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Power Supplies
Types | Dual supplies | Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing | Regulator

Next Page: Transducers

Also See: AC and DC | Diodes | Capacitors

Types of Power Supply

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and
a graph of their output:

 Transformer only
 Transformer + Rectifier
 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
 Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Dual Supplies

Some electronic circuits require a

power supply with positive and
negative outputs as well as zero volts
(0V). This is called a 'dual supply'
because it is like two ordinary supplies
connected together as shown in the
diagram.

Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V
outputs.

Transformer only

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is
not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing
capacitor.

Further information: Transformer

Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.

Further information: Transformer | Rectifier | Smoothing | Regulator

Transformer

Transformer
circuit symbol

Transformer
Photograph © Rapid Electronics

There is more information

about transformers on the
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage
Electronics in Meccano
to another with little loss of power. Transformers work website.
only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most

power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating
magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the
middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small
number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Vp Np power out = power in

turns ratio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary (output) current

Rectifier

There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier There is more information
to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is the most important about rectifiers on the
and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can Electronics in Meccano
also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is website.
used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are
cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts
of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses all the AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up
in the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are
always two diodes conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are
rated by the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they
can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier
can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details,
including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over (using all the AC wave)
the connections so the alternating directions of
AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Single diode rectifier

A single diode can be used as a rectifier but this produces half-wave varying DC which
has gaps when the AC is negative. It is hard to smooth this sufficiently well to supply
electronic circuits unless they require a very small current so the smoothing capacitor
does not significantly discharge during the gaps. Please see the Diodes page for some
examples of rectifier diodes.

Single diode rectifier Output: half-wave varying DC

(using only half the AC wave)

Smoothing
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC
voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC
(dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the
peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak
value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about
4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost
the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges,
giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply
voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the
smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The capacitor value must
be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.

5 × Io There is more information

Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = about smoothing on the
Vs × f
Electronics in Meccano
website.
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)
Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available
with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or
variable output voltages. They are
also rated by the maximum current
they can pass. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for
use in dual supplies. Most regulators
include some automatic protection
from excessive current ('overload
protection') and overheating ('thermal Voltage regulator
protection'). Photograph © Rapid Electronics

Many of the fixed voltage regulator

ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator
shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.

Please see the Electronics in Meccano website for more information about voltage
regulator ICs.

Zener diode regulator

For low current power supplies a simple voltage regulator

can be made with a resistor and a zener diode connected zener diode
in reverse as shown in the diagram. Zener diodes are a = anode, k = cathode
rated by their breakdown voltage Vz and maximum
power Pz (typically 400mW or 1.3W).

The resistor limits the current (like an LED resistor). The

current through the resistor is constant, so when there is
no output current all the current flows through the zener
diode and its power rating Pz must be large enough to
withstand this.

Please see the Diodes page for more information about zener diodes.

Choosing a zener diode and resistor:

1. The zener voltage Vz is the output voltage required

2. The input voltage Vs must be a few volts greater than Vz
(this is to allow for small fluctuations in Vs due to ripple)
3. The maximum current Imax is the output current required plus 10%
4. The zener power Pz is determined by the maximum current: Pz > Vz × Imax
5. The resistor resistance: R = (Vs - Vz) / Imax
6. The resistor power rating: P > (Vs - Vz) × Imax
Example: output voltage required is 5V, output current required is 60mA.
1. Vz = 4.7V (nearest value available) There is more information
2. Vs = 8V (it must be a few volts greater than Vz) about regulators on the
3. Imax = 66mA (output current plus 10%) Electronics in Meccano
4. Pz > 4.7V × 66mA = 310mW, choose Pz = 400mW
website.
5. R = (8V - 4.7V) / 66mA = 0.05k = 50 , choose R = 47
6. Resistor power rating P > (8V - 4.7V) × 66mA = 218mW, choose P = 0.5W

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© John Hewes 2010, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com

Transistors
This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering
and identifying leads. The operation and use of transistors is covered by
the Transistor Circuits page.

Types | Connecting | Soldering | Heat sinks | Testing | Codes | Choosing | Darlington pair

Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits

Function

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify

the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp,
relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to
convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to
amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off
with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP,

with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest
type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is
best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.
Transistor circuit symbols
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter
(E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding
how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors

which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and
properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.
Connecting

Transistors have three leads which must

be connected the correct way round.
Please take care with this because a
wrongly connected transistor may be
damaged instantly when you switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the

transistor will be clear from the PCB or
stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you
will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue
to identify the leads.

The drawings on the right show the leads

for some of the most common case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams

show the view from below with the leads Transistor leads for some common case styles.
towards you. This is the opposite of IC
(chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if

you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped
to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A
standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Crocodile clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink
(described below) which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.

Heat sinks

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current

flowing through them. Heat sinks are needed for power
transistors because they pass large currents. If you find that
a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a Heat sink
heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the
heat by transferring it to the surrounding air. Photograph © Rapid Electronics
For further information please see the Heat sinks page.

Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you

suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are
two easy ways to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor

and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction.
Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an
analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in

total):

 The base-emitter (BE) junction should Testing an NPN transistor

behave like a diode and conduct one way
only.
 The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

2. Testing in a simple switching circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right

which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage
is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable.
This circuit can be quickly built on breadboard for
example. Take care to include the 10k resistor in the
base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you
test it!

If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the

switch is pressed and not light when the switch is
released.
A simple switching circuit
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse to test an NPN transistor
the LED and the supply voltage.

Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current
and measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain hFE.

Transistor codes

There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:

 Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates
the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency;
F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There
is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C)
to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case
style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general
code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
 Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end
identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
 Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular
transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

Choosing a transistor

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually
substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important
properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To
make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined
either by their typical use or maximum power rating.

To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are
normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but
they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors,
tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but
this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the
table are explained below.

NPN transistors
Code Structure Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
 style max. max. min. max. (typical substitutes
use)
Audio, low
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW power
BC182 BC547

General
BC108C BC183
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW purpose, low
BC548
power
General
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW purpose, low
power
Audio (low
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise), low BC184 BC549
power
General
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182L
power
General
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182
power
Audio, low
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW power
BC107B

General
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW purpose, low BC108B
power
Audio (low
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), low BC109
power
General
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW purpose, low BFY51
power
General
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW purpose, BC639
medium power
General
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW purpose, BFY51
medium power
General
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W purpose, high
power
General
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31C TIP41A
power
General
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31A TIP41A
power
General
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W purpose, high
power
 General
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W purpose, high
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require
precise data.
PNP transistors
Category
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Possible
Code Structure (typical
style max. max. min. max. substitutes
use)
Audio, low
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW power
BC477

General
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW purpose, low BC478
power
Audio (low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise), low
power
Audio, low
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW power
BC177

General
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW purpose, low BC178
power
General
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W purpose, high TIP32C
power
General
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP32A
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent!
Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require
precise data.

Structure This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of
the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute
it must be the same type.
Case style There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most
common case styles in the Connecting section above. This
information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
IC max. Maximum collector current.
VCE max. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.

hFE This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The
guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value
varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same
 type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in
the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain
is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are
given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies
from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with
their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.

Ptot max. Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor,
note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum
rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as
amplifiers, the power is roughly IC × VCE. For transistors
operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is
more important.
Category This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting
point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have
separate tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will
be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have
a different case style so you will need to take care when placing
them on the circuit board.

Darlington pair

This is two transistors connected together so that the

amplified current from the first is amplified further by the
second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high
current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as
complete packages containing the two transistors. They have
three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of
a standard individual transistor.

You can make up your own Darlington pair from two

transistors.
For example:

 For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

 For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.