MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

CE-02016
FLUID MECHANICS

A.G.T.I (Second Year)

Civil Engineering
PART ONE
 CONTENTS

Page

Chapter 1 Properties of Fluid 1

2 Fluid Pressure And Its Measurement 10

3 Hydrostatics Forces On Submerged Plane Areas 25

4 Buoyancy And Stability Of Floating Bodies 46

5 Fluid Flow Concepts And Basic Equations 56

6 Flow Through Pipes 70

 1

CHAPTER 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids
at rest as well as in motion. The problems, man encountered in the fields of water supply,
irrigation, navigation and water power, resulted in the development of the fluid mechanics.
It deals with the statics, kinematics and dynamics of fluids. Available methods of
analysis stem from the application of the following principles, concepts, and laws:
- Newton's law of motion
- The first and second laws of thermodynamics
- The principle of conservation of mass, and
- Newton's law of viscosity.
In the development of the principles of fluid mechanics, some fluid properties play
principal roles. In fluid statics, specific weight (or unit weight) is important property, whereas
in fluid flow, density and viscosity are predominant properties.

1.2 Definition of a Fluid

A fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has no definite
shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel. Fluids can be classified
as liquids or gasses.
A 'liquid' is a fluid, which possesses a definite volume, which varies only slightly with
temperature and pressure. Since under ordinary conditions liquids are difficult to compress,
they may be for all practical purposes regarded as incompressible.
A 'gas' is a fluid, which is compressible and possesses no definite volume but it
always expands until its volume is equal to that of the container. Even a slight change in the
temperature of a gas has a significant effect on its volume and pressure.
The fluids are also classified as ideal fluids and real fluids. 'Ideal fluids' are those
fluids which have no viscosity and surface tension and they are incompressible. However, in
nature the ideal fluids do not exist and therefore, these are only imaginary fluids. 'Real fluids'
 2

are those fluids which are actually available in nature. These fluids possess the properties
such as viscosity, surface tension and compressibility.

1.3 Units of Measurement

There are in general four systems of units, two in metric system and two in the
English system. Of the two, one is known as the absolute system and the other as the
gravitational system. Table below lists the various units of measurement for some of the basic
or fundamental quantities.
Quantity Metric Units English Units
Gravitational Absolute Gravitational Absolute
Length m m ft ft

Mass metric slug(msl) gm slug lb

Force kg(f) dyne lb(f) poundal(pdl)

International System of Units ( SI )

Mass kg
Force N
Pressure N/m2 (Pa)
Mass density kg/m3
Weight density (Specific weight) N/m3
Work J
Power Watt
Dynamic viscosity N.s/m2
Kinematic viscosity m2/s

1.4 Mass density, Specific weight, Specific volume, Specific gravity

Mass Density ( ρ ): Mass density of a fluid is the mass which it possesses per unit volume.

The mass density of water at 4°C in different systems of units is 102 msl/m3 (or) 1 gm/cc (or)
1000 kg/m3 (or) 1.94 slug/ft 3 (or) 62.4 lb/ft 3.
 3

ρ = mass
volume

Specific Weight / Unit Weight (ω or r): Specific weight of a fluid is the weight it possesses
per unit volume. The specific weight of water at 4° C is 1000 kg(f)/m3 (or) 981 dynes/cm3
(or) 9810 N/m3 (or) 62.4 lb(f)/ft 3 (or) 62.4x32.2 pdl/ft 3.

ω = ρg = weight
volume

Specific volume (Vs): of a fluid is the volume of the fluid per unit (mass).
1
Vs =
ρ

Specific Gravity (S or G): is the ratio of specific weight (or mass density) of a fluid to the
specific weight (or mass density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid chosen for
comparison is pure water at 4° C. For gases, the standard fluid chosen is either hydrogen or
air at some specified temperature and pressure.

weight of subs tan ce

S =
weight of equal volume of water

specific weight of subs tan ce

S =
specific weight of water

mass density of subs tan ce

S =
mass density of water
Note
-Specific gravity of water at 4° C is equal to 1
-Specific gravity of mercury ≈ 13.6
 4

Example 1.1 If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 KN, calculate its specific weight, mass density and
specific gravity.

Specific weight ω = weight = 47 = 7.833 KN/m3

vol 6
Mass density ρ = r = 7833 = 798 kg/m3
g 9.81
Specific gravity S = Specific weight of oil
Specific weight of water

= 7.833/9.81
≈ 0.8

Example 1.2 Carbon-tetra chloride has a mass density of 162.5 msl/m3. Calculate its mass
density, specific weight and specific volume in the English system of units. Also calculate its
specific gravity.
Mass density of carbon tetra chloride = 162.5 msl/m3
Specific weight of carbon tetra chloride in metric system = 162.5 x 9.81 = 1594.125 kg(f)/m3
Specific weight of carbon tetra chloride in English system
=1594.125 x 2.205/(3.281)3 [ 1 kg(f) = 2.205 lb(f)]
= 99.54 lb(f)/ft 3
Mass density of carbon tetra chloride in English system =99.54/32.2 = 3.09 slug/ft 3
Specific volume = 1/specific weight
= 1/99.54
= 0.0105 ft 3/lb(f)
Specific gravity = Specific weight of carbon tetra chloride
Specific weight of water
= 99.54/62.4
= 1.595
 5

1.5 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of its resistance
to a shearing force.
V
Moving Plate
F
dv
dy Y

Fixed Plate
Fig.1.1 Fluid motion between two parallel plates

Experiments show that shear force varies with the area of the plate A, with velocity V
and inversely with distance Y.
AV
F ∝
Y
Since by similar triangles
V dv
=
Y dy
dv
F ∝ A⋅
dy
F dv
( =τ ) ∝ (τ = shear stress)
A dy
If a proportionality constant µ , called dynamic viscosity, is introduced

dv
τ =µ⋅ Newton Law of Viscosity
dy
τ shear stress
Dynamic vis cos ity µ= =
dv rate of shear strain
dy
The dynamic viscosity may be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate
of angular deformation.
 6

Units of µ are:

FPS lb(f) sec

ft2
CGS poise / dyne.sec
cm2
SI N.S
m2

Another viscosity coefficient, the coefficient of kinematic viscosity, defined as

absolute vis cos ity (µ ) µ

kinematic vis cos ity ν = =
mass density ( ρ ) r
g

µg
ν =
r

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity to mass density.

Units of ν are:

FPS ft 2/s
CGS stokes ( cm2/sec)
SI m2/sec

Example 1.3 Refer to figure, a fluid has absolute viscosity 0.001 lb-sec/ft 2 and specific
gravity 0.913. Calculate the velocity gradient and the intensity of shear stress at the boundary
and points 1 in, 2 in and 3 in from boundary, assuming a straight line velocity distribution.
 7

45 in/sec

3"

For a straight line assumption, the relation between velocity and distance is V =15 Y
dv = 15 dy
velocity gradient dv/dy = 15

For y =0 ,V=0
dv
τ =µ
dy
= 0.001 x 15
= 0.015 lb/ft 2
Similarly for the other values of y, we also obtain τ = 0.015 lb/ft 2

Example 1.4 At a certain point in castor oil the shear stress is 0.216 N/m2 and the velocity
gradient is 0.216 s-1. If the mass density of castor oil is 959.42 kg/m3, find the kinematic
viscosity.
dv
τ =µ
dy
0.216 = µ (0.216)
µ = 1 N.s/m2

ν = µ /ρ
= 1 /959.42
= 1.04 x 10-3 m2/s
 8

1.6 Surface Tension (σ )

The surface tension of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough
molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that surface.
σ = 0.073 N/m for air-water interface
σ = 0.48 N/m for air-mercury interface

1.7 Capillarity
Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on
the relative magnitude of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls
of the containing vessel.
Liquids, such as water, which wet a surface cause capillary rise. In nonwetting liquids
(e.g mercury) capillary depression is caused.
2 σ Cos θ
h=
rR

where h = height of capillary rise ( or depression)

θ = wetting angle
R = radius of tube
R
R

σ θ θ σ

h
h
θ θ
σ σ
Capillary Rise Capillary Depression
Fig.1.2 Capillarity in circular glass tubes
Example 1.5 A clean tube of internal diameter 3 mm is immersed in a liquid with a
coefficient of surface tension 0.48 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the glass can
 9

be assumed to be 130°. The density of the liquid is 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of
the liquid in the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid outside the tube.

2 σ Cos θ
h=
rR
2 × 0.48 × Cos 130
h=
(13600 x 9.81) (15 x 10 − 3 )
= - 3.08 x 10-3 m
There is a capillary depression of 3.08 mm

1.8 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

The bulk modulus of elasticity expresses the compressibility of a fluid. It is the ratio
of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.
dP
E=
− (dv / V )
The units of E are Pa (or) lb/in2

Example 1.6 At a great depth in the ocean, the pressure is 80 MPa. Assume that specific
weight at the surface is 10 KN/m3 and the average bulk modulus of elasticity is 2.34 GPa .
Find change in specific volume at that depth.

1 g
Vs = =
ρ r
9.81
=
10 × 103
= 9.81 x 10-4 m3/kg
dp
E=
dv s
−
Vs
2.34 x109 = (80 x106) -0
- dvs
9.81x10-4
dvs = -0.335 x10-4 m3/kg
 10

CHAPTER 2

FLUID PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

2.1 Fluid Pressure at a Point

Pressure or 'intensity of pressure' may be defined as the force exerted on a unit area. If
F represents the total force uniformly distributed over an area, the pressure at any point
p=F/A. However, if the force is not uniformly distributed, the expression will give the
average value only. When the pressure varies from point to point on an area, the magnitude of
pressure at any point can be obtained by the following expression
p = dF / dA
where dF represents the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA.
The forces so exerted always acts in the direction normal to the surface in contact.
The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface is called the fluid pressure.

2.2 Variation of Pressure in a Fluid

The pressure intensity p at any point in a static mass of fluid does not vary in x and y
directions and it varies only in z direction.
dp
= −ω
dz
The above equation is the basic differential equation representing the variation of
pressure in a fluid at rest, which holds for both compressible and incompressible fluids. It
indicates that within a body of fluid at rest the pressure increases in the downward direction
at the rate equivalent to the specific weight ω of the liquid.
A liquid may be considered as incompressible fluid for which ω is constant and
hence integration of above equation gives
p = -ωz + C
in which p is the pressure at any point at an elevation z in the static mass of liquid and C is
the constant of integration. Liquids have a free surface at which the pressure of atmosphere
acts. Thus as shown in Fig.2.1 for a point lying in the free surface of the liquid z = (H+zo)
 11

and if pa is the atmospheric pressure at the liquid surface then from above equation the
constant of integration C=[pa+ ω(H+zo)]. Substituting this value of C in equation, it becomes
p = - ωz + [pa+ ω (H+zo)]
Now if a point is lying in the liquid mass at a vertical depth h below the free surface
of the liquid then as shown in Fig.2.1 for this point z = (H + zo- h) and from above equation
p = pa + ω h

Free Liquid Surface

H h
Liquid of specific
weight ω

zo z = (H+zo -h)
Datum

Fig.2.1 Pressure at a point in liquid

It is evident from the above equation the pressure at any point in a static mass of
liquid depends only upon the vertical depth of the point below the free surface and the
specific weight of the liquid, and it does not depend the shape and size of the bounding
containers. Since the atmospheric pressure at a place is constant, at any point in a static mass
of liquid, often only the pressure in excess of the atmospheric pressure is considered, in
which case the above equation becomes
p =ω h
The vertical height of the free surface above any point in a liquid at rest is known as
pressure head.
p
h=
ω

If h1 and h2 are the heights of the columns of liquids of specific weights ω1 and ω2
required to develop the same pressure p, at any point
p = ω1h1 = ω 2 h2
 12

If S1 and S2 are the specific gravities of the two liquids and ω is the specific weight
of water then since ω1= S1ω and ω2 = S2 ω , equation may also be written as

S1h1 = S2h2

Example 2.1 Convert a pressure head of 100 m of water to (a) Kerosene of specific
gravity 0.81 (b) Carbon tetrachloride of specific gravity 1.6.

(a) hS1 = hS2

100 x 1 = 0.81 x h2
h2 = 123.4 m of kerosene
(b) 100 x 1 = 1.6 x h2
h2 = 62.5 m of carbon tetra chloride

2.3 Pressure the Same in All Directions - Pascal's Law

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest has the same magnitude in all directions. In
other words when a certain pressure is applied at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is
equally transmitted in all directions and to every other point in the fluid.
ps = px = pz

2.4 Atmospheric, Absolute, Gage and Vacuum Pressure

The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in
contact, and it is known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure varies with the
altitude and it can be measured by means of a barometer. As such it is also called the
barometric pressure. At sea level under normal conditions the equivalent values of the
atmospheric pressure are 1.03 kg/cm2; 101.3 kPa or 10.3 m of water; or 76 cm of mercury.
Fluid pressure may be measured with respect to any arbitrary datum. The two most
common datum used are (i) absolute zero pressure and (ii) local atmospheric pressure. When
pressure is measured above zero (or complete vacuum), it is called an absolute pressure.
When it is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure as datum, it is called gage
 13

pressure. If the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric it is designated as vacuum pressure;

and its gage value is the amount by which it is below that of the atmospheric pressure. A gage
which measures vacuum pressure is known as vacuum gage. Fig.2.2 illustrates the relation
between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.

A •
Gage Pressure at A

Local Atmospheric Pressure (or Gage Zero)

Vacuum Pressure or Negative Gage Pressure at B

• B Absolute Pressure at A
Local Barometric Pressure
Absolute Pressure at B

Absolute Zero (or Complete Vacuum)

Fig.2.2 Relationship between absolute, gage and vacuum pressure

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gage Pressure

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure

2.5 Measurement of Pressure

The various devices adopted for measuring fluid pressure may be broadly classified
under the following two heads:
(1) Manometers
(2) Mechanical Gages
Manometers are those pressure measuring devices which are based on the principle of
balancing the columns of liquid whose pressure is to be found by the same or another
column of liquid. The manometers are classified as simple manometers and differential
manometers.
 14

Simple manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a fluid contained
in a pipe or vessel. On the other hand differential manometers measure the difference of
pressure between any two points in a fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel.

Simple Manometers
In general a simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends
connected to the gage point where the pressure is to be measured and the other remains open
to atmosphere. Some of the common types of simple manometers are: (i) Piezometer (ii) U
tube manometer and (iii) single column manometers.

(i) Piezometer
A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring
moderate pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of a pipe or a
vessel, containing a liquid whose pressure is to be measured. Piezometers measure gage
pressure only since the surface of the liquid in the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure.
The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of the liquid in the
tube above that point, which can be read on the scale attached to it. Thus, if w is the specific
weight of the liquid, then the pressure at any point A in Fig.2.3(a) is

PA = ρ g hA = ω hA

hA
A h

(a) (b)
Fig.2.3 Piezometers

Negative gage pressures can be measured by means of the piezometer shown in Fig.
2.3(b). It is evident that if the pressure in the container is less than the atmospheric no column
 15

of liquid will rise in the ordinary piezometer. Neglecting the weight of the air caught in the
portion of the tube, the pressure on the free surface in the container is the same as that at free
surface in the tube which may be expressed as p = -ω h, where ω is the specific weight of the
liquid used in the vessel.

(ii) U- tube Manometer

Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be
measured, since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently.
Furthermore gas pressures cannot be measured by means of piezometers because a gas forms
no free atmospheric surface. U tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one
end of which is connected to the gage point and the other end remains open to the
atmosphere. The tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of
which the pressure is to be measured. For the measurement shown in Fig.2.4 (a) the gage
equation may be written as indicated below.

V D
Manometric Liquid (Sp.gr S2)
y

B' B C
Fluid of Sp.gr S1 z

A A'

(a)
Pressure head at A , h =PA / ρ1g = PA /(S1 ρ ) g
Pressure head at A' = Pressure head at A
Pressure head at B' = Pressure head at A' -z = (PA / S1 ρ g )- z
Pressure head at B = Pressure head at B'
Pressure head at C =Pressure head at B =(PA / S1 ρ g )- z
Pressure head at D = Pressure head at at C - y x S2/S1 ( in terms of liquid at A)
 16

At D, there being atmospheric pressure, the pressure head =0, in terms of gage pressure.

pA - z - y. S2 = 0
S1 ρ g S1
pA = z + y S2 (represents the pressure heads in terms of the liquid at A)
S1 ρ g S1
pA = z S1 + y S2 (represents the pressure heads in terms water)
ρg

Fluid of Sp.gr S1 D
V
A A' h1

h2
B C
Manometric Liquid (Sp.gr S2)

(b)
Fig.2.4 U Tube Simple Manometer

Fig.2.4(b) shows another arrangement for measuring pressure at A by means of a U-

tube manometer. By following the same procedure as indicated above the gage equation for
this arrangement can also be written,

PA = h1 S2 - h2 ( in terms of liquid at A)
ωS1 S1
PA = h1 S2 - h2 S1 ( in terms of water)
ω
A U tube manometer can also be used to measure negative or vacuum pressure. For
measurement of small negative pressure, a U tube manometer without any manometric liquid
may be used, which is as shown in Fig.2.5(a).
 17

Fluid of Sp.gr S1

A A'
h

B C

(a)
PA + h = 0
S1 ρ g
PA = - h ( m of liquid at A)
S ρg
PA = -S1h ( m of water)

For measuring greater negative pressures a manometric liquid of greater specific

gravity is employed, for which the arrangement shown in Fig.2.5(b) may be employed.

Fluid of Sp.gr S1

A A'
z
B y
Manometric liquid C
(Sp.gr S2)
( b)
Fig.2.5 Measurement of negative pressure by U-tube simple manometer

PA = - z - y S2 ( in terms of liquid at A)
ω S1 S1
PA = -z S1 -y S2 ( in terms of water)
ω
 18

Differential Manometers
For measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a pipe line or in
two pipes or containers, a differential manometer is employed. In general a differential
manometer consists of a bent glass tube, the two ends of which are connected to each of the
two gage points between which the pressure difference is required. Some of the common
types of differential manometers are :
(i) Two-Piezometer Manometer
(ii) Inverted U Tube Manometer
(iii) U Tube Differential Manometer
(iv) Micromanometer

(i) Two Piezometer Manometer

The difference in the levels of the liquid raised in the two tubes will denote the
pressure difference between the two points. Evidently this method is useful only if the
pressure at each of the two points is small. Moreover it cannot be used to measure the
pressure difference in gases, for which the other types of differential manometers described
below may be employed.

P1 h P2
S1ρg S1ρg

• •
1 2

Fig.2.6 Two Piezometer Manometer

P1 -P2 = h ( m of liquid in the pipe)
S1 ρ g
P1 -P2 = S1h ( m of water)
ρg
(ii) U -tube Differential Manometer
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, the two ends of which are connected to the
two gage points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured. Fig.2.7
 19

shows such an arrangement for measuring the pressure difference between any two points A
and B. The lower part of the manometer contains a manometric liquid which is heavier than
the liquid for which the pressure difference is to be measured and is immiscible with it.
Fluid of Sp.gr S1

A A' B
y
D
C h C'
Manometric liquid Sp.gr S2

Fig.2.7 U Tube Differential Manometer

PA + y + h - h.S2 - y = PB
S1 ρ g S1 S1 ρ g
PA -PB = h. S2 - h = h (S2 - 1) ( m of fluid of sp.gr S1)
S1 ρ g S1 S1
PA -P B = h ( S2 -S1) ( m of water)
ρg

(iii) Inverted U -tube Manometer

It consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape and held inverted as shown in Fig.2.8.
When the two ends of the manometer are connected to the points between which the pressure
difference is required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs of the
manometer, thereby causing the air within the manometer to get compressed. The presence of
the compressed air results in restricting the heights of the columns of liquids raised in the two
limbs of the manometer. An air cook as shown in Fig.2.8, is usually provided at the top of the
inverted U tube which facilities the raising of the liquid columns to suitable level in both the
limbs by driving out a portion of the compressed air. Inverted U tube manometers are suitable
for the measurement of small pressure difference in liquids.
 20

Air Cock
Air
C C'
h
D

A B

Liquid Sp.gr S1

Fig.2.8 Inverted U Tube Manometer

Since the specific weight of air is negligible as compared with that of liquid, between C' and
D may be neglected.

PA - y + ( y-h) = PB
S1 ρ g S1ρ g
PA -PB = h ( m of liquid of sp.gr S1)
S1 ρ g
PA - PB = h S1 ( m of water)
ρg

Example 2.2 The left leg of a U-tube mercury manometer is connected to a pipe line
conveying water, the level of mercury in the leg being 60 cm below the centre of pipe line
and the right leg is open to atmosphere. The level of mercury in the right leg is 45 cm above
that in the left leg and the space above mercury in the right leg contains Benzene (specific
gravity 0.88) to a height of 30 cm. Find the pressure in the pipe.
 21

A 30 cm
Benzene
D

45 cm
Water 60 cm
Mercury
C C'

PA/ω + 0.6 = 0.45 x 13.6 + 0.3 x 0.88

PA/ω = 5.784 m of water
5.784 x 1000
PA=
104
= 0.578 kg/cm2

Example 2.3 A U tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (sp.gr 0.8)
flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open to the atmosphere and the left limb is connected to
the pipe. The centre of the pipe is 9 cm below the level of mercury (sp.gr 13.6) in the right
limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 15 cm, determine the absolute
pressure of the oil in the pipe in KPa.

9 cm
15 cm

Oil (Sp.gr 0.8) Mercury (Sp.gr 13.6)

P/s1ρg + 0.06 - 0.15 x S2/S1 =0

P/s1ρg = 2.49 m of oil
 22

P = 2.49 x 0.8 x1000 x 9.81

= 19.541 KPa ( Gage Pressure)
Absolute Pressure = 19.541 + 101.3 = 120.841 KPa

Example 2.4 For a gage pressure at A of -0.15 kg/cm2, determine the specific gravity of
the gage liquid B in the figure given below.

Air E 10.25 m

9. 5 m B F G 9.6 m
A

Lquid A (Sp.gr 1.6) C D Liquid B ( Sp.gr S)

9.0 m

Pressure at C = Pressure at D
-(0.15) x 104 + (1000 x 1.6 x 0.5) = PD
P D = -0.7 x 103 kg/m2

Between point D and E, since there is an air column which can be neglected.
PD = PE
PF = PG
PG= 0 =PF ( point G being at atmospheric pressure)
Thus PF = PE + S x 1000 (10.25-9.60) = 0
S = 1.077

Example 2.5 As shown in the accompanying figure, pipe M contains carbon-tetra

chloride of specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of 1.05 kg/cm2 and pipe N contains oil of
specific gravity 0.8. If the pressure in the pipe N is 1.75 kg/cm2 and the manometric fluid is
mercury, find the difference x between the levels of mercury.
 23

Carbontetra chloride
M
M

2.5 m
N Oil
1.5 m
Z x Z'
Mercury

Equate the pressure heads at Z an Z' as shown in above figure

Pressure head at Z in terms of water
= [ 1.05 x 104 + (2.5+1.5) 1.594 + x (13.6)]
1000
Similarly pressure head at Z' in terms of water
= [ 1.75 x 104 + (1.5 x 0.8) + x (0.8) ]
1000
Equating the above two
10.5 + 6.376 + 13.6 x = 17.5 + 1.2 + 0.8x
x = 0.142 m =14.2 cm

Example 2.6 The tank in figure is closed at top and contains air at a pressure pA.
Calculate the value of pA for the manometer readings shown.
A

Open Tube Air

200 cm Oil (sp.gr 0.75) 150 cm

Water
10 cm
X X Mercury
 24

pA + 1.5 x 0.75 x 9810 + 0.5 x 9810 + 0.1 x 9810 - 0.1 x 13.6 x 9810 = 0
pA = -3580.65 Pa

Exampe 2.7 Petrol of specific gravity 0.8 flows upwards through a vertical pipe. A and
B are two points in the pipe, B being 30 cm higher than A. Connections are led from A and B
to a U-tube containing mercury. If the difference of pressure between A and B is 0.18
kg(f)/cm2, find the reading shown by the differential mercury gage.

30 cm Petrol
A
y
x Mercury

pA + ( x + y) x 0.8 = pB + (0.3 + y) 0.8 + ( x x 13.6)

ω ω
( pA - pB ) = 12.8 x + 0.24
ω ω
x = 0.122 m
 25

CHAPTER 3

HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE AREAS

3.1 Total Pressure on a Plane Surface

(a) Total Pressure on a Horizontal Plane Surface

Fig.3.1 Total Pressure on a Horizontal Plane Surface

Since every point on the surface is at the same depth below the free surface of the
liquid, the pressure intensity is constant over the entire plane surface.
Pressure intensity p = wh
If A is the total area of the surface,
Total pressure on the horizontal surface P = pA =(ωh)A = ωAh
(b) Total Pressure on a Vertical Plane Surface

Fig.3.2 Total Pressure on a Vertical Plane Surface

 26

Since the depth of liquid varies from point to point on the surface, the pressure
intensity is not constant over the entire surface. Consider on the plane surface a horizontal
strip of thickness dx and width b lying at a vertical depth x below the free surface of the
liquid. Since the thickness of the strip is very small, for this strip the pressure intensity may
be assumed to be constant.
Pressure intensity of strip p = ωx
Area of strip dA = b dx
Total pressure on the strip dp = p dA = ωx . (bdx)
Total pressure on the entire plane surface P = ∫ dP = ω ∫ x (bdx)

∫ x bdx = A.x
P = ω A x ---------------- (3.1)

( c ) Centre of Pressure for Vertical Plane Surface

For a plane surface immersed horizontally, since the pressure intensity is uniform,
the total pressure would pass through the centroid of the area, i.e, in this case the centroid of
the area and the centre of pressure coincide with each other. However, for a plane surface
immersed vertically the centre of pressure does not coincide with the centroid of the area.
As shown in Fig.3.2 let h be the vertical depth of the centre of pressure for the plane
surface immersed vertically. Then the moment of the total pressure P about axis OO is equal
to (Ph ).
Total pressure of the strip, dP = ω x ( bdx ) and
Moment about axis OO , (dP) x = ωx2 (bdx)

The sum of the moments of the total pressure on all strips = ∫ (dP ) x = ω ∫ x 2 (bdx )
By using principle of moments,
−
The moment of total pressure about axis OO, P h = ω ∫ x 2 (bdx ) --------- (3.2)

∫ x (bdx ) represents the sum of the second moment of the areas of strips about axis OO,
2

which is equal to moment of inertia Io of the plane surface about axis OO. That is

I o = ∫ x 2 (bdx ) ------------ (3.3)

Introducing equation 3.3 in equation 3.2 and solving for h,

− ω Io
h=
P
 27

Substituting for the total pressure from equation 3.1, we obtain

− IO
h= −
Ax
From the 'Parallel axes theorem' for the moment of inertia,

−2
Io = IG + A x -----------------(3.4)

where IG is the moment of inertia of the area about on axis passing through the centroid of
the area and parallel to axis 00
Introducing equation 3.4 in equation 3.3, it becomes

I
h = x+ G -----------------(3.5)
Ax
Equation 3.5 gives the position of centre of pressure on a plane surface immersed
vertically in a static mass of liquid. The position at which the resultant pressure P may be
taken as acting is called the centre of pressure.

(d) Total Pressure on Inclined Plane Surface

Fig.3.3 Total Pressure on Inclined Plane Surface

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area A , wholly submerged in a
static mass of liquid of specific weight ω . The surface is held inclined such that the plane of
surface makes an angle θ with the horizontal as shown in Fig.3.3. The intersection of this
 28

plane with the free surface of the liquid is represented by axis OO, which is normal to the
plane of the paper. Let x be the vertical depth of the centroid of the plane surface below
the free surface of the liquid, and the inclined distance of the centroid from axis OO
measured along the inclined plane be y .
Total pressure on the strip = dP = ωx (dA)
Since x = y Sin θ
dP = ω ( y Sin θ ) (dA)
Total pressure on the entire surface P = (ω Sin θ ) ∫ y (dA)

Again ∫ y (dA) represents the sum of the first moments of the area of the strips
about axis OO, which is equal to the product of the area A and the inclined distance of the
centroid of the surface area y from axis OO.

∫ y (dA) = A y
P = ωA ( y Sin θ)
x =y Sinθ

P = ω Ax ----------- (3.6)

Equation 3.6 is the same as equation 3.1, thereby indicating that for a plane surface
wholly submerged in a static mass of liquid and held either vertical or inclined, the total
pressure is equal to the product of the pressure intensity at the centroid of the area and the
area of the plane surface.

(e) Centre of Pressure for Inclined Surface

− − I Sin 2θ
h=x+ G ------------- (3.7)
−
A⋅ x
The equation 3.7 gives the vertical depth of centre of pressure below free surface of
liquid, for an inclined plane surface, wholly immersed in a static mass of liquid.
Table 3.1 gives the moments of inertia and other geometric properties of different
plane surfaces which are commonly met in actual practice.
 29

Table.3.1 Moment of Inertia and other Geometric Properties of Plane Surface

 30

3.2 Pressure Diagram

Total pressure as well as centre of pressure for a plane surface wholly submerged in a
static mass of liquid, either vertically or inclined, may also be determined by drawing a
pressure diagram. A pressure diagram is a graphical representation of the variation of the
pressure intensity over a surface. Such a diagram may be prepared by plotting to some
convenient scale the pressure intensities at various points on the surface. Since pressure at
any point acts in the direction normal to the surface, the pressure intensities at various points
on the surface are plotted normal to the surface. Fig.3.4 shows typical pressure diagrams for
horizontal, vertical and inclined plane surfaces.

Fig.3.4 Pressure diagrams for horizontal, vertical and inclined plane surfaces

As an example consider a rectangular plane surface of width l and depth b, held

vertically submerged in a static mass of liquid of specific weight w, as shown in Fig.3.5. Let
the top and bottom edges of the surface area be at vertical depths of h1 and h2 respectively
below the free surface of the liquid. Thus for every point near the top edge of the surface area
the pressure intensity is
p1 = ω h1
Similarly for every point near the bottom edge of the surface area the pressure
intensity is
p2 = ω h2
 31

Fig.3.5 Pressure diagram for a vertical rectangular plane surface

Since the pressure intensity at any point varies linearly with the depth of the point
below the free surface of the liquid, the pressure diagram may be drawn as shown in Fig 3.5,
which will be trapezium with the length of the top edge equal to ωh1, the length of the bottom
edge equal to wh2 and its height equal to b, the depth of the rectangular plane surface. In the
same manners if the pressure diagrams are drawn for all the vertical sections of the surface
area, a trapezoidal prism will be developed as shown in Fig.3.5 The volume of the prism
gives the total pressure on the plane surface, which in the present case is

 ωh + ωh2 
P= 1  b×l ---------------- (3.8)
 2 
The result obtained by equation 3.8 may also be obtained by using equation 3.1.

Example 3.1 A 3.6 m by 1.5 m wide rectangular gate MN is vertical and is hinged at point
15 cm below the centre of gravity of the gate. The total depth of water is 6 m. What
horizontal force must be applied at the bottom of the gate to keep the gate closed?
 32

x M
h Gate

6m
15 cm
° 3.6 m
P
F
N

Total pressure acting on the plane surface of the gate

P = ρ g Ax
= 1000 x 9.81 x (3.6 x 1.5) x 4.2
= 222491 N
The depth of centre of pressure
− I −
h=x+ G
−
Ax

× 1.5 × (3.6 )3
1
= 4.2 + 12
(1.5 × 3.6) × 4.2
= 4.457 m
Let F be the force required to be applied at the bottom of the gate to keep it closed.
Taking moment about the hinge,
F (1.8-0.15) - 222491 (0.257 - 0.15) = 0
F = 14428 N
Example 3.2 A triangular gate which has a base of 1.5 m and an altitude of 2 m lies in a
vertical plane. The vertex of the gate is 1 m below the surface of a tank which contains oil of
specific gravity 0.8. Find the force exerted by the oil on the gate and the position of the centre
of pressure.
ω = 0.8 x 9810 = 7848 N/m3
 33

A =1/2 x 1.5 x 2 = 1.5 m2

x = (1+ 2/3 x 2) = 2.33 m
The force exerted on the gate
P = ω Ax
= 7848 x 1.5 x 2.33
= 27428 N
The position of the centre of pressure
− − IG
h=x+
−
A⋅ x
= 2.33 + 0.33
1.5 x 2.33
= 2.43 m

Example 3.3 A rectangular door 2 m high and 1 m wide closes an opening in the vertical
side of a bulkhead which retains water on one side of it to a depth of 2 m above the top of the
door. The door is supported by two hinges placed 10 cm, from the top and bottom of one of
the vertical sides, and it is fastened by a bolt fixed at the centre of the opposite vertical side.
Determine the forces on each hinge and the force exerted on the bolt.

2m x
h 1m
FT • 
F bolt • 2m

2m P
FB •
 34

Total pressure P = ω Ax

= 9810 x 2 x1 x 3
= 58.86 KN
− − IG
h=x+
−
A⋅ x

1x 2 3
= 3 + 12
2 x3
= 3.1 m
One half of P is taken by the hinges and the other half by the bolt.
Force on the bolt F = P/2 = 29.43 KN
Taking moment about at the bottom hinge
FT (1.8) = P x 0.8 - F x 0.9
FT = 11.445 KN
FB = 29.43-11.445 = 17.985 KN

Example 3.4 Gate PQ shown in the figure below is 1.25 m wide and 2 m high and it is
hinged at P. Gage G reads 1.5 x 104 N/m2. The left hand tank contains water and the right
hand tank oil of specific gravity 0.75 up to the heights shown in the figure. What horizontal
force must be applied at Q to keep the gate closed?

G
Air

IWS 1.5 m
O O'

6m Water
P• Hinge Oil •P
2m Gate 2m Pwater P Oil
F
Q Q
 35

Poil = ρ g Ax = 1000 x 0.75 x 9.81 x (2 x1.25) x 1 = 18394 N

− − IG
h=x+
−
A⋅ x
1
(1.25)(2) 3
=1 + 12
(1.25 x 2) x 1
= 1.34 m
For LHS of gate, it is necessary to convert the negative pressure due to the air to its
equivalent in meters of water
h = P / ρg = -1.5 x 104 = -1.5 m
103 x 9.81
This negative pressure head is equivalent to having the water level in the tank reduced by 1.5
m.
Pwater= 103 x 9.81 x ( 2 x 1.25) x (4.5-1) = 85838 N

− 1 (1.25) (2 3 )
h = 3.5 + 12 = 3.595 m below the imaginary water surface OO
(1.25 x 2) x 3.5
Taking the moments of all the forces about the hinge and equating the sum of all the
moments to zero for equilibrium of the gate.
F x 2 + Poil x 1.34 - Pwater (3.595 -2.5) = 0
F = 34672.5 N acting at Q to the left

Example 3.5 A trapezoidal plate 3 m wide at the base and 6 m at the top is 3 m high.
Determine the total pressure exerted on the plate and the depth to the centre of pressure when
the plate is immersed normally in water up to its upper edge.
6m

x
3m b
dx

3m
By Integration
 36

Intensity of pressure on strip, dp = ρg x

Total pressure on strip, dP = ρgx . bdx
From figure
b/2-1.5 = 1.5
3-x 3
b = 6-x
dP = ρg x (6-x) dx
3
Total Pressure P = ∫ dP = ρg ∫ x (6-x) dx
0

= 176.6 kN
Moment of total pressure on strip about OO
dM = ρgx (6-x) dx . x = ρgx2 (6-x) dx
3
P.h = ∫ dM = ρg ∫ x2 (6-x) dx
0

176.6 x 103 x h = ρg [ 6x3/3 -x4/4]

h = 1.875 m

[or]

P = ω Ax
= 9810 x 13.5 x 1.333
= 176. 5 kN
− − IG
h=x+
−
A⋅ x
9.75
=1.333 +
13.5 x1.333
= 1.875 m

Example 3.6 A circular plate 2.5 m diameter is immersed in water, its greatest and least
depth below the free surface being 3 m and 1 m respectively. Find (a) the total pressure on
one face of the plate and (b) the position of the centre of pressure.
 37

Free liquid surface

x 1m
3m h
P

Edge View of circular plate

View normal to circular plate

x = 2 m
A = π/4 (2.5)2 = 4.906 m2
P = ρ g A x
= 1000 x 9.81 x 4.906 x 2
= 96256 N
The depth of the centre of pressure
− − I Sin 2θ
h=x+ G
−
A⋅ x
IG = π /64 (2.5)4 = 1.917 m4
h = 2 + (1.917) (0.8)2
4.906 x 2
= 2.125 m

Example 3.7 An opening in a reservoir is closed by a plate 1m square which is hinged at

the upper horizontal edge as shown in the figure. The plate is inclined at an angle 60° to the
horizontal and its top edge is 2 m below the surface of the water. If this plate is opened by
means of a chain attached to the centre of the lower edge, find the necessary pull T in the
chain. The line of action of the chain makes an angle of 45° with the plate. Weight of the
plate is 200 kg(f).
 38

Water surface in reservoir Dam

2m
T
Chain Hinge
1m Opening
Plate
60°

Area of plate A = 1m2

Depth of CG below the free surface of water = 2 + 1/2 Sin 60 = 2.433 m

Total pressure acting on the plate P = ωAx

= 1000x 1 x 2.433
= 2433 kg(f)
− − I Sin 2θ
h=x+ G
−
A⋅ x
= 2.46 m

Distance of total pressure P from hinge along the plate = (2.46 -2) 1/Sin 60 = 0.53 m

Taking moment about the hinge,

T Sin 45 x1 = 2433 x 0.53 + 200 Cos 60 x 1/2

T = 1894 kg(f)
 39

3.3 Total Pressure on Curved Surfaces

The horizontal component of the resultant fluid pressure acting on a curved surface is
the pressure exerted on the projected area, and this will act at the centre of pressure of the
vertical projection.

PH = ρ. g. Ax.x
The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on curved surface is equal to the
weight of the volume of liquid extending above the surface of the object to the level of free
surface. This vertical component passes through the centre of gravity of the volume
considered.

PV = ρ g V

Resultant force PR =√ PH2 +PV2

The direction of the resultant force P is given by

P
tan θ = V
PH

where θ is the angle made by the resultant force P with the horizontal.
4R 4R
x= x=
3π 3π

G PV h H G•
PH  PH

PR PR

W PV = W
(a) (b)
Fig.3.6 Total Pressure on Curved Surface
 40

− H
x=
2
− 2
h= H
3
If the fluid pressure acts on the opposite side of the curve surface as shown in
Fig.3.6(a), the same approach may be used but the forces act in the opposite direction.

Example 3.8 Determine and locate the components of the force due to the water acting on
the curved surface AB as shown in figure, per meter of its length.
x
A C
Hinge
6m
• G
PH
B

PV
− H 6
x= = = 3m
2 2
− 2 2
h = H = × 6 = 4m
3 3
4R 4 6
x= = × = 2.546m
3π 3 π
PH= Force on vertical projection CB
= ρ g Ax x
= 1000 x 9.81 x (6x1) x 3
= 176.58 KN acting 4 m from C
PV = Weight of the water above surface AB
=ρgV
=1000 x 9.81 x (π/4 R2 x 1)
= 277.37 KN
P
PR = PH2 + PV2 =328.81 KN; θ = tan −1 V = 57° 32'
PH
 41

Example 3.9 A cylinder 2.4m diameter weighs 200 kg and rests on the bottom of a tank
which is 1m long. As shown in figure below water and oil are poured into the left and right
hand portions of the tank to depths 60 cm and 1.2 m respectively. Find the magnitude of the
horizontal and vertical components of the force which will keep the cylinder touching the
tank at B.
2.4 m

O
A Oil
Water C DD D Sp.gr 0.75
60 cm 1.2 m
B
Net PH = Component on AB to left -Component on CB to right
={ 0.75 x 1000 x (1.2x1)x1.2/2}-{1000 x (0.6x1) x 0.6/2}
= 360 kg(f) to left
Net PV = Component upward on AB + Component upward on CB
= {0.75 x 1000 x (1/4 x π /4 x 2.42) x 1} + [1000{ π/6 x 1.22-1/2 x 0.6 x √1.08} x 1]
= 1289.7 kg(f)
Net downward force to hold the cylinder in place
= 1289.7 -200
= 1089.7 kg(f)

Example 3.10 The face of a dam retaining water is shaped according to the relationship y =
x2/4 as shown in figure. The height of the water surface above the bottom of dam is 12 m.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant water pressure per meter breadth.

x
12 m dy
PH

PV
 42

PH = Total pressure on the projected area

= ρ g Ax x
= 706.32 KN acting at 4 m from the base
PV = Weight of the water above the curve OA
12
=ρg ∫ x dy x 1
0

12
=ρg ∫ 2 y 1/2 dy
0

= 543. 47 KN

PR = PH2 + PV2 = 891.2 KN

P
θ = tan −1 V = 37° 34'
PH

3.4 Practical Applications of Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure

In practice there exist several hydraulic structures which are subjected to hydrostatic
pressure forces. In the design of these structures it is therefore necessary to compute the
magnitude of these forces and to locate their points of application on the structures. Some of
the common types of such structures are (i) Dams (ii) Gates and (iii) Tanks.
In several hydraulic structures, openings are required to be provided in order to carry
water from the place of its storage to place of its utilisation for various purposes. The flow of
water though such openings, called sluices, is controlled by means of gates which are known
as sluice gates. Another type of gates which are used to change the water level in a canal or a
river are known as lock gates. The water level is required to be raised or lowered in a canal or
a river used for navigation, at a section where the bed of the canal or the river has a vertical
fall. As such a section of a canal or a river, in order to facilitate the transfer of a boat from
the upper water level to the lower one or vice versa a chamber known as lock is constructed
by providing two pairs of lock gates. If a boat is to be transferred from the upper water level
to the lower water level, the lock is filled up through the openings provided in the upstream
pair of lock gates and keeping the similar openings in the downstream pair of lock gates
closed. When the level of water in the lock becomes equal to the upper water level, the
upstream gates are opened and the boat is transferred to the lock.
 43

Example 3.11 A masonry weir is of trapezoidal cross section with a top width of 2.0 m and
of height 5m. If the weir has water stored up to its crest on the u/s side and has a tail water of
2m depth on the d/s, calculate the resultant force on the base of the weir per unit length.
Assume specific weight of masonry as 22 KN/m3 and neglect uplift forces.

2m
PV1 C D

W2
5m W1 1 PV2
PH1 W3 0.75

PH2 2m
A B
0.5m 2m 3.75 m

6.25 m

W1 = (1/2 x 0.5 x 5) x 1 x 22 = 27.5 KN

W2 = (2 x 5) x 1 x 22 = 220 KN
W3 = (1/2 x 3.75 x 5 ) x 1 x 22 = 206.25 KN
PV1 = (1/2 x 0.5 x 5) x 1 x 9.81 = 12.26 KN
PV2 = (1/2 x 1.5 x 2.0) x1 x 9.81 = 14.71 KN
PH1 = (5 x 1) x 2.5 x 9.81 = 122.62 KN
PH2 = (2 x 1) x 1 x 9.81 = 19.62 KN

R = ∑ V 2 + ∑ H 2 = 491.6 KN

∑ PV
tan θ =
∑ PH
θ = 77°54'
 44

Example 3.12 The end gates of a lock are 5 m high and include an angle of 120° in the
closed position. The width of the lock is 6.25 m. Each gate is carried on two hinges on the top
and the bottom of the gate. If the water levels are 4m and 2m on u/s and d/s sides
respectively, determine the magnitude of the forces on the hinges due to the water pressure.

5m

4m
Pu 2m
Pd

Hinge

ELEVATION

u/s side
6.25 m
120° Lock
R d/s side
P 30°

F
PLAN
Width of the gate = 6.25 = 3.61 m
2 Cos 30
Total pressure on the u/s face of gate is
Pu = ω A x
= 28880 kg(f)
Depth of the centre of pressure on the u/s face
 45

− − IG
hu = x +
−
A⋅ x
= 2.67 m
Total Pressure on the d/s face of the gate is
Pd = ω A x
= 7220 kg(f)
Depth of the centre of pressure on the d/s side
− − IG
hd = x +
−
A⋅ x
= 1.33 m
Resultant pressure on each gate is P = Pu- Pd = 21,660 kg(f)
If x is the height of the point of application of the resultant water pressure on the gate,
P.x = Pu (4-hu) - Pd (2-hd)
x = 1.56m
Resolving parallel to the gate,
F Cos θ = R Cos θ
F=R

Resolving normal to the gate,

R= P = P

2 Sin 30
R = F = P = 21660 kg(f)
RT + RB = R = 21660
Resultant hinge reaction is assumed to act at the same height as the resultant pressure. Taking
the moments of the hinge reactions about the bottom hinge,
RT x 5 = R x 1.56
R T = 6758 kg(f)
R B = 21660 -6758 = 14902 kg(f)
 46

CHAPTER 4

BUOYANCY AND STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

4.1 Buoyant Force

The basic principle of buoyancy and floatation was first discovered and stated by
Archimedes. Archimedes' principle may be stated as follows; When a body is immersed in a
fluid either wholly or partially, it is buoyed or lifted up by a force which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This force is known as the "buoyant force".
The point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body is known as "centre of
buoyancy".

G•
FB

FB

Fig.4.1 Buoyant force on floating and submerged bodies

For a body immersed [either wholly or partially] in the fluid, the self weight of the
body always acts in the vertical downward direction. As such if a body floating in a fluid
is to be in equilibrium the buoyant force must be equal to the weight of the body

FB = ρ g V = W

in which FB is the buoyant force and V is the volume of fluid displaced. Equation
represents the principle of floatation which states that the weight of a body floating in a
fluid is equal to the buoyant force which in turn is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body.
 47

A hydrometer uses the principle of buoyant force to determine specific

gravities of liquids. Fig.4.2 shows a hydrometer in two liquids. It has a stem of
prismatic cross section a. Considering the liquid on the left to be distilled water
(S=1), the hydrometer floats in equilibrium when
W=ρgV …………..(1)
in which V is the volume submerged and W is the weight of hydrometer.

∆h
1.0

Fig.4.2 Hydrometer in water and in liquid of specific gravity S

The position of the liquid surface is marked 1 on the stem to indicate unit specific
gravity S. When the hydrometer is floated in another liquid, the equation of equilibrium
becomes
(V-∆V) S ρ g =W …………………(2)
in which ∆V =a. ∆h
Solving eqtn (1) and (2)
V S −1
∆h = ⋅
a S

Example 4.1 A hydrometer weighs 0.0216 N and has a stem at the upper end that is
cylindrical and 2.8 mm in diameter. How much deeper will it float in oil of sp.gr 0.78 than in
alcohol of sp.gr 0.821.

Alcohol Oil
 48

In position 1, in alcohol
Weight of hydrometer = Weight of displaced liquid
0.0216 = 0.821 x 9810 x V1
V1 = 2.68 x 10-6 m3 ( in alcohol)
In position 2, in oil
0.0216 = 0.78 x 9810 (V1 +A.h)
h = 0.023 m = 23 mm

4.2 Metacentre and Metacentric Height

Consider a body floating in a liquid. If it is statically in equilibrium, it is acted upon
by two forces viz., the weight of the body W acting at the centre of gravity G of the body and
the buoyant force FB acting at the centre of buoyancy B. The forces FB and W are equal and
opposite and as shown in Fig.4.3, the points G and B lie along the same vertical line which is
the vertical axis of the body.
Let this body be tilted slightly or it undergoes a small angular displacement θ. It is
assumed that the portion of the centre of gravity G remains unchanged relative to the body.
The centre of buoyancy B, however, does not remain fixed relative to the body.

G G
W
B B B1

FB θ
W FB
Fig.4.3 Metacentre for a floating body
'Metacentre' may be defined as the point of intersection between the axis of the
floating body passing through the points B and G and a vertical line passing through the new
centre of buoyancy B1. The distance between the centre of gravity G and the metacentre M of
a floating body is known as 'metacentric height'.(GM)
 49

4.3 Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies

When a submerged or a floating body is given a slight angular displacement, it may
have either of the following three conditions of equilibrium developed
(i) Stable equilibrium
(ii) Unstable equilibrium
(iii) Neutral equilibrium

(i) Stable equilibrium- A body is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium if a small angular
displacement of the body sets up a couple that tends to oppose the angular displacement of
the body, thereby tending to bring back to its original position.

(ii) Unstable equilibrium - A body is said to be in a state of unstable equilibrium if a small

angular displacement of the body sets up a couple that tends to further increase in the
angular displacement of the body, thereby not allowing the body to restore its original
position.

(iii) Neutral equilibrium-A body is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium if a small

angular displacement of the body does not set up a couple of any kind, and therefore the body
adopts the new position given to it by the angular displacement, without either returning to its
original position, or increasing the angular displacement.

Stability of a Wholly Submerged Body

In general a wholly submerged body is considered to be in a stable state of
equilibrium if its centre of gravity is below the centre of buoyancy. On the other hand a
wholly submerged body will be in an unstable state of equilibrium if its centre of buoyancy is
below its centre of gravity. If centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy of a wholly
submerged body coincide with each other, it is rendered in a neutral state of equilibrium.

Stability of a Partially Immersed (or floating) Body

A body floating in a liquid (or a partially immersed body) which is initially in
equilibrium when undergoes a small angular displacement, the centre of buoyancy moves
relative to the body. Consider a floating body which has undergone a small angular
displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig.4.4.
 50

If the new centre of buoyancy B1 is such that the metacentre M lies above the centre
of gravity G of the body, as shown in Fig.4.4(a), the buoyant force FB and the weight W
produce a couple acting on the body in the anticlockwise direction, which is thus a restoring
couple, tending to restore the body to its original position. Hence it may be stated that for a
floating body if the metacentre lies above its centre of gravity, then the body is in a stable
state of equilibrium.
As shown in Fig.4 4 (b), if for a floating body slightly tilted in clockwise direction,
the metacentre M lies below the centre of gravity, G of the body, then the buoyant force and
the weight produce a couple acting on the body in the clockwise direction, which is thus an
overturning couple, tending to increase the angular displacement of the body still further. The
body is then considered to be in unstable equilibrium. Thus it may be stated that for a floating
body if the metacentre lies below its centre of gravity, then the body is said to be in an
unstable equilibrium.
However, if for a floating body the metacentre coincides with the centre of gravity of
the body, then the body will be in a neutral state of equilibrium. This is because there will be
neither a restoring couple nor an overturning couple developed when the body is tilted
slightly.
In the design of the floating objects such as boats, ships etc; care has to be taken to
keep the metacentre well above the centre of gravity of the object.
Overturning couple

G W G
B B B1

FB = W
W FB

Restoring couple

(a) Floating body in stable equilibrium

 51

Overturning couple

G G
W M

B B

FB =W
FB W

Righting couple
(b) Floating body in unstable equilibrium
Fig.4.4 Stability of a partially immersed (or floating) body

4.4 Determination of Metacentric Height

(A) Theoretical Method
If M lies above G

GM = BM - BG
GM = I / V -BG

If M lies below G

GM = BG - BM

GM = BG - I / V

where V = volume of fluid displaced

I = moment of inertia of the cross sectional area of the body at the liquid surface
about its longitudinal axis
 52

(B) Experimental Method

∆w ⋅ x
GM =
W tan θ

where ∆w = movable weight placed centrally on the deck of the ship

W = total weight of the ship

Example 4.2 A cylindrical buoy weighing 20 KN is to float in sea water above density is
1025 kg/m3. The buoy has a diameter of 2 m and 2.5 m high. Prove that it is unstable.
2m

W
G 2.5 m

d d/2 B

FB
Let d=depth of immersion
By Archimedes' Principle
FB = ρ gV = W = 20,000
1025 x 9.81 x π /4 (2)2 x d = 20,000
d = 0.633 m
Height of centre of buoyancy B above the base
OB = d/2 = 0.316 m
Height of centre of gravity G above the base
OG = 2.5/2 = 1.25 m
BM = I/V
= π/64 (D)4
π /4 (D)2 x d
 53

= 0.39 m
BG = OG- OB = 0.934 m
For stability
GM = BM- BG
= 0.39 - 0.934
= - 0.544 m
It is unstable.

Example 4.3 A battleship weighs 13000 tonnes. On filling the ship's boats on one side with
water weighing 60 tonnes and its mean distance from the centre of the boat being 10 m, the
angle of displacement of the plumb line is 2° 16'. Determine the metacentric height.

∆w ⋅ x
GM =
W tan θ
60 × 10
=
13060 × tan 2 16'
= 1.16 m

4.5 Time Period of Rolling Oscillation of a Floating Body.

Any floating body when subjected to a small angle of heel, rolling can be determined
by

K G2
T = 2π
g ⋅ GM

Where T = time of rolling (i.e one complete oscillation)

KG= radius of gyration
GM= metacentric height

Example 4.4 A ship has a total displacement of 100 MN in sea water of density 1025 kg/m3.
Its second moment of area at the water surface about the fore and aft axis is 24300 m4 and its
centre of gravity is 2 m above the centre of buoyancy. If the periodic time for rolling
 54

oscillation is 10 seconds, determine the metacentric height and the relevant radius of gyration
about the fore and aft axis through the centre of gravity.

FB = ρgV = W
V=W/ρg
= 9945.05 m3

GM = BM - BG
= I/V - BG
=24300/ 9945.05 - 2
= 0.443 m

K G2
T =2 π
g ⋅ GM

K G2
10 = 2π
9.81 x 0.443

KG = 3.3 m

4.6 Pitching Movement

A ship or a boat may have two types of oscillatory motions viz, rolling and
pitching. The oscillatory motion of a boat about its longitudinal axis is designated as rolling.
On the other hand the pitching movement may be defined as the oscillatory motion of a ship
or a boat about its transverse axis.

Example 4.5 A barge displacing 1000m3 has the horizontal cross section at the waterline
shown in figure. Its centre of buoyancy is 2.0m below the water surface and its centre of
gravity is 0.5 m below the water surface. Determine its metacentric height for rolling (about
yy axis) and for pitching(about xx axis).
 55

y
6m

x 24 m x
10 m

6m
y

Horizontal cross section of a ship at the waterline

BG = 2-0.5 = 1.5 m
Iyy = 2250 m4
Ixx = 23400 m4
For rolling
GM = I/V - BG
= 2250/1000 - 1.5
= 0.75 m

For pitching
GM = I/V -BG
= 23400/1000 -1.5 = 21.9 m
 56

CHAPTER 5

FLUID FLOW CONCEPTS AND BASIC EQUATIONS

5.1 Introduction
The kinematics of fluid flow deals with the velocity, acceleration and other related
aspects of space-time relations without specifically considering the associated forces. There
are in general two methods by which the motion of a fluid may be described. These are the
Lagrangian method and the Eulerian method. In the Lagrangian method any individual fluid
particle is selected, which is pursured throughout its course of motion and the course of
motion through space. In the Eulerian method any point in the space occupied by the fluid is
selected and observations is made of whatever changes of velocity, density and observations
is made of whatever changes of velocity, density and pressure which take place at that point.

5.2 The Concepts of System and Control Volume

A 'system' refers to a definite mass of material and distinguishes it from all other
matter, called its surroundings. The boundaries of a system form a closed surface, and this
surface may vary with time, so that it contains the same mass during changes in its condition.
A 'control volume' refers to a region in space and is useful in the analysis of situations where
flow occurs into and out of the space. The boundary of a control volume is its control surface.
The control volume concept is used in the derivation of continuity, momentum and energy
equations, as well as in the solutions of many types of problems. The control volume is also
referred to as an open system.

5.3 Types of Fluid Flow

Steady and Unsteady Flow
The flow parameters such as velocity, pressure and density of a fluid flow are
independent of time in a steady flow whereas they depend on time in unsteady flow.
 ∂v 
  =0 for steady flow
 ∂t  x o , y o , z o

 ∂v 
  ≠0 for unsteady flow
 ∂t  x o , y o , z o
 57

Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

A flow is uniform if its characteristic at any given instant remain the same at different
points in the direction of flow, otherwise it is termed as non-uniform flow.
 ∂v 
  =0 for uniform flow
 ∂s  t o

 ∂v 
  ≠0 for non − uniforn flow
 ∂s  t o

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

A flow is said to be laminar when the various fluid particles move in layers with one
layer of fluid sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer. Viscous shear stress dominate on this
kind of flow in which the shear stress and velocity distribution are governed by Newton's law
of viscosity
dv
τ =µ
dy
where τ = shear stress
dv = velocity gradient or rate of deformation
dy
µ = coefficient of viscosity
In turbulent flows, which occur most commonly in engineering practice, the fluid
particles move in erratic paths causing instantaneous fluctuations in the velocity components.
These turbulent fluctuations cause an exchange of momentum setting up additional shear
stresses of large magnitude shear stress equation similar to Newton's Law with eddy viscosity
can be obtained
−
dv
τ =η ( Bous sin euq equation)
dy
where η = eddy viscosity
v = average velocity at the distance y from the boundary
ρvL
The type of a flow is identified by Reynold's number, Re = where ρ and µ
µ
are the density and viscosity and L is a characteristic length such as the pipe diameter D in
the case of a pipe flow
ρvD
Re =
µ
 58

Re < 2000 Laminar Flow

2000 < Re < 4000 Transitional Flow
Re > 4000 Turbulent Flow

Rotational and Irrotational Flow

If the fluid particles within a region have rotation about any axis, the flow is called
rotational flow. If the fluid within a region has no rotation, the flow is called irrotational flow.

One dimensional , two dimensional and three dimensional Flow

The velocity component transverse to the main flow direction is neglected in one
dimensional flow analysis. Flow through a pipe may usually be characterised as one
dimensional. In two dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of two co-ordinates and the
flow conditions in a straight, wide river may be considered as two dimensional. Three
dimensional flow is the most general type of flow in which the velocity vector varies with
space and is generally more complex. Fig. 5.2 shows the examples of one dimensional, two
dimensional and three dimensional flows

Fig.5.1 One,two and three dimensional flows

 59

5.4 Description of the Flow Pattern

The flow pattern may be described by means of streamlines, stream tubes and streak
lines.
Stream Line
Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of
motion in various sections of the flow of the fluid system.

Fig.5.2 Stream lines for a flow pattern in xy plane

Streamtube
A streamtube represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group of
streamlines that confine the flow.

Fig. 5.3 Stream tube

5.5 Basic Principles of Fluid Flow
There are three basic principles used in the analysis of the problems of fluid in motion
as noted below.
 60

Principle of Conservation of Mass

States that mass can neither be created nor destroyed. On the basis of this principle the
continuity equation is derived.
e.g
Mass of fluid entering
the fixed region
Fixed region Mass of fluid leaving
the fixed region

Fig.5.4 Diagrammatic representation of the principle of conservation of mass

Principle of Conservation of Energy

States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. On the basis of this principle the
energy equation is derived.

Principle of Conservation of Momentum (Impulse Momentum Principle)

States that the impulse of the resultant force, or the product of the force and the time
increment during which its acts, is equal to the change in the momentum of the body. On the
basis of this principle the momentum equation is derived.

5.6 Continuity Equation

Considering an element stream tube of the flow, then by principle of conservation of
mass
Mass entering the tube/sec = Mass leaving the tube/sec
ρ1 v1 dA1 = ρ2 v2 dA2
where v1 and v2 are the steady average velocities at the entrance and exit of the elementary
stream tube of cross sectional area dA1 and dA2 and ρ1 and ρ2 are the corresponding
densities of entering and leaving fluids.
For a collection of such stream tube along the flow
ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2
For incompressible steady flow equation reduces to one dimensional continuity
equation:
 61

A1V1 = A2 V2 = Q
where Q = volumetric rate of flow, called discharge, m3/s (or) ft 3/s
5.7 Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
The acceleration vector may have any direction so that at any point it has components
both tangential and normal to the streamline. The 'tangential acceleration' is developed for a
fluid particle when the magnitude of the velocity changes with respect to space and time. On
the other hand a 'normal acceleration' is developed when a fluid particle moves in a curved
path along which the direction of the velocity changes. The tangential component of the
acceleration is due to the change in the magnitude of velocity along the streamline and the
normal component of the acceleration is due to the change in the direction of velocity vector.

Fig.5.5 Tangential and Normal accelerations

∂V s ∂V
Tangential acceleration a s = +V ⋅ s
∂t ∂S

∂Vn Vs2
Normal acceleration an = +
∂t r
For steady flow there exists only convective acceleration and hence in such cases
∂V s
a s = Vs ⋅
∂S

V2
an = s
r
 62

5.8 Dynamics of Fluid Flow

A fluid motion is subjected to several forces which results in the variation of the
acceleration and the energies involved in the flow phenomenon of the fluid. As such in the
study of the fluid motion the forces and energies that are involved in the flow are required to
be considered. This aspect of fluid motion is known as dynamics of fluid flow. The various
forces that may influence the fluid motion are due to gravity, pressure, viscosity, turbulence,
surface tension and compressibility.

5.9 Energy Equation for an Ideal Fluid Flow

ds (p+dp)dA

pdA ρgdAds = W

Datum

Fig.5.6 Change of energy of flowing fluid in a stream tube

Consider an elemental stream tube in motion along a streamline of an ideal fluid flow.
The forces responsible for its motion are the pressure forces, gravity and accelerating forces
due to change in velocity along the stream-line. All frictional forces are assumed to be zero
and the flow is irrotational, i.e uniform velocity distribution across streamlines.
By Newton's 2nd Law of motion along the stream-lines,

Force = mass x acceleration

pdA - (p+dp) dA - ρg dAds Cos θ = ρdA ds x dv/dt
-dp - ρg ds Cos θ = ρds . dv/dt
-dp - ρg dz = ρds . dv/dt
 63

dv/dt = dv/ds . ds/dt = v.dv/ds

-dp - ρ g dz = ρds. v.dv/ds = ρ v dv
dz + dp/ρg + vdv/g = 0 Euler's equation of motion

Integrating along the streamline, we get

z + p + v2 = constant
ρg 2g

z = elevation (or) potential energy per unit weight of fluid with respect to an arbitrary datum,
meters of the fluid, called elevation head

p/ρg = workdone in pushing a body of fluid pressure and is known as pressure energy or
pressure head per unit weight of fluid

v2/2g = kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid

P1 v12 P2 v 22
Z1 + + = Z2 + + Bernoulli's Equation
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

Modified kinetic energy equation for real fluid flow

P v12 P v2
Z1 + 1 + = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + losses
ρg 2g ρg 2 g

5.10 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

In dealing with flow situation in open or closed channel flow, the so called one
dimensional form of analysis is frequently used. The whole flow is considered to be one large
stream tube with average velocity V at each cross section. The kinetic energy per unit weight
given by v2/2g, however, is not the average of v2/2g taken over the cross section. It is
 64

necessary to compute a correction factor α for v2/2g, so that α v2/2g is the average kinetic
energy per unit weight passing the section.
1 v 3
α= ∫ ( ) dA
A V

Example 5.1 Water flows up a tapered pipe as shown in figure. Find the magnitude and
direction of the deflection h of the differential mercury manometer corresponding to a
discharge of 120 l/s. The friction in the pipe can be completely neglected.
15 cm

80 cm

1
x
Water
h

30 cm
Mercury
By continuity equation
A1V1 =A2V2 = Q = 120x10-3
π/4(0.3)2 x V1 =π/4 x (0.15)2 x V2 = 0.12
V1 =1.6977 m/s, V2 = 6.79 m/s
By Bernoulli equation for points 1 and 2,

P1 v12 P2 v 22
Z1 + + = Z2 + +
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

P1 P2 V22 − V12
− + 0 − 0.8 =
ρg ρg 2g
P1 − P2
= 3.0
ρg
 65

Considering section 1 as datum

P1 + x + h = P2 + 0.8 + x + h x 13.6
ρg ρg
P1-P2 = 0.8+12.6h =3.0
ρg
h = 0.175 m = 17.5 cm

Example 5.2 Determine the velocity of efflux from the nozzle in the wall of the reservoir of
figure. Find the discharge through the nozzle.

4m
10 cm dia
2

Flow through nozzle from reservoir

Between a point on u/s and a point on d/s from the nozzle

P v2 P v2
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z 2 + 2 + 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
With the pressure datum as local atmosphere pressure, P1 =P2 = 0
With the elevation datum through point 2, Z2 =0
Z1 = H
The velocity on the surface of the reservoir is zero(practically)
H + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + V22/2g
V2 = 8.86 m
Q = A2V2 = π/4(0.1)2 (8.86) = 0.07 m3/s

5.11 Impulse Momentum Equation

Momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity and Newton's 2nd law of
motion states that the resultant external force acting on any body in any direction is equal to
 66

the rate of change of momentum of the body in that direction. In x direction, this can be
written as
d
Fx = (M x )
dt
where Fx = force in x direction
Mx = momentum in x direction
Fx.dt = d (Mx)
This equation is known as 'impulse momentum equation ' and can be written as
Fx.dt = m.dVx
where m = mass of the fluid
dVx = change in velocity in the x direction
Fx.dt = impulse of the force Fx
In general, impulse momentum equation for steady flow of fluid may be written

Σ F = ( ρQV)out -( ρQV)in

5.12 Momentum Correction Factor

Momentum correction factor is used to correct the momentum flux for the variation of
the velocity across the area in the calculation of the momentum flux. For uniform velocity
distribution β =1.

1
β= v 2 dA
2 ∫
AV

5.13 Application of the Impulse Momentum Equation

In order to apply the impulse-momentum equation, a control volume is first chosen
which includes the portion of the flow passage which is to be studied. The boundaries of the
control volume are usually extended up to such an extent that its end section lie in the region
of uniform flow. All the extended forces acting on this control volume are then considered
and the momentum equation in the corresponding directions of reference are applied to
evaluate the unknown quantities.
 67

In general the impulse-momentum equation is used to determine the resultant forces

exerted on the boundaries of a flow passage by a stream of flowing fluid as the flow changes
its direction or the magnitude of velocity or both. The problems of this type include the pipe
bend, propellers and stationary and moving plates or vanes.
The impulse momentum equation is also applied to determine the resultant force (or
thrust) exerted by the flowing fluid on the pipe bend. Fig.5.7 shows a reducing pipe bend
through which a fluid of density ρ flows steadily from section 1 to 2. It is desired to find the
force exerted by the flowing fluid on the pipe bend. For this the portion of the bend lying
between section 1 and 2 may be chosen as a control volume and all the external forces acting
on this may be considered as indicated below.
(1) At sections 1 and 2 the fluid in the control volume will be subjected to pressure forces
p1A1 and p2A2 by the fluid adjacent to these sections as shown in Fig.5.7 ,where p1,p2
and A1 and A2 are the mean pressure and cross sectional areas at sections 1 and 2
respectively.
(2) The boundary surface of the bend will exert forces on the fluid in the control volume.
These forces will be distributed non uniformly over the curved surface of the bend.
But for the ease of computation it is assumed that these distributed forces are
equivalent to a single concentrated force R, which has Rx and Ry as its components
along x and y directions respectively as shown in Fig.5.7. It may however be stated
that according to Newton's third Law of motion, the force exerted by the flowing fluid
on the bend will be equal and opposite to R, which is required to be determined.
(3) The self weight W of the fluid in the control volume will be acting in the vertical
downward direction.

Fig.5.7 Change of momentum of flow in a reducing pipe bend

 68

Thus by applying the impulse momentum equation in both x direction and y

directions the following expressed are obtained.
For x direction:
p1A1 Cos θ 1 - p2 A2 Cos θ2 - Rx = ρ Q (V2 Cos θ2 - V1 Cos θ1)
For y direction:
p1A1 Sin θ 1 + p2 A2 Sin θ2 + Ry - W = ρ Q (-V2 Sin θ2 - V1 Sin θ1)
From the above equations Rx and Ry can be determined from which the magnitude
and direction of the force R exerted by the bend on the fluid can be computed.

Example 5.4 A bend in pipeline conveying water gradually reduce from 60 cm to 30 cm

diameter and deflects the flow through angle of 60°. At the larger and the gage pressure is
1.75 kg/cm2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the bend (a)
when there is no flow and (b) when the flow is 876 liters per sec.

V2

V1 60° Fx

Fy

(a) When there is no flow the pressure at both the sections of the bend is same.
p1 = p2 = 1.75 kg/cm2
If Fx and Fy are the components of the force exerted on the bend as shown in figure,
1.75 x π/4 (60)2-1.75 x π/4 (30)2 Cos 60 - Fx = 0
Fx = 4326 kg
Fy - 1.75 x π/4 (30)2 x Sin 60 = 0
Fy = 1071 kg
Resultant force R = √ Fx2 + Fy2
= 4458 kg
 69

tan α = Fy / Fx = 0.2475
α = 13°54'

(b) Q =A1V1 = A2V2

876 x 10-3 = π/4 ( 0.6)2 V1 = π/4 (0.3)2 V2
V1 = 3.1 m/s
V2 = 12.4 m/s

P1 V12 P2 V22
+ = + + losses
ω 2 g ω 2g

P2 P1 V12 − V22 1.75 × 10 4 3.12 − 12.4 2

= + = +
ω ω 2g 1000 2 × 9.81
= 10.15 m of water
P2 = 1.015 kg/ cm2

By applying momentum equation in x direction

1.75 x π/4(60)2 - 1.015 x π/4(30)2 Cos 60 - Fx = 102 x 0.876 ( 12.4 Cos 60 - 3.10)
Fx = 4312 kg

By applying momentum equation in y direction

Fy - 1.015 x π/4 (30)2 Sin 60 = 102 x 0.876 (12.4 Sin 60)
Fy = 1580 kg

Resultant force on bend

= Fx2 + Fy2 = 4592 kg

α = tan-1 (1580/4312) = 20° 7'

 70

CHAPTER 6
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
6.1 Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines
Consider a long pipe carrying liquid from a reservoir A to a reservoir B as shown in
Fig. 6.1. At several points along the pipeline let piezometers be installed. The liquid will rise
in the piezometers to certain heights corresponding to the pressure intensity at each section.
The height of the liquid surface above the axis of the pipe in the piezometer at any section
will be equal to the pressure head (p/w) at the section.
If the pressure at different sections of the pipe are plotted to scale as vertical ordinates
above the axis of the pipe and all these points are joined by a straight line then as shown in
Fig.6.1, a straight sloping line will be obtained, which is known as 'hydraulic gradient line'.
If at different sections of the pipe the total energy is plotted to scale as vertical ordinates
above the assumed datum and all these points are joined then a straight sloping line will be
obtained which is known as 'total energy line'.

Fig.6.1 Hydraulic gradient and total energy line for (a)an inclined pipe;(b) horizontal pipe
connecting two reservoirs
 71

6.2 Energy Losses in Pipes

When a fluid flows through a pipe, certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid,
which results in causing a loss of energy. The various energy losses in pipes may be
classified as
(i) Major losses
(ii) Minor losses
The major loss of energy, as a fluid flows through a pipe, is caused by friction. It may
be computed by Darcy-Weisbach equation. The minor losses of energy are those which are
caused on account of the change in velocity of flowing fluid.
(A) Equation for Head Loss in Pipes due to Friction-Darcy Weisbach Equation

f L v2
hf =
2gD
where f = friction factor
L = length of pipe
V= velocity of pipe
Friction factor f can be found using empirical formula (or) Mody diagram.
(i) For laminar flow
64
f =
Re
(ii)For turbulent flow
0.3164
f =
R1e / 4

Fig.6.2 Mody Diagram

 72

(B) Minor Losses

Loss of energy at the entrance to a pipe

v2
hL = k
2g
Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement

(V1 − V2 ) 2
hL =
2g
Loss of energy due to sudden contraction

V22
hL = k c
2g
Loss of energy in bends,valve,

V2
hL = k
2g
Loss of energy at the exit from a pipe

V2
hL =
2g

6.3 Energy Losses in Sudden Transitions

Sudden Enlargement
1 2

1 2

(v1 − v 2 ) 2
head loss hL =
2g
 73

Sudden Contraction
1 2

1 2

1 V2
head loss hL = ( − 1) 2 ( )
Cc 2g

where Cc = coefficient of contraction = Ac/A2

(or)

v2
hL = k ⋅ 2
2g

where k is a function of the contraction ratio A2/A1

D2/D1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

k 0.5 0.45 0.38 0.28 0.14 0

Example 6.1 Estimate the energy(head)loss along a short length of pipe suddenly from a
diameter of 350 mm to 700 mm and conveying 300 l/s of water. If the pressure at the
entrance of flow is 105 N/m2, find the pressure at the exit of the pipe. What would be the
energy loss if the flow were to be reversed with a contraction coefficient of 0.62 ?
 74

1 2

Q = 300 l/s

1 2
350 mm dia 700 mm dia
Case of sudden expansion

A1V1 =A2 V2 = Q = 0.3 m3/s

0.3
V1 = = 3.12 m / s
π / 4(0.35) 2
0.3
V2 = = 0.78 m / s
π / 4(0.7) 2

(v1 − v 2 ) 2 (3.12 − 0.78) 2

hl = = = 0.28 m of water
2g 2 x9.81

P1 v12 P2 v 22
+ = + + hL
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

10 5 3.12 2
P2 0.78
2
+ = + + 0.28
10 3 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 ρg 2 x9.81
P2/ρg = 10.38 m of water
P2 =10.38 x 103 x 9.81 = 1.02 x 105 N/m2

Case of sudden contraction

1 V2
hL = ( − 1) 2 ( )
Cc 2g

1 3.12 2
hL = ( − 1) 2 ( )
0.62 2 × 9.81

= 0.186 m of water
 75

6.4 FLOW THROUGH LONG PIPES

Consider a long pipeline of diameter D and length L carrying liquid from reservoir A
to another reservoir B as shown in Figure. Let HA and HB be the constant heights of the liquid
surfaces in the reservoirs A and B respectively above the centre of the pipe. Let ZA and ZB be
the heights of the centres of the pipe ends connected to the reservoirs A and B respectively.
Applying the Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 2 in the reservoirs A and B
respectively,
HA + ZA = HB + ZB + losses
(HA+ZA) - (HB+ZB) = losses = H
where H is the difference in the liquid surfaces in the reservoirs A and B.

v 2 flv 2 v 2
H = 0. 5 + +
2 g 2 gD 2 g
0.5v2/2g

hf
HA A H

V2/2g

B HB

ZA ZB

Datum

Fig.6.3 Flow through a long pipe

 76

6. 5 Pipe in Series (Compound Pipe)

Fig.6.4 Hydraulic gradient and total energy line for pipes of different diameters connected in
seies
If a pipeline connecting two reservoirs is made up of several pipes of different
diameters D1,D2,D3 etc and lengths L1,L2,L3 etc. all connected in series as shown in Fig.6. 4 ,
then the difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the head losses in all the
sections.

V12 v22 (v2 − v3 ) 2 v32

H = 0.5 + h f1 + 0.5 +h f 2 + + h f3 +
2g 2g 2g 2g
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3
6.6 Equivalent Pipe
Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and lengths is
to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, which is known as 'equivalent pipe'.
Dupuit's equation:

LL L L 
=  1 + 2 + 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
D 5  D15 D25 D35 

Dupuit's equation may be used to determine the size of the equivalent pipe.
 77

Example 6.2 Two reservoirs containing water are connected by a straight pipe 1600
m long. For the first half of its length, the pipe is 15 cm diameter. It is then suddenly reduced
to 7.5 cm diameter. The difference in surface level in the two reservoirs is 30 m. Determine
the flow in l/s. Take f for both pipes as 0.04.

0.5v12/2g
hf1
0.5v22/2g
hf2 H=30 m
2
v 2/2g

Difference in surface levels =Σ losses

v12 v22 v22

H = 0.5 + h f1 + 0.5 + h f2 +
2g 2g 2g
v12 fl1v12 v22 fl 2 v22 v22
30 = 0.5 + + 0.5 + + …………………..(1)
2 g 2 gD1 2 g 2 gD2 2 g

Q = A1V1= A2V2

Q = π/4D12 V1= π/4D22 V2

V2= D12/D22 x V1= 4V1………………………………………………(2)

By solving (1) and (2)

V1=0.289 m/s
Q =A1V1= 5.1 x 10 -3 m3/s = 5.1 l/s
 78

Example 6.3 A pump delivers water from a tank A to tank B. The suction pipe is 50m long
(f=0.025) and 30 cm in diameter. The delivery pipe is 900 m long (f = 0.02) and 20cm in
diameter. If the head discharge relationship for the pump is given by hp = 80-7000Q2,
calculate the discharge in the pipeline and the power developed by the pump. Neglect minor
losses.
150 m

B
D1 = 0.3 m D2 = 0.2 m
L1 = 50 m L2 = 900 m
f1 = 0.025 f2 = 0.02 D2,L2,f2

D1,L1,f1

100.0 m

f1 L1 v12 v12
h f1 = = 4.167 m
2 g D1 2g

f 2 L2 v 2 2 v2
hf = = 90 2 m
2 2 g D2 2g

v2 v2
Total head loss = H = 4.167 1 + 90 2 ………………(1)
2g 2g
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
π/4(0.3)2 x V1 = π/4(0.2)2 x V2
V1 = 0.444V2 …………………………………………(2)
From(1) & (2)

V2
H = 90.82 2 m
2g
Static head = 150-100 = 50 m
 79

V2
hp = head delivered by pump = Static head + friction head = 50 + 90.82 2
2g

= 50 + 4690Q 2
Pump performance relation hp = 80-7000Q2 (given)
50+ 4690 Q2 = 80 - 7000 Q2
Q = 0.0506 m3/s
hp = 50 + 4690 (0.0506)2
hp = 62.01 m

Power delivered by the pump P = r Q hp

= 30.78 kW

6.7 Pipe in Parallel

Q1 , L1 , D1
H
A

Q2 , L2 , D2

Fig.6.5 Pipes in parallel

When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream and continue as a main line as shown in Fig. 6.5, the pipes are said to be
in parallel. The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing
through the main.
Q = Q1 + Q2

f1l1v12 f 2 l2 v22
hf = =
2 gD1 2 gD2
 80

Example 6.4 A 200 mm diameter pipeline, 5000 m long delivers water between reservoirs,
the minimum difference in water level between which is 40 m.
(a) Taking only friction, entry and exit head losses into account determine steady
discharge between the reservoirs.
(b) If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head, determine
the length of 200 mm diameter pipeline to be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction
losses. ( Take f = 0.016)
(a)

TEL

H= 40 m
HGL

D= 200 mm
L = 5000 m

Difference in surface levels = Sum of head losses

v 2 flv 2 v 2
H = 0.5 + +
2 g 2 gD 2 g

v2 0.016 × 5000
40 = (0.5 + + 1)
2g 0.2
V = 1.4 m/s
Q = AV= 0.044 m3/s = 44 l/s
(b)

Q1,L1
A B
Q2,L2 H = 40 m

Q3,L3 C
 81

Q1 = Q2 + Q3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

Considering only friction losses

fl1v12 fl 2 v22
H= + − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
2 gD1 2 gD2

fl1v12 fl3v32
H= + − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(3)
2 gD1 2 gD3
Equating (2) and (3)

f l 2 v22 f l3v32
=
2 gD2 2 gD3

v22 = v32
V2 =V3
A2V2 =A3V3
π/4 D2 V2 = π/4 D2V3
Q2 =Q3

Q1 = 2 Q2 =2 Q3
Q2 =Q3 = 0.025 m3/s
V1= 1.592 m/s
V2 = 0.796 m/s

fl1v12 fl 2 v22
H= +
2 gD1 2 gD2
40 = f/2gD (l1v12+l2v22)

l1 = 3495 m
l2 = 1505 m
 82

6.8 Branched Pipe

A Q1
HAB
D
Q2
HAC
Q3 B
C

Fig.6.6 Branched pipes

Q1 = Q2 + Q3

Example 6.5 A reservoir surface level 60 m above datum supplies a junction box through a
300 mm pipe, 1500 m long. From the junction box, two 300 mm pipes, each 1500 m long
feed respectively into two reservoirs whose surface levels are 30 m and 15m above datum, f
for all pipes being 0.04. What will be the quantity entering each reservoir? (Neglect minor
losses)

Q1
D
A HAB
Q2
HAC
B
Q3

60 m C
30m

15 m

Datum
 83

Neglecting minor losses

Difference in surface levels = sum of head losses
Consider pipeline ADB,

fl1v12 fl 2 v22
H AB = +
2 gD1 2 gD2

0.04 × 1500 × v12 0.04 × 1500 × v22

30 = +
2 × 9.81 × 0.3 2 × 9.81 × 0.3
10.2v12 + 10.2v22 = 30.................................(1)

Consider pipeline ADC,

fl1v12 fl3v32
H AC = +
2 gD1 2 gD 3

0.04 × 1500 × v12 0.04 × 1500 × v32

45 = +
2 × 9.81 × 0.3 2 × 9.81 × 0.3
10.2v12 + 10.2v32 = 45.................................(2)

Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3
π/4 D21 V1 = π/4 D22 V2 +π/4 D23 V3
V1 = V2 + V3 ……………………………………(3)

(1) V2 = 2.94 − v12

(2) V3 = 4.42 − v12

(3) V1 − 2.94 − v12 − 4.42 − v12 = 0

By successive approximation
If V1 =1.6 m/s , f (V1) = - 0.38
V1 =1.663 m/s, f (V1) ≅ 0
 84

V1= 1.663 m/s

V2 = 0.4 m/s
V3 = 1.28 m/s
Q2 = 0.028 m3/s = 28 l/s
Q3 = 0.0907 m3/s = 90.7 l/s

Example 6.6 A pipe having a length of 6000 m and diameter 70 cm connects two reservoirs
A and B, the difference between their water levels is 30 m. Halfway along the pipe there is a
branch through which water can be supplied to a third reservoir C. Taking f = 0.0204,
determine the rate of flow to reservoir B when (a) no water is discharged to reservoir C (b)
the quantity of water discharged to reservoir C is 0.15m3/s. Neglect minor losses.

(a) When no water is discharged to reservoir C

f L v2
hf = = 30
2gD

0.024 x6000 xV 2
= 30
2 x9.81x 0.7
V = 1.691 m/s

Q =A V
= π/4 (0.7)2 x 1.691
Q = 0.65 m3/s

(b) When 0.15 m3/s is discharged to reservoir C

Total discharge from reservoir A = Q

Discharge flowing into reservoir B = (Q-0.15)
 85

0.024 × 3000 × Q 2 0.024 × 3000 × (Q − 0.15) 2

H AB = +
2 × 9.81 × (π / 4) 2 × 0.7 5 2 × 9.8`×(π / 4) 2 × 0.7 5
Q2 -0.15 Q-0.401 = 0
Q = 0.713 m3/s
Flow into reservoir B = (0.713-0.15)
= 0.563 m3/s

6.9 Siphon
A siphon is a long bent pipe which is used to carry water from a reservoir at a higher
elevation to another reservoir at a lower elevation when the two reservoirs are separated by a
hill or high level ground in between as shown in Fig.6.7.

Fig.6.7 Siphon

The rising portion inlet leg

Highest point summit
Portion between the summit and lower reservoir outlet leg
Length of siphon length of its horizontal projection
Pressure head vertical distance between HGL and the pipe centre line
 86

Example 6.7 A 500 mm diameter siphon pipeline discharges water from a large reservoir.
Determine (i) maximum possible elevation of its summit for a discharge of 2.15 m3/s without
the pressure becoming less than 20 KN/m2 absolute , and (ii) the corresponding elevation of
its discharge end. Take atmospheric pressure as 1 bar and neglect all losses.
B

Y1

Y2

Consider the three points A,B,C along the siphon system,

Q=AV=π/4 D2 V =2.15
V =10.95 m/s
V2/2g = 6.11 m
Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar = 105 N/m2 = Pressure at A and C
Minimum pressure at B = 20 KN/m2 (absolute)

Bernoulli's equation between A and B (reservoir surface level as datum)

ZA+ PA /ρg +V2A/2g = ZB+ PB /ρg +V2B/2g + losses
0 + 105/ ρg + 0 = Y1 + 20 x 103 /ρg + 6.11
Y1 = 2.04 m
Bernoulli's equation between A and C with exit level as datum)
ZA+ PA /ρg +V2A/2g = ZC+ PC /ρg +V2C/2g + losses
Y2+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 6.11
Y2 = 6.11 m
 87

6.10 Transmission of Power Through Pipes

The pipes carrying water under pressure from one point to other may be utilized to
transmit hydraulic power. The hydraulic power transmitted by a pipe however depends on
discharge passing through the pipe and the total head of the water. As the water flows along
the pipe it will be subjected to frictional resistance causing a loss of head due to friction.
If H is the total head supplied at the entrance to the pipe and hf is the loss of head due
to friction, then the head available at the outlet of the pipe is (H-hf).

Power (or energy per sec) available at the outlet of the pipe
P = Weight of water per sec x head available
= ρ g Q x (H-hf)
= ρ g ( π/4 D2 x V) ( H - flv2/2gD)
dP/dV = ρ g π/4 D2 ( H- 3flv2/2gD) = 0
0 = H - 3flv2/2gD
0 = H - 3hf
hf = H/3

That is, the power transmitted through a pipe is maximum when the loss of head due
to friction is one third of the total head supplied.
The efficiency of power transmission through pipes may be expressed as
H − hf
η=
H
Head transmitted
η =
Head Supplied

6.11 Flow Through Nozzle at the End of Pipe

A nozzle is a gradually converging short tube which is fitted at the outlet end of a pipe
for the purpose of converging the total energy of the flowing water into velocity energy. As
such nozzles are used where higher velocities of flow are required to be developed. For
example in practice higher velocity of flow is required for extinguishing fire, which is
obtained by fitting a nozzle at the end of hose. Further for the impulse type of turbines such
 88

as Pelton wheel turbines, it is required to convert whole of the hydraulic energy into kinetic
energy and the same is obtained by fitting a nozzle at the end of pipe.
Let a nozzle be fitted at the end of a pipe connected to a reservoir with its water level
at a height H above the centre line of the nozzle. Let D and L be diameter and the length of
the pipe respectively, V be the velocity of flow in the pipe. Let d be the diameter of the
nozzle at the outlet end and v be the velocity of the issuing jet from the nozzle. Thus if Q is
the discharge passing through the pipe, then by continuity equation

Q = AV = av
V/v = a/A ------------------(1)
Q = π /4 D2 V = π /4d2 v

Bernoulli's equation between reservoir and nozzle, neglecting minor losses

H = v2/2g + hf
H = v2/2g + flv2/2gD ----------------(2)

Substituting the value of v from equation(1)

v2 fl a 2 v 2
H= +
2 g D A2 2 g

v2 fla 2
= (1 + )
2g DA 2
2 gH
v=
fLa 2
1+
DA 2

Kinetic energy of the jet issuing from the nozzle

1 2 1 ω Q 2 ωav 3
K .E = mv = v =
2 2 g 2g

ωav 3
H.P of jet =
2 g × 75
 89

Efficiency of power transmission

Head transmitte d
η=
Head sup plied
v 2 / 2g v2
= =
H 2 gH
 90

References:

1.Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics

P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth

2. Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines

R.S.Khurmi

3. Fluid Mechanics
Victor L.Streeter