AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·14

Survey of Precious Metal Production in Ancient Egypt

V.K. Gouda1, Z. M. El-Baradie2, M. Eldamaty3
1
National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
2
Central Metallurgical Research & Development Institute, Cairo, Egypt
3
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Dokki, Cairo, Egypt, Zip Code: 12311
Tel.: (02 3389151 – 3389152)
Fax: (02 3368308)
e-mail: vgoudak@yahoo.com

The aim of the present study was to conduct a detailed survey to gather all available information from
various sources about precious metal production in ancient Egypt. These sources are: archeological
sites, papyrus records, museums, and literature. The survey showed a total number of 39 archeological
sites illustrating precious metal production in Giza, Abu Sir, Saqqara, Bani Hasan, Tuna el-Gabal,
Deir el-Gabrawi, Meir, Aswan and Luxor. Turin & Leyden papyri have important information regard-
ing gold and silver mines, costing, metal extraction, casting, finishing and fine metal works. The metal-
lurgical processes can be depicted also from wall scenes or reliefs of these archeological sites.

Keywords: gold, silver, production, ancient Egypt

1. INTRODUCTION the sarcophagi of Psousennes I and Shashanq; presently

Precious metals used in ancient Egypt were gold, silver,
electrum and their alloys. They were already known since
the middle of the 4th millennium BC[1]. The ancient Egyp-
tians did use them mainly in manufacturing of jewelry,
coffins, death masks, funerary sandals, head bands, statues
and as sheets to cover pieces of furniture (chairs, shrines,
boxes, and even temple doors and jambs etc…). Gold is
called nbw[2] (nebw) in ancient Egyptian language.
Gold was found in large amounts, coming from the local
mines, especially from the eastern desert and Nubia since
the Predaynastic time[3]. This type was called nebw-en-set.
Gold was also obtained from river deposits of silt; its type
was known as Alluvial auriferous and was called nebw-en-
mu. This type was found to be higher in gold purity[4]. Dur-
ing the Dynastic time, gold was abundant so as to permit ex-
ports, as was mentioned in the letters of Amarna[5] ( 1360 -
1336 BC). By the age of the Middle Kingdom, gold became
the most precious material. In the late Predynastic period,
the town at Naqada, near the mouth of Wadi Hammamat
was known as Nubet (gold town), indicating that it grew rich
from the gold trade. During the New Kingdom, gold was
obtained also from Syria-Palestine by way of tribute, de-
spite the fact that Egypt was already so rich in gold[6].
There was no Egyptian word for silver, but was re-
ferred to as white gold (hedj)[2]. Silver objects have
been found in Egypt from the Predynastic times but were
rare until the 12th Dynasty when El-Tod Treasure was
found; and then from the 18th Dynasty, silver began to be
more plentiful. In the 21st and 22nd Dynasties, it was
used for making many objects even in big masses such as
14
displayed in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo.
That local sources of silver in Egypt were not abun-
dant, as is deduced by the fact that silver in ancient Egypt
was highly priced and was relatively a rare metal in con-
trast with the more readily available gold. In addition silver
items were listed before those of gold in descriptions of
valuables during the Old Kingdom. Aurian silver occurred
in gold-quartz deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
Records from the Eighteenth & Nineteenth dynasties
showed that silver was imported from Asiatic countries,
Syria, Palestine and Libya, Crete, Cyprus and Babylon[7].
The high value of the silver is also indicated by the thin-
ness of the bracelets of Queen Hetepheres I -4th Dynasty,
these bracelets are displayed in the Egyptian Museum of
Cairo, which is in mark contrast to the extravagance of her
gold work. Then the value of gold to silver changed
through the time. By the Middle Kingdom, silver was re-
garded as less valuable, due to its increased availability. By
that time, it had acquired a value approximately half to
that of gold. During the New Kingdom, the ratio remains
constant 2:1. After Persian times the ratio became 10:1. In
the time of Ptolemy II, its value was fixed to 13:1[7].
Silver was regarded as the material from which the
bones of the gods were shaped as well as the moon. How-
ever, the flesh of the gods was considered to be made
from gold, the god "Re", and other gods, a devin metal
that never be tarnished[8]. This connection with the gods
made gold an ideal metal in funerary contexts, as spectac-
ularly witnessed by the mask coffins of Tutankhamun.
The sarcophagus chamber in the royal tomb was known
as the ‘house of gold’, while at the ends of sarcophagi or
AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·15
Survey of Precious Metal Production in Ancient Egypt
coffins, Isis and Nephthys were often shown kneeling on
the hieroglyphic sign for gold (nebw). However, other
Gods were relationed with the moon like Hathor and
Thot and thus, were made of silver[9].
Electrum was called (djaam). It was a natural or ar-
tificial alloy composed of gold and silver. It came from Nu-
bia, Punt, Emu and the mountains of the desert[10]. The di-
vision between gold and electrum was entirely arbitrary and
when the alloy contains less than 20% of silver it was here
called gold, However, when it contained 20% or more of sil-
ver and was of a light-yellow colour it was called electrum,
which is in accord with Pliny’s definition of electrum[11].
There are several objects made of electrum on display
in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo.
2. AIM OF STUDY
The aim of the present study was to conduct a detailed
survey to gather all available information from various
sources about precious metal production in ancient
Egypt. These sources are: archeological sites, papyrus
records, museums, and literature.
3. SEARCH OF THE ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES
(TOMBS & TEMPLES)
The results of our survey found that there are 39 sites
with records of ancient metal production. These sites con-
tain scenes (painting and/or reliefs) on the walls of tombs
and temples throughout the ages the ages of the Pharaohs
till the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period. The oldest
scenes are from the tombs of the Old Kingdom, while the
recent one is from the tomb of Petosiris from the begin-
ning of the Ptolemaic period that date to ca. 300 BC. Table
1 gives the list of those archeological sites arranged in
chronological order. The most important example from
the Old Kingdom is the relief from the funerary chapel
wall of the tomb of Kaemrehu at Saqqara; now it can be
found in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo, CG 1534 as seen
in Figure 1. The scene representing craftsmen occupied
with various activities: two dwarfs work gold into moulds.
A blacksmith beats the metal, while two others are blow-
ing. The metal is weighed under the observance of a scribe.
Another special example from Saqqara is the unique
scene representing a goldsmith relief as shown in the
causeway corridor at King Unas Temple (Table 1, site
No.12), in Figure 2. .It records the daily life in a metal-
lurgical workshop. Some hieroglyphic words are quoted
namely: "sharpe ning an axe" (dm mskhtiw),
"heating silver " (srft hdj), "fashioning and polish-
ing" (sint), "hammering electrum sheets"
(sqr djam).
4. METAL PRODUCTION IN ANCIENT EGYPT:
4.1 Gold mines
The famous Turin Mining Papyrus record[12] from the
15
reign of Ramesses IV shown in Figure 3 is presently dis-
played in the Egyptian Museum of Turino, Italy, cata-
logue no. 1879[10]. The map was drawn about 1150-1160
BC by the well-known Scribe-of-the-Tomb Amennakhte,
son of Ipuy. It was prepared for Ramesses ' IV quarrying
expedition to Wadi Hammamat in the Eastern Desert. It
is the oldest surviving information map that is of geologi-
cal and topographical importance from the ancient world.
It represents the regarded as the earliest known geo-
graphic information system. The map shows a 15 kilome-
ter stretch of Wadi Hammamat, describing in details gold
mines, deposits and mining settlement.
According to the Turin map, the mines in Ancient
Egypt can be divided into three main groups[10] accord-
ing to the access roads followed in order to reach them;
1. In the hilly region parallel to the Red Sea; Gold of the
desert of Coptos was mined at several sites near Wadi
Hammamat and Wadi Abbad, Wadi el-Fawakhir and
Wadi Sid:
2. The middle one, Gold of Wawat, the most important,
was mined near Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Cabgaba, Wa-
di el-Hudi and between Buhen and Semna.; and
3. The southern one, Gold of Kush was mined in the
area of Napata and Abu Hamed, which is along the
Nile Valley itself, and the mines are never very far
from the river.
Other sources of gold mines are mentioned in Madinet
Habu and namely; Gold of Ombos, Gold of Edfu and
Gold of the water[13].
4.2 Mining operation
Remnants of the gold mines operations and tools were
found in the eastern desert from Ancient times. It is de-
scribed in detail by Diodorus Siculus’s and Agatharchides
of Cnidus [14]. The operation in the Predynastic time in-
volved crushing of the gold-bearing quartz vein systems,
after burning it with a hot fire, using huge calabash-shaped
stone hammers. In Old Kingdom time, two new basic
types of stone hammer were introduced: an oval stone axe
with a chiseled notch for a forked wooden stick and a
more or less cylindrical one-handed stone hammer with a
chiseled ergonomically formed handle. During the Middle
Kingdom additional stone mortars were introduced.
Highest production was realized during the New
Kingdom. In addition to the greatly expanded mining ac-
tivities, a radically new milling technique had a strong im-
pact on gold production at the onset of the New King-
dom: mill stones up to 80 cm long and 30–50 cm wide,
with a flat and oval-shaped grinding plane, and differently
sized sets of mill stones with one or both hands were in-
troduced. Then bronze chisels were introduced, which al-
lowed a much more selective separation of the gold-bear-
ing quartz generations of a multiphase quartz vein from
the barren parts of the host rocks. The miners followed
selectively the most promising ore shoots, which resulted
locally in a somewhat chaotic pattern of the underground
operations[15].
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V.K. Gouda et al.

Figure 1 - Relief from the tomb of Kaemrehu showing metal workers

Figure 2 - Relief from the causeway of king Unas

showing weighing, blowing, melting, hammering of electrum sheet

4.3 Smelting process

As described by Diodorus[14]; the cut blocks were such as: Tomb of Mastaba of Merreruka "Site No. 18",
thrown on the ground behind the miners and taken out Tomb of Rekhmire "Site No.28", Tomb of Neferrenpet
into the open. Outside the entrance, the worker crushed "Site No.37", Tomb of Benia "Site No.25", and Tomb of
the gold bearing blocks in mortars into small pieces the Pahery "Site No.30". The balances are crowned by the
size of a pea. After that, they ground it to powder with head of the goddess Maat, bearing an ostrich feather.
grinding mills. Then, the pulverized quartz was washed Maat, the daughter of the sun god RE, was, among other
things, a symbol of truth and justice; she ensured a correct
by washing as attested by preserved tailing dumps where
and exact result in weighing.
the heavy gold dust remained while the other matter, the
gangue, was washed away. At quite a few of the New
Kingdom gold production sites, inclined gold washing ta-
bles constructed of stone fragments, consolidated by
primitive clay/sand mortar with a surface covered by a
layer of the same material was recorded.
The weighing of metals using balances or scales can
been seen on the walls of many Tombs listed in Table 1,
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AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·17

Survey of Precious Metal Production in Ancient Egypt

Table 1 - Archeological sites illustrating metal production (arranged in chronological order)

17
AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·18

V.K. Gouda et al.

Ok: Old Kingdom Mk.: Middle Kingdom N.K.: New Kingdom L.P: Late Period

Figure 3 - Simplified map of the Turin Papyrus[12]

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Survey of Precious Metal Production in Ancient Egypt

4.4 Melting & casting
Melting and casting including alloying additions are
also, depicted in many wall paintings or reliefs showing
metal-workings, so technological innovations from the
old kingdom to the Ptolemaic period can be traced by
studying metalworking scenes and inscriptions in Egypt-
ian tombs. The metal was melted in one or more cru-
cibles, depending on the amount required, as shown in
tombs of the vizier Merreruka at Saqqara, Figure 4,"Site
No.18", and in the tomb of the Vizier Pepiankh at Meir,
"Site No.20".
A small limestone casting mould was found in situ be-
side one of the small hearths at the excavated site[16].
Moulds of this kind are shown on wall paintings and re-
liefs in private tombs as early as old kingdom, as illustrat-
ed by a scene in the tomb of the vizier Pepiankh at Mier,
"Site No.20". In Early Dynastic times, simple open mould
was used.

Figure 4 - Wall painting from the Tomb of Mereruka

Figure 5 - Wall painting from the tomb of Niankhkhnum
showing jeweler making (Dwarf)
& Khnumhotep showing jewelry making
The hearths were charcoal-fired; charcoal (acacia
A much more sophisticated form of casting was devel-
wood) was burnt extensively in the eastern desert and
oped in the course of the old kingdom: the use of two-part
Sinai. The temperature increased by using blowing tech-
moulds. Unlike the primitive open moulds, two-part
nique, which is illustrated in Tomb of Niankhkhnum and
moulds of clay or stone like steatite or serpentine allowed
khnumhotepat, Mastaba at Saqqara, Figure.5 "Site No.6",
both faces of the object to be fashioned.
and Tomb of khety in Bani Hasan,, "Site No.17", Tomb of
Rekhmire, Figure 6, "Site No.28". Fans of foliage are em-
ployed in earlier times. While in the Old Kingdom a sim-
ple mouth blow piece made of reed and tipped with clay
was used.
During Middle Kingdom, skin bellows were used, as
mentioned in a text written on a coffin, probably manufac-
tured from the skin of a goat or a gazelle [8]. In the New
Kingdom, the blowing tools were developed to become
much more effective like pot, drum or dish bellows. The
earliest known depiction of dish bellows is in melting scene
on a relief inside the eighteenth dynasty tomb of the priest
Puymre, the second prophet of the god Amun in Thebes,
"Site No.26". The furnace was a pottery bowl upon a stand
filled with glowing charcoal. By the time of the New King- Figure 6 - Wall painting from the Tomb
dom, however, a blast furnace had been introduced, of Rekhmire showing melting and casting of precious metal
worked by leather bellows actuated by the feet and cords,
as shown in the scene of the tomb of two Sculptors at In ancient Egypt there is evidence for lost-wax casting
Thebes during the region of Amenophis III, "Site No.31". in the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom times [17].
The ancient Egyptian foundry furnaces were detected Lost-wax casting was well developed, as is evidence by
at the funerary temple of King Seti I "Site No. 37" in the items of jewelry, practical objects and statuettes designed
Theban Necropolis. Many crucible sherds, broken tuy- for religious purposes that are displayed in the Egyptian
eres and the nozzles of dish bellows were also found at museum of Cairo. The technique of lost-wax casting re-
this site. quired skilled artists, potters and gold-workers. First, an
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AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·20
V.K. Gouda et al.
artist, perhaps a sculptor, produces in beeswax a model of
the object to be cast. In early times beeswax was available
from wild bees, but by the Old Kingdom apiculture was
practiced in Egypt.
The beeswax model was then coated with clay, proba-
bly by a potter. The composite structure was heated in a
charcoal fireplace to harden the clay and to melt the wax,
so that clay mould remained retaining every detail of the
former wax model. During casting, the founder poured
the molten metal into the clay mould. After cooling, the
clay mould was broken and cast object could be cleaned
and polished.
In the New Kingdom, the Ancient Egyptians could al-
so cast larger objects. Core casting was very common in
the manufacturing of larger objects during the New King-
dom, and reached its peak in the late period. With this
method, casting a core of clay or sand was covered by a
layer that was coated with clay. In order to secure it in po-
sition throughout the later casting process, the core had
to be stabilized by pins or wire fixed to the outer cover of
clay. The wax was melted away leaving in the kiln the
hardened clay mould with the fixed core. For casting the
piece, only the gap between the outer clay mould and the
inner core had to be filled with molten metal, and after
cooling the mould was broken and as far as possible the
core was removed from the cast object [18].
4.5 Refining, polishing, colouring, quality testing, plat-
ing, coating, soldering
These processes are described in detail in Leyden Pa-
pyrus [19]; that was discovered at Thebes, but now is dis-
played in Leyden University in the Netherlands.
The Leyden papyrus contains about seventy-five
recipes pertaining to metal production, finishing, making
of alloys, soldering metals, coloring the surfaces of met-
als, testing the quality or purity of metals, or techniques
for imitating precious metals.
There are fifteen recipes for writing in gold or silver
or in imitation of gold and silver writing.
4.5.1 Refining
Refining technique is dated to the New Kingdom
around 1360 BC, and is explained in Leyden Papyrus as
mainly the cupellation process. In this process, the im-
pure metals were heated by a blast of hot air in shallow
porous cups of bone ash called cupels. The impure met-
als, such as copper, tin and lead were oxidized by the hot
gas, and the oxides were absorbed by the porous cuples.
The unoxidizeble noble metals; silver or gold were left be-
hind in the bottom of the cupel, like drops of water on an
oily surface. A deposit mostly of silver objects and ingots
contained in four boxes bearing the names of Amenemes
II were found in the Treasure of Tod [18].
4.5.2 Polishing
The process of polishing is depicted in the tomb of the
vizier Rekhmire, Site No.28", Tomb Nebamun "Site
No.31", and Tomb of Neferrenpet, "Site No.37"; is predat-
ed by a hieroglyphic inscription on a relief in the cause-
20
way leading to the fifth dynasty pyramid of king Unas at
Saqqara " Site No.12".
For polishing, the metalworkers used special stones to
smooth uneven patches on metal objects. Agate, which
was probably used for polishing stones, can be found at
several places in Egypt. Metal surfaces may also have
been finished using abrasives like emery or sand. The
gleaming surfaces on the pieces were obtained by a final
burnishing with small balls made of leather, felt or other
textile[8].
4.5.3 Alloying
By the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Egyptians
had certainly learnt how to make alloys of copper and
gold, which do not appear in nature. Ancient gold work
has acquired a grey, reddish brown or plum-purple patina
due to the tarnishing of the copper, iron and silver com-
ponents [19]. It is evident, for instance, that in some of
the jewels of Tut-ankh-amun gold was selected which has
radically changed its colour over the centuries, very prob-
ably as the result of the deliberate introduction of other
metals to alloy with it [17].
4.5.4 Coating or gilding
There were two techniques for coating; either by ham-
mering gold leaves on the surface or by sticking the leaves
to surface with an adhesive described in Leyden Papyrus.
4.5.5 Plate Production
The plate production was depicted in many tombs
from Old Kingdom times to the Ptolemaic period, such as
sites numbers "6, 12, 14, and 23".
Gold was poured after melting onto a flat surface.
The metal was then, beaten on an anvil made of stone
(probably of basalt, diorite or granite), which was placed
on a wooden block to absorb the hammering [8]. Two
kinds of hammer stones were in use: one with a flat face
for smoothing and the other with a rounded one for chas-
ing. The beaten gold would have to be reheated from
time to time in order to anneal it to become ductile again.
In the process of annealing, the piece was held with tongs
in the glowing charcoal of the brazier[17] "Site No.28".
Bowls, basins, and the bodies of ewers and vases were
hammered on special anvils, probably made of wood[8]. In
the New Kingdom, another kind of anvil for vessel pro-
duction is depicted consisting of a stout pole supported di-
agonally by a kind of wooden trestle, as shown in the tomb
of the Vizier Rekhmire ‘Site No.28". The wall-painting in
the Rekhmire’s tomb depicts, beside the brazier, tools
used for the production of gold leaf such as hammer
stones. On a stone block layers of the gold plates and gold
beaters skins are ready for the beating of gold leaf.
Holes were usually made by pressing an awl into gold
or silver sheet. A bow-drill was also used for drilling
stones as well as gold or silver. A drawing of a painted re-
lief in the tomb from the Old Kingdom, 6th Dynasty at
Deir el-Gebrawi, "Site No. 21", shows gold beads being
bored uniquely by hand-held drills.
4.5.6 Soldering
The Egyptians knew how to join metal with hard sol-
AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·21
Survey of Precious Metal Production in Ancient Egypt
der by the Fourth Dynasty as is clear from the bed canopy
which belonged to Queen Hetep-her-es, and is displayed
in the Egyptian museum of Cairo. In Leyden Papyrus the
manufacture of Chrysocolla solder and other solders are
described in detail[19].
4.6 Wire making and jewellery decoration
The wires were produced by using hand-made wire;
by new kingdom block-twisting method and rolling were
introduced Another method of making wires was known
from the nineteenth dynasty by means of soldering gran-
ules. Filigree, cloisonné, reposse’, chasing and engraving
were delicate ornamental wirework in which ornaments
were formed by bending all kinds of wire to form a deli-
cate tracery. The engraver worked out the outline draw-
ing using a hammer stone and chisels of different sizes as
shown in tomb of the head sculptor of the king Nebamun
and his fellow sculptor Ipuky "Site No.31", "Fig.7", or in
the tomb of Rekhmire "Site No.28".
Figure 7 - Wall painting from the tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky, depicting weighing of gold, polishing, wire twisting
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21
5. CONCLUSION
Metal production techniques were highly developed
in ancient Egypt. Precious metals were melted some 5000
years ago, and alloying of metals were also prepared
through mixing of different metals or metallic ores.
The ancient Egyptians have also used moulding tech-
niques such as lost wax and master form which are still ap-
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production of details and decorations in the Ancient
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AP°YPO¶OY§OY TELOS 30-01-08 11:00 ™ÂÏ›‰·22

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cation III:10", p 1149-1166 (1926).

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