Aim : To calibrate the given linear differential transformer

Apparatus: LVDT, Digital voltmeter or digital displacement meter and screw

gauge

Theory :

Transformers
A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the
transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.

Detailed operation

In particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the
contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit.

Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two
windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small
current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.The current required to
create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed
to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required
to create the magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.
Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and
so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the
corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary
voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that
the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such
change in magnetic field.

Applications
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical
energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate
electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By
transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for
transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of
power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply
industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a
tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers
by the time it reaches the consumer.

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply
voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also
electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio
transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single
pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a
signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal
circuits. The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for
characterisation of soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally
standardized Epstein frame method.

What is LVDT?
Linear variable differential transformer is popularly known as LVDT.
As the name suggests LVDT comprises of the differential transformer that provides the
AC voltage output proportional to the displacement of the core passing through the
windings. The LVDT comprises of the one primary winding, and two secondary
windings connected to each other in series opposing manner as shown in the figure
below. The body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the iron core.
Construction of the LVDT
The LVDT is basically a differential transformer, whose voltage output
is proportional to the displacement of the object hence it is given the name linear variable
differential transformer. The differential transformer has a hollow magnetic core on
which three coils are wound as shown in the figure below. There is one primary coil in
the middle of the core through which the input voltage is applied. There are two
secondary coils at the two ends of the central core, which are connected to each other in
the phase opposition manner and through which the output is obtained. Through the
hollow another solid core is passed, which is connected to the body whose displacement
is to be measured. Thus the output voltage of the device is an indication of the
displacement of core. Hence this operating in linear range, the device is
called LVDT.

Working of the LVDT

The input voltage is supplied to the primary coil from the external
source of power and the output is obtained from the secondary coils. The amplitude and
the phase of the output depend on the relative coupling between the two output coils and
primary coil. The relative coupling is in turn dependent on the position of the solid core
inside the hollow core.
The figure below shows the output characteristics of the typical differential transformer.
As shown in the figure there is certain position of the core, called as the null position, for
which the output voltage is zero, this is an ideal position and is very difficult to attain.
Beyond the null position the core moves either to the left or to the right and there is
certain output voltage obtained from the differential transformer.

Within certain limits on either side of the null position the output obtained from the
differential transformer is proportional to the movement of the core. This means the
output from the differential transformer is linear with respect to the motion of the core.
The linear variable differential transformer or LVDT works within this range of motion
of the core. Thus in LVDT the voltage output obtained is linear with respect to the
motion of the core moving inside it.

In LVDT the linear range obtained through the device is dependent on the length of the
secondary coils. The magnitude of the output voltage obtained across the sides of the null
position is same but they are opposite in phase. Thus it is possible to distinguish the two
outputs from LVDT by determining the phase difference between the output voltages.

The output obtained from the LVDT is calibrated against the input motion of the core.
The body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to this core, thus any
motion of the body gives direct output from the LVDT in the form of the displacement.

Advantages of LVDT
1) The biggest advantage of the LVDT is that the output obtained from it is proportional
to the displacement of the mechanical member whose displacement is being measured.

2) LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanically since the core is completely separated from
the other parts of the device.
3) Another important advantage of LVDT is that the output obtained from it is fairly high
and it can be measured easily without requiring the need of the intermediate
amplification.

3) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the changes in the temperature.

Principle of LVDT:

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a
non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. And the way how the energy
is getting converted is described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner.

Construction of LVDT:

LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary winding in

the centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides. The number of turns
in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other, i.e., if the
left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will
be in the anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in
voltages between the two secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and
S2. Esteem iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which can move in
to and fro motion as shown in the figure. The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the
operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

Working of LVDT:
Let's study the working of LVDT by splitting the cases into 3 based on the iron core
position inside the insulated former.

Case 1:

On applying an external force which is the displacement, if the core reminds in the null
position itself without providing any movement then the voltage induced in both the
secondary windings are equal which results in net output is equal to zero
i.e., Esec1-Esec2=0

Case 2:

When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core tends to move in the left hand
side direction then the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater when
compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2. Therefore the net output will be
Esec1-Esec2

Case 3:

When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the right hand side
direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the
emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1. Therefore the net output voltage will be
Esec2-Esec1

Advantages of LVDT:

* Infinite resolution is present in LVDT

* High output
* LVDT gives High sensitivity
* Very good linearity
* Ruggedness
* LVDT Provides Less friction
* Low hysteresis
* LVDT gives Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT:

* Very high displacement is required for generating high voltages.

* Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic field.
* The performance of the transducer gets affected by vibrations
* Its is greatly affected by temperature changes.

Applications of LVDT:
LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimeter to centimeter.

Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force,

Applications:

Applications of LVDT are:

_ Automotive appliances
_ Automotive Test Laboratories
_ Die casting machinery
_ Fossil fuel and Nuclear Power
_ Ground attack vehicles
_ Industrial gauging
_ Industrial Robots
_ Injection Molding Machinery
_ Material handleing and testing equipments
_ Missiles
_ Punch presses and Press brakes
_ Simulators
_ Space shuttles
_ Weighing systems
_ Military and Commercial Aircraft

Procedure:
1. Connect the o/p of LVDT to the i/p of Analog Transducer Amplifier.
2. Connect the voltmeter to the o/p of Analog Transducer Amplifier.
3. Adjust the micrometer such that voltmeter shows approximately 0 V dc.
4. Take readings for increasing value of displacements till the o/p becomes
constant for any number of further increments.
5. Similarly take the readings for decreasing value of displacement till the o/p
voltage becomes constant for any number of further decrements.
6. Plot the graph of displacement vs Voltage and observe the linearity.

7. Draw Conclusion.