Learning in an

Organization
Biographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristics—such as age,
gender, and marital status—that are
objective and easily obtained from
personnel records.
 Ability, Intellect, and
Intelligence
Ability
An individual’s capacity to
perform the various tasks in a
job.

Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental
activities.

Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and
cultural.
Dimensions of
Intellectual
Ability
•Number aptitude
•Verbal comprehension
•Perceptual speed
•Inductive reasoning
•Deductive reasoning
•Spatial visualization
•Memory
 Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks
demanding stamina,
dexterity, strength, and
similar characteristics.
Nine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
2. Dynamic strength
3. Trunk strength
4. Static strength
5. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors
2. Extent flexibility
3. Dynamic flexibility
Other Factors
2. Body coordination
3. Balance
4. Stamina
 The Ability-Job Fit

Ability-Job
Employee’s Fit Job’s Ability
Abilities Requirements
 Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of
experience.

Learning
•Involves change
•Is relatively permanent
•Is acquired through experience
 Learning as a Black Box
INPUTS OUTCOMES

INPUTS Learning OUTCOMES

The behavioral learning theory is represented as an S-R

paradigm. The organism is treated as a “black box.” We
only know what is going on inside the box by the
organism’s overt behavior.
 Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

Key Concepts
•Unconditioned stimulus
•Unconditioned response
•Conditioned stimulus
•Conditioned response
Pavlov and Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning Theory

• Things that make us happy, sad,

angry, etc. become associated with
neutral stimuli that gain our attention.
 Theories of Learning
(cont’d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment.

Key Concepts
•Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
•Conditioned (learned) behavior
•Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
Concepts
• Positive reinforcement
– Strengthening (increasing) a behavior
by presenting a positive stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
• Negative reinforcement
– Strengthening (increasing) a behavior
by removing a negative stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
 Operant Conditioning
Concepts
• Presentation punishment (Type I)
– Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by
presenting an aversive stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
• Removal punishment (Type II, time-
out)
– Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by
removing a positive stimulus
immediately after the behavior has
occurred
 Operant Conditioning
Concepts
• Extinction
– When a previously reinforced behavior
decreases in frequency and eventually
ceases altogether because
reinforcement is withheld
• Spontaneous recovery
– When an extinguished behavior
reappears without having been
reinforced
 Operant Conditioning
Concepts
• Generalization
– When an individual learns to make a
particular response to a particular
stimulus and then makes the same or a
similar response in a slightly different
situation
• Discrimination
– When an individual learns to notice the
unique aspects of seemingly similar
situations and thus different ways of
responding
 Types of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence
when the desired behavior occurs.
• Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to
eliminate an undesirable behavior.
• Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is
reinforced each time it is
demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is
reinforced often enough to
make the behavior worth
repeating but not every time
it is demonstrated.
Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval
Schedule
Rewards are initiated
after a fixed or constant
number of responses.
 Schedules of
Reinforcement
• Fixed interval schedule
– Reinforcement occurs after a specific amount of
time
• Variable interval schedule
– Reinforcement occurs after a random amount of
time
• Fixed ratio schedule
– Reinforcement occurs after a specific number of
responses
• Variable ratio schedule
– Reinforcement occurs after a random number of
responses
 Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)

Fixed-ratio
Intermittent Schedules of
Reinforcement
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)
 Theories of Learning
(cont’d)
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step
that moves an individual closer to the desired
response.
Key Concepts
•Reinforcement is required to change
behavior.
•Some rewards are more effective than
others.
•The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
 Steps in Shaping
• Select the target behavior.
• Obtain realistic baseline data.
• Select potential reinforcers.
• Reinforce successive approximations
for the target behavior each time they
occur.
• Reinforce the newly established
target behavior each time it occurs.
• Reinforce the target behavior on a
variable reinforcement schedule.
 Theories of Learning
(cont’d)
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through
observation and direct experience.

Key Concepts
•Attentional processes
•Retention processes
•Motor reproduction processes
•Reinforcement processes
Social Learning Theory (SLT)

• A. Bandura (1973)
• Learning takes place through
observation and sensorial
experiences
• Imitation is the sincerest form of
flattery
• SLT is the basis of the movement
against violence in media & video
games
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
 SLT and Learning Process
• Collaborative learning and group
work
• Modeling responses and
expectations
• Learning by observing experts in
action
Critiques of Social Learning
Theory
• Does not take into account
individuality, context, and experience
as mediating factors
• Suggests students learn best as
passive receivers of sensory stimuli,
as opposed to being active learners
• Emotions and motivation not
considered important or connected
to learning
 MI and Learning Process
• Delivery of
instruction via
multiple
mediums
• Student-centered
classroom
• Authentic
Assessment
• Self-directed
learning
 Critiques of MI
• Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI
exist
• Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological
approach has any discernable impact
on learning
• Suggestive of a departure from core
curricula and standards
 Brain-Based Learning (BBL)

• Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism

• D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s
to present)
• 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique
 BBL and Learning Process
• Opportunities for group
learning
• Regular environmental
changes
• A multi-sensory
environment
• Opportunities for self-
expression and making
personal connections to
content
• Community-based
learning
 Critiques of BBL
• Research conducted by
neuroscientists, not teachers &
educational researchers
• Lack of understanding of the brain
itself makes “brain-based” learning
questionable
• Individual principles have been
scientifically questioned
 Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement
concepts to individuals in the work
setting.
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
2. Identify critical behaviors
3. Develop baseline data
4. Identify behavioral consequences
5. Develop and apply intervention
6. Evaluate performance improvement
 OB MOD Organizational
Applications
• Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding
attendance, not absence.
• Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-
productive.
• Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training
effectiveness.
• Self-management
– Reduces the need for external