Extra Notes

V = IR voltage = current * resistance

ρl
R=
A
ρl
⇒V = I
A
V 1 dV 1
⇒ A = I = Aσ (where x ≡ l and = σ )
l ρ dx ρ
σ = conductivity and ρ = resistivity
and
V I
= E so Eσ = = J
l A
Energy Bands

A solid can be thought of as being formed by bringing together isolated single atoms. Any single
atom will possess a large number of discrete energy levels that can be occupied by the electrons of
the atom as shown in Fig. 271(a). Normally the electrons exist in the ground state, occupying only
the lowest-lying energy levels. It is, of course, possible to excite the electrons into higher energy
levels. Usually only the highest-energy, or valence, electrons will participate in these excitations.
Consider first the combination of two atoms. If there were no interaction between the two atoms, the
value of each energy level would be the same as for each isolated atom, with the number of levels at
a particular energy simply being doubled, as shown in Fig. 271(b).

Because of interactions, however, each previously single energy level is split into two levels, as
shown in Fig. 271(c). In a similar fashion, if more atoms were brought together there would be a
larger number of splitting of each energy level, one split for each additional atom. Figure
271(d)shows the splitting of energy levels when five atoms are brought together. Because there are
of the order of 1023 atoms/ cm3 in solids, each previously single energy level of an isolated atom will
be split into an enormous number of parts. Since the values of the energy levels remain
approximately the same, the net effect of assembling a large number of interacting atoms is to form
bands of practically continuous energy levels, separated by gaps where no electron states exist, as
illustrated in Fig. 271(e).

3-Types of Materials

…the bands in solids may be filled, partially filled or empty, as shown in Fig. 272. The highest
energy band occupied by the valence electrons and the unoccupied band directly above it determine
the conduction properties of a crystalline solid. If the band containing the valence electrons is filled,
it will be referred to as the valence band, and the next-higher band will be referred to as the
conduction band; if the band containing the valence electrons is not filled, it will be called the
conduction band.

A good conductor has a conduction band that is approximately half filled [Fig. 272(a)], or else the
conduction band overlaps the next higher band [Fig. 272(b)]. In this situation it is very easy to raise
a valence electron to a higher energy level, so these electrons can easily acquire energy from an
electric field to participate in electrical conduction.

An insulating material has a filled valence band, and the gap to the conduction band is large [Fig.
272(c)]. As a result, electrons cannot easily acquire energy from an electric field, so they cannot
participate in electrical conduction.

Some materials have a filled valence band, like an insulator, but a small gap to the conduction band
[Fig. 272(d)]. At T =0 K the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty, so
the material behaves like an insulator. At room temperature, however, some of the electrons acquire
sufficient thermal energy to be found in the conduction band, where they can participate in electrical
conduction. In addition, these electrons leave behind unfilled “holes” into which other electrons in
the valence band can move during electrical conduction. The excitation of electrons into these holes
has the net effect of positive charge carriers supporting electrical conduction.

The semiconductors just described are called intrinsic semiconductors. It is possible, however, by
introducing proper impurities into a material, to control whether electrical conduction will be
primarily by electron (negative) or hole (positive) charge carriers. Such “doped” semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors, and serve as the foundation for semiconductor devices. If the
predominant charge carriers are electrons, the material is called an n-type (for “negative”)
semiconductor; while if the holes are the predominant charge carriers, the material is called a p-type
(for “positive”) semiconductor.
GAUTREAU Ph.D, RONALD. Schaum's Outline of Modern Physics.
Blacklick, OH, USA: McGraw-Hill Professional Book Group, 1999. p 311.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/auckland/Doc?id=10015352&ppg=317
Fermi level, Ef highest energy at 0K
F(E) Fermi distribution, probability that an electron energy state is full.
http://fiselect2.fceia.unr.edu.ar/fisica4/simbuffalo/education/semicon/fermi/functionAndStates/funct
ionAndStates.html
µ = Mobility , mean velocity in a field, E, of 1V
vd= drift velocity
v
µ= d
E
J = nev d = σE
⇒ σ = neµ
where n = number of charge carriers/volume, e= charge on electron =1.6x10-19C, J= current
density, current /area, E= electric filed strength, volts/metre
for semiconductor:
σ = neµ e + peµ h n= -electrons/volume, p= +holes /volume, µh=mobility of holes

Mass Action Law: n.p=constant = ni2 ni = no. intrinsic carriers /volume

Eg
ni = n0 exp− ( ) n0=constant, Eg = energy of band gap, k=Boltzmann constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K
2kT

Eg
similarly, σ = σ 0 exp− ( ) σ = conductivity
2kT

Crystal structure for many semiconductors is diamond cubic, DC, 8 atoms/unit cell

n-type semiconductor , major carrier = “negative“ electron, in exhaustion region n ≅ ND (no, donor
atoms/volume & n>>p)
p-type semiconductor, major carrier = “positive” hole, in exhaustion region p ≅ NA (no. acceptor
atoms /volume & p>>n)

pn-Junctions:
see:

http://fiselect2.fceia.unr.edu.ar/fisica4/simbuffalo/education/pn/biasedPN/index.html

1) open circuit:
• get depletion zone, as holes & electrons cancel and left with minority carriers, width
of zone, W=Wp+Wn (NAWp=NDWn),
• get barrier potential V0 (~0.7V for Si)
• ID, Diffusion current = IS drift current

2) Forward Bias:
http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/mmg/teaching/linearcircuits/diode.html
• easier for current to flow, as bias, V, increases, depletion zone width, W, narrows and
barrier potential drops to (V0-V)
• ID > Is
  eV 
•
Diode equation: I = I s exp( ) − 1
 kT 
3) Reverse Bias:
• harder for current to flow, only small drift current form thermally generated electron
hole pairs, until large at reverse bias, get breakdown (V=VZK breakdown Voltage,
Zener)
• Barrier potential increase (V0+V) with reverse bias, V
• depletion zone widens
• IS>ID

Dielectrics

p=q.d p=dipole moment, q=charge, d=distance charges move apart

P=N.q.d P=Polarisation, N= no. of molecules,etc/volume

ε0 A ε 0ε r A
C0 = & C= ε0 = 8.85x10-12CV-1m-1 εr= dielectric constant or relative permittivity
d d
C=capacitance, A=Area of plates, d = separation of plates
ε Q C
εr = & εr = =
ε0 Q0 C 0

Q 1
C C∫
V = = Idt V = V0 sin ωt
Angle δ is a measure of dielectric power loss
dV ∴ I = CV0ω cos ωt
⇒I =C
dt
Q=charge, C.

related: Power loss / vol = ωE 2ε 0ε r tan δ (note: ω=2πf and ε0 = 8.85x10-12CV-1m-1)

f=frequency, E is electric field (V/m),

Dielectric Strength: ξmax

max voltage gradient a dielectric can withstand before breakdown
V 
ξ max =  
 d  max

Important properties – basic:

1. Relative permittivity,εr
Ability of polarisation, or energy storage
εr<12 generally used as an insulator
εr>12 generally used in capacitor or other charge storage

2. Tangent of lag (loss) angle, tan δ

Energy loss

3. Dielectric strength, ξmax

Ability to withstand high Voltage (insulation property)
 conducting
materials

resistors/heating
elements

conductivity
semi-
conductors

ρ ranging

insulators ~1024!
Intrinsic semiconductor materials
Elemental semiconductors:

Si & Ge - most important semiconductor elements

Boron (B), tellurium (Te) and some types of tin (Sn) are also
intrinsic semiconductors.

Comparison → Si and Ge
______________________________________________
Semiconductors Si Ge
Energy gap, eV 1.06 (1.1) 0.67
Application temp. °C ~200 ~100
Electron mobility, μn 0.135 0.39
Hole mobility, μp (m2/Vs) 0.048 0.19
Intrinsic carrier density, n (/m3) 1.5×1016 2.4×1019
Resistivity, ρ (Ωm) 2300 0.46
Density, g/cm3 2.33 5.32
Melting point, °C 1410 937
Lattice parameter, nm 0.543 0.566
 Semiconductor Materials
Group Semi- Bandgap Applications
IV Si 1.06 eV Conduction control (transistors), IC,
detectors, solar cells
IV Ge 0.67 Photo-detectors
III-V GaAs 1.4 Optoelectronics, lasers, LED, solar cells
III-V GaP 2.2 LED and lasers
III-V InP 1.3 Solar cells, substrates for other semi-
II-VI CdTe 1.5 X-ray photo detectors, solar cells
II-VI CdS 2.4 Solar cells
III,III-V GaAlAs ? Laser crystals & LED
II,II-VI HgCdTe ? Infrared photo-detector
III-V,V GaAsP ? LED

? In ternary semiconductors, the bandgap depends on the ratio of Ga:Al.

Example:
Calculate the electrical conductivity of pure Si at 20°C and (b)
at 150°C.
The energy gap of Si Eg = 1.1 eV, intrinsic carrier concentration
at room temperature ni = 1.5x1016/m3, electron mobility μn =
0.135 m2/Vs, hole mobility μp = 0.048 m2/Vs.

(a) find σ at room temperature (293K):

(b) find σ at 150°C:
Example:
Calculate the electrical conductivity of pure Si at 20°C and (b) at
150°C.
The energy gap of Si Eg = 1.1 eV, intrinsic carrier concentration at
room temperature ni = 1.5x1016/m3, electron mobility μn = 0.135
m2/Vs, hole mobility μp = 0.048 m2/Vs.

(a) At room temperature (293K):

Directly use the relation σ = ni e (μn + μp)
(b) σ at 150°C:
First calculate σ0, than calculate σ423
Example:
Calculate the electrical conductivity of pure Si at 20°C and (b) at 150°C.
The energy gap of Si Eg = 1.1 eV, intrinsic carrier concentration
ni = 1.5x1016/m3, electron mobility μn = 0.135 m2/Vs, hole mobility
μp = 0.048 m2/Vs.
(a) At room temperature (293K):
σ = ni e (μn + μp) = 1.5×1016 × 1.6×10-19 × 0.183 = 4.39×10-4/Ωm
(b) σ at 150°C:
σ = σ0 exp(-Eg/2KT)
σ0 = σ/exp(-Eg/2KT) = 4.39x10-4/exp(-1.1 x 1.6x10-19/2 × 1.38x10-23
× 293) = 1.24x106/Ωm
σ423 = σ0 exp(-Eg/2KT) = 1.24x106 × exp(-1.1 x 1.6x10-19/2 ×
1.38x10-23 × 423) = 3.52 × 10-1 /Ωm
Conductivity of III-V compounds:

(1) wt.% → at.% (or mol.%)

(2) 49.99%A + 50.01%B
49.99%A + 49.99%B = 99.98%(A+B) + 0.02% B
≡ 99.98%Si + 0.02% doping of B
(3) Use unit cell to calculate number of atoms of Si
(4) Use the ratio to calculate the doping atoms
(5) Calculate the conductivity
Doping in compound semiconductors:

(1) Compound semi. → melting III and V elements with (slightly)

different amounts:

50.1 at.%Ga + 49.9 %As: p-type – more Grp III Ga

49.9 at.%Ga + 50.1 %As: n-type - more Grp V As
(NOTE: at%!!! if wt% need to convert to at%)
How to calculate the resulting conductivity?

49.9 at.%Ga + 50.1 %As: = 49.9%Ga + 49.9%As + 0.2%As

Equivalent to 49.9%Si + 0.2%As
Example: In a sample of X-type Si, the doping is such that there
are 1022 e/m3 and 2.3×1010 h/m3.
(a) What type of this extrinsic semi-?
(b) What are the minority carriers?
(c) Calculate the conductivity of this sample, and σ that is
contributed by the majority & minority carriers, respectively.

μn and μp are known.

What type?
Majority carriers?
Minority carriers?
• What type? = n
• Majority carriers? = electrons
• Minority carriers? = holes

Total conductivity σ = n e μn + p e μp
σn = n e μn = 1022 x 0.135 x 1.6x10-19 = 2.16x102 /Ωm

σp = p e μp = 2.3x1010 x 0.048 x 1,6x10-19 = 1.8x10-10 /Ωm

σ = σn + σ p