibonacci-type Sequences
Fibonacci-type Sequences
Fibonacci-type Sequences
Finding a Basis
Finding a Basis
Finding a Basis
Finding a Basis
Finding a Basis
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Guessing Works!
Generating Functions
n n n 2 n
0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)
Generating Functions
n n n 2 n
0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)
Generating Functions
n n n 2 n
0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)
Generating Functions
n n n 2 n
0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)
Generating Functions
n n n 2 n
0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...
1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...
F (x) = φ−ϕ
Changing Basis
Changing Basis
Changing Basis
Changing Basis
Changing Basis
φn 0
Conjugation respects multiplication: =P−1 Fn P
0 ϕn
n
φ 0
Back to old basis: Fn = P P−1
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1
− ϕn+1 φn − ϕn
n 1 φ
F = φ−ϕ as desired
φ n − ϕn φn−1 − ϕn−1
φn 0
Conjugation respects multiplication: =P−1 Fn P
0 ϕn
n
φ 0
Back to old basis: Fn = P P−1
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1
− ϕn+1 φn − ϕn
n 1 φ
F = φ−ϕ as desired
φ n − ϕn φn−1 − ϕn−1
φn 0
Conjugation respects multiplication: =P−1 Fn P
0 ϕn
n
φ 0
Back to old basis: Fn = P P−1
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1
− ϕn+1 φn − ϕn
n 1 φ
F = φ−ϕ as desired
φ n − ϕn φn−1 − ϕn−1
A Generic Description
A sequence s is Fibonacci-type if
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
When T is the shift on sequences, this is the usual
definition
When T is division by x, this is the definition of the
generating function
When T = F, this is the identity F2 − F − I = 0
(characteristic polynomial)
A Generic Description
A sequence s is Fibonacci-type if
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
When T is the shift on sequences, this is the usual
definition
When T is division by x, this is the definition of the
generating function
When T = F, this is the identity F2 − F − I = 0
(characteristic polynomial)
A Generic Description
A sequence s is Fibonacci-type if
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
When T is the shift on sequences, this is the usual
definition
When T is division by x, this is the definition of the
generating function
When T = F, this is the identity F2 − F − I = 0
(characteristic polynomial)
A Generic Description
A sequence s is Fibonacci-type if
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
When T is the shift on sequences, this is the usual
definition
When T is division by x, this is the definition of the
generating function
When T = F, this is the identity F2 − F − I = 0
(characteristic polynomial)
A Generic Proof
A Generic Proof
A Generic Proof
A Generic Proof
A Generic Proof
Generalization
Generalization
Generalization
Generalization
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion
Conclusion