Chapter 1:

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental process

John Locke – believed children are born into world with “clean slates” (tabula rusa)
Wilhelm Wundt – founder of psych in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Established 1st
experimental lab devoted to psych.

Structuralism: Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental

components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
Introspection: a procedure used to study the structure of the mind which subjects are asked
to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus.
Functionalism: an early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does
—the functions of mental activity—and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to
the their environments.
Gestalt Psychology: an approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of
perception and thinking in a “whole” sense rather than on the individual elements of
perception.
Neuroscience Perspective: the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the
brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
Psychodynamic Perspective: the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by
unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control.
Behavioral Perspective: the approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior
should be the focus of study.
Humanistic Perspective: the approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to
grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
Cognitive Perspective: the approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and
know about the world.
Cell Phones & Driving: impairs people as if they were legally drunk.
Nature vs. Nuture: how much of people's behavior is hereditary (nature), and what is
(nurtured)
Theories: broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
Diffusion of Responsibility: the more people there are in an emergency environment, the
less likely someone will stand up because they feel responsibility is shared equally among
everyone and they feel less responsible.
Hypothesis: prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested.
Operational Definitions: the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures
that can be measured and observed.
Archival Research: existing data used to test a hypothesis.
Naturalistic Research: observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a
change in the situation.
Survey Research: a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest is asked
a series of questions about behavior, etc.
Case Study: in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or small group.
Variables: behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change or vary in some way.
Correlational Research: 2 sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are
associated, or “correlated.”
Positive Correlation: as one variable increases, other variable increases.
Negative Correlation: as one variable increases, other decreases.
*Correlation doesnt establish cause.

Control Group: group that recieves not treatment

Experimental group: group that recieves treatment.

Independent Variables: variable thats manipulated by experimentor.

Dependent Variables: variable measured and is expected to change as the experimentor
manipulates the independent variable.

Random Assignment to Groups: makes sure groups can be comparable with more
accuracy.
Confederate: employee of the experimentors. (in 2 person group, only 1 “real” bystander)
Replication: using other procedures in other settings with other groups, before full
confidence is placed in results.
Statistical Significance: meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel
confident that theyve confirmed their hypothesis.
Role of Ethical Guidelines: 1. to protect participants from harm. 2. right of privacy. 3.
assurance that it's voluntary. 4. informing about nature of procedures.
Informed Consent: participants must sign BEFORE, that they know basic outlines of the
study, etc.
Debriefing: explanation of study AFTER

Placebo: false treatment (sugar pill) – to measure differences between groups.

Double Blind: keeping both participants and experimentor who interacts with them, blind
to nature of the drug.

Chapter 5:
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought by experience.
Habituation: is the DECREASE in response to stimulus that occurs after repeated
presentations of the same stimulus. (we ignore things that have stopped providing info)
Classical Conditioning: type of learning, which stimulus brings response. (bell & food)
(PAVLOV)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): (meat) – already causes stimulus – salivation
Unconditioned Response (UCR): natural (instinctive) response brought by UCS
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): the bell.
Conditioned Response: salivation. Due to the bell (CS).
Extinction: occurs when a previously conditioned decreases and eventually disappears.
Spontaneous Recovery: the learned reaction comes back spontaneously
Stimulus Generalization: when conditioned response occurs from a SIMILAR stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination: 2 stimuli are distinct from one another that 1 evokes a
conditioned response but the other one doesn't.
Operant Conditioning: learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or
weakened depending on positive or negative consequences.
Skinners Box: with lab animals involving reinforcement.
Thorndike's Law of Effect: responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely
to be repeated.
Primary Reinforcer: satisfies some biological need and works naturally regardless of a
persons prior experience.
Secondary Reinforcer: stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of it's association with
the primary reinforcer.
Positive Reinforcers: stimulus ADDED to the environment that brings about an
INCREASE in a preceeding response.
Negative Reinforcers: unpleasant stimulus whose REMOVAL leads to an INCREASE in
the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
Positive Punishment: adding something (spanking, jailtime)
Negative Punishment: taking away (xbox, tv, etc.)
*Reinforcement > Punishment
Continuous Reinforcement: reinforced all the time
Partial: some-times

Variable-Ratio: a schedule by which reinforrcement occurs after a varying number of

responses rather than after a fixed number.
Fixed-Ratio: a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of
responses are made.

Variable-Interval: the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather
than being fixed.
Ratio-Interval: provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has
elapsed, making overall rates of response relativeely low.

Discriminative Stimulus: signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response.
Shaping: teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer to desired behavior.
Biological Constraints: built-in limitations to learning particular behaviors.
Latent Learning: new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until incentive provokes it.
Observational Learning: learning by watching
Effects of media violence: (already know it)
Relational Learning: learn best through exposure to FULL UNIT
Analytical Learning: best through smaller SECTIONS.