Electrolytes And Non-electrolyte

Conductor

A conductor is a substance which conducts electricity but is not chemically changed

during the conduction .

Insulators

A non-conductor is a substance which does not allow the passage of electricity.

Sometimes these non-conductors are used to protect something from electricity. They are
then called insulators .

Electrolytes

Electrolytes are compounds which when molten or dissolved in water conduct electric
current and are decomposed in the process .
Non-electrolyte

A non-electrolyte is a liquid which does not allow the passage of electricity.

Examples of non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes and
strong electrolytes
• Examples of electrolytes are acids, alkalis and salts dissolved in water or molten
salts .
• All these are ionic substances.
• Solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity, as their ions are held together in
fixed positions by strong forces .
• In order for the ions to move, the solid must be dissolved in water or made
molten, thereby destroying the ionic lattice .

Electrolysis : Decomposing Using the Passage of

Electricity
 • There are 2 types of electrochemical cell, namely

1. Electrolytic Cell
2. Voltaic Cell (or sometimes is called Galvanic Cell)

• In electrolytic cell, electric current is flowed through an electrolyte to produce a

chemical reaction.
• In electrolytic cell, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy, and the
process is called electrolysis.

• In voltaic cell, chemical is used to produce electricity.

• In this cell, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.

The Electrolytic Cell

• A suitable apparatus for electrolysis is shown in Figure above.
• As we can see, the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the cell is
positive electrode and is given a name, anode.
• The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the cell is negative electrode
and is called the cathode.

• When electricity is passed through an electrolyte, chemical reaction happens.

• In this reaction, chemical is splitting up into 2 new substances.
• All electrolytes are ionic, which means they are composed of positively and
negatively charged ions.
• On passing an electric current through the electrolyte, these ions move towards
the oppositely charged electrode.

• Most negatively charged ions are non-metal ions, such as oxide (O2-, chloride
(Cl-), Iodide (I-), etc.
• During electrolysis, negatively charged ions move towards the positive
electrode(anode). The negative ions lose their electron(s) to the anode, which is
positively charged.
• The electron(s) is then move to the cathode through the external circuit (the wire).
• The positively charged ions move towards the negative electrode(cathode').
• These positive ions are metal ions, such as copper (Cu2+), silver (Ag+), lead (Pb2+),
etc, or hydrogen (H+).
• At cathode, positive ions gain electron(s) from the cathode, which has an excess
of electrons and therefore an overall negative charge.
 • This process results in the chemical decomposition of the electrolyte. It also
allows electrons to travel from the cathode to the anode and hence allows
conduction of electricity.
• During the electrolysis, electrical energy is supplied to the system to produce a
chemical reaction.
• Therefore, during electrolysis, electrical energy convert into chemical energy.

Example 1:Electrolysis of MOLTEN Lead (II) Bromide

• This is composed of lead(II) ions, Pb2 + , and bromide ions, Br-. Its chemical
formula is therefore PbBr2.
• A suitable apparatus which could be used to carry out this electrolysis is shown in
Figure above.
• The bulb helps to show when electricity is flowing in the circuit, and until the
lead(II) bromide is completely molten, the bulb does not light up . This confirms
that electrolytes have to be molten for the ions to start to move to the electrodes
and thereby conduct electricity.

At the Cathode At the Anode

Observation Observation

• When electricity is flowing, a • When electricity is

silvery deposit of lead metal flowing, brown fumes of
forms on the cathode. In fact, bromine gas are seen at
as it is molten, it is more the anode.
likely to drip off in a molten
blob.
Half equation Half equation
Pb2+ + 2e ---> Pb 2Br- ---> Br2 + e
Explanation Explanation

• The lead(II) ions, as they are • The bromide ions, as they

 positive, move to the
negative cathode, where each
ion gains two electrons to
form a lead atom.
• Any reaction at a cathode
involved is again in
electrons. This is called
reduction or more exactly,
cathodic reduction .
• In summary, the lead(II) bromide is split into its component elements :
PbBr2 ---> Pb + Br2
Example 2: Electrolysis Of Molten Lead(II) Oxide
Analysing the electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Introduction
are negative, move to the
positive anode, where
each loses an electron to
form a bromine atom.
• Then two of these newly
formed atoms combine to
form bromine gas.
• Any reaction at an anode
involves a loss of
electrons.
 • We have learnt that electrolyte can be molten ionic compound or aqueous solution
of ionic compound, acid or alkali.
• An aqueous solution is solution of water of a substance. For example, if you heat
sodium chloride until it melts, it is called molten sodium chloride, but if you
dissolve sodium chloride in water, it is called aqueous sodium chloride.
• Electrolysis of aqueous solution is different from electrolysis of molten
electrolyte.
• This is mainly because an aqueous solution contain more types of ions.

• Let us take the example of molten sodium chloride and sodium chloride aqueous.
• In molten sodium chloride, the ion present are sodium ion (Na+) and chloride ion
(Cl-), due to the decomposition of the solid sodium chloride.

NaCl ---> Na+ + Cl-

• In sodium chloride aqueous, other than the decomposition of sodium chloride

solid to form sodium and chloride ions, some of the water molecule will also
disassociates to form hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions.

NaCl ---> Na+ + Cl-

H2O ---> H+ + OH-

• Which means in an aqueous solution, it can be more than 1 positive and negative
ions.
• When the ions move to the anode and cathode, only 1 negative ion and 1 positive
ion will be selected to be discharged, and this is called selective discharge.
• There are a few factors that determine which ion will be selected to be discharge,
and this will be discussed in next section.

Factors Affecting Electrolysis

• There are three main factors that can affect the electrolysis products, there are:

1. position in the electrochemical series

2. the concentration and
3. the type of electrode

Electrochemical series
• The chart above lists the ions in order of difficulty of discharge.
• The ions at the top of the list is more difficult to be discharged, but as we go down
the table, they become easier to be discharged. For example, Cu2+ easier to be
discharged compare with H+ and OH- is easier to be discharged compare with I-.
• This series of ions is called the Electrochemical Series.
• The lower the ion in the electrochemical series, the easier the ion to be discharged
during electrolysis.
Electrolysis of Aqueous Sulphuric Acid

• As sulphuric acid is aqueous, it is composed not only of hydrogen ions (H+ ) and
sulphate ions (SO42-), but also of hydroxide ions (OH-) from the water.

H2SO4 + H2O --> 2H+ + SO42- + H+ + OH-

• The apparatus used to carry out this electrolysis and collect the gases given off is
shown in Figure 9 .8 .
• When we have more than one type of ion moving to an electrode, selective
discharge (or preferential discharge) takes place.
• This means that the ion which can lose or gain electrons with the greatest ease is
discharged, and the other ions, which are harder to discharge, remain in solution .
• With the electrolyte aqueous sulphuric acid, migration of ions to the electrodes
also occurs.

At the Cathode At the Anode

• Here we have only one ion,
the hydrogen, H+ (aq), and
each ion gains an electron
to become a hydrogen
atom.
• Here we have a choice of
either sulphate, SO42- (aq),
or hydroxide OH- (aq) ions.
• Hydroxide is easier to
 • Two of these newly formed
atoms then combine to
form a hydrogen gas
molecule .
Equation:
discharge, so oxygen gas is
given off at the anode.
Equation:

2H+ + 2e ---> H2 OH- + 4e ---> O2 + H2O

Notes

• With electrolysis of aqueous solutions of dilute acids or alkalis,

the volume of hydrogen given off at the cathode is roughly twice
that of the oxygen gas at the anode.
• Accordingly, the elements of water are lost and as the
electrolysis continues, the concentration of the acid or alkali
increases .

• Essentially, the electrolysis of aqueous sulphuric acid is the

electrolysis of water, with hydrogen and oxygen gas being given
off in a ratio of 2 : 1 .

Concentration

• If the concentration of a particular ion is high, it will be selected to be discharged

even though it is higher in the electrochemical series compares with another ion
present in the solution.
• For example, if dilute hydrochloric acid is electrolysed, hydrogen gas is given off
at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
• However, when concentrated hydrochloric acid is electrolysed, hydrogen gas is
still given off at the cathode, but chlorine rather than oxygen gas will be released
at the anode, even though chloride is in a higher position in electrochemical
series.
Electrolysis Of Diluted Or Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid
Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride Solution (Brine)

• The electrolytic cell used for electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution
is designed to collect gaseous products at both electrodes as shown in Figure
above.

At Cathode
• The sodium and hydrogen
ions move to the cathode .
• As the hydrogen ion (H+),
is lower in the reactivity
series than the sodium ions
(Na+ ), it accepts electrons
more easily.
• The hydrogen ions (H+) are
discharged.
Equation:
At Anode
• Both the chloride ions (Cl-)
and the hydroxide ions
(OH-) migrate to the anode .
• The chloride ions (Cl-) are
preferentially discharged
because of their higher
concentration
Equation:

H+ + e ---> H Cl- ---> Cl + e

 Hydrogen atoms join in pairs to Chlorine atoms join in pairs to give
give molecules : molecules:
H + H ---> H2 Cl + Cl ---> Cl2
Changes in Solution

• As the hydrogen ions and chloride ions are discharged, sodium

ions and hydroxide ions remain in the solution . The solution
becomes sodium hydroxide .

Type of Electrode

• This is best shown if we consider the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate

solution.

Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate by Using Carbon Electrode

Anode
 1. If we use carbon electrodes, they are inert electrodes and do not affect the
electrolysis .
2. Therefore, at the anode, we have a choice of sulphate or hydroxide ions .
3. The hydroxide ions are easier to discharge, so oxygen gas is given at the anode :

Partial equation O2(g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-→40H- (aq) (oxygen gas given off)

Cathode

• At the cathode, we have a choice of copper or hydrogen ions .

• The copper ions are easier to discharge, so we see a pink deposit of copper metal
on the carbon electrode.

Partial equation Cu (s)→Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- (copper metal deposited)

Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate by Using Copper Electrode

• However, if we use copper electrodes, these are active electrodes and do affect the
electrolysis.
Anode At the anode, the copper electrode dissolves into solution :

Partial equation Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e→Cu(s) (copper electrode dissolves )

Cathode At the cathode, the copper ions are deposited as pink copper metal:

Partial equation Cu (s)→Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- (copper metal deposited)

The youtube video below shows that a small explosion happen and a "pop" sound is
heard when hydrogen gas is brought close to a flame.

Evaluating electrolysis in industry

Industrial Applications of Electrolysis

• Electrolysis has many varied industrial applications.
• The major applications of electrolysis in industry are

1. Extraction of Metals
2. Purification of Metal
3. Electroplating

Extraction of Metal
• The extraction of metals from their ores, in particular aluminium and sodium, is
important industrial uses of electrolysis.
 • The diagram below shows the methods of extraction for different metals.

• We can see that those metals which are less reactive than carbon in reactivity
series are extracted from their ore by displacement reaction using carbon. This
will be discussed in detail in chapter 3, form 5, Oxidation and Reduction.
• Copper and mercury can be extracted from their ore by burning directly in air.
• Silver (Ag) and gold (Au) need no extraction because they exist as element in
nature.
• Those metals which are more reactive than carbon are extracted by electrolysis.

Extraction of Aluminium

• Aluminium is the most abundant metal found in the earth's crust. It makes up
about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface.
• It is also a very useful metal due to its low density and ability to resist corrosion.
• The main source of aluminium is bauxite ore (Aluminium Oxide).
• In industry, aluminium is extracted by electrolysis from bauxite ore.
Adding Cryolite

• In electrolysis, molten aluminium oxide must be used to extract aluminium.

Aluminium oxide decompose to form aluminium and oxide ions when melted.

Al2O3 ---> 2Al3+ + 3O2-

• However, the melting point of aluminium oxide is very high (over 2 000°C), so
another aluminium compound called cryolite (Na3AIF6) is added to lower down
the melting point (about 980oC).

• The diagram above shows how aluminium is extracted from molten aluminium
oxide by electrolysis.
• Graphite is used as the anode and cathode.
• During electrolysis, the aluminium ions are attracted towards the graphite
cathode.
• The ions is discharged and become molten aluminium metal.
• The partial equation of this reaction is as follow:

Al3+ + 3e ---> Al

• At the anode, oxygen gas which also has commercial value is collected. The
partial equation of this reaction is as follow:

2O2- ---> O2 + 4e
 • At the temperature of 980 °C, the oxygen burns the carbon anode. Therefore the
anode has to be replaced periodically.
• Also, this cell uses large quantities of electricity, and therefore needs cheap
sources of power.

Extraction of sodium chloride

• In industry, sodium is extracted from molten sodium chloride. Molten sodium

chloride is put into the apparatus as showing in the diagram above.
• When sodium chloride is melted, the sodium and chloride ions disassociate to
become freely move ions, as shown in the chemical equation below.

NaCl ---> Na+ + Cl-

• In thhis electrolytic cell, graphite was used as anode while iron is used as cathode.
• The negative chloride ions are attracted to the anode and then discharged to form
chlorine gas.

2Cl- ---> Cl2 + 2e

• Since chlorine gas is also significant in industry, it is collected and stored.

• In cathode, the sodium ions are discharged to form sodium atom.

Na+ + e ---> Na
 • Due to high temperature, the sodium metal formed is in molten form.
• Metal sodium have lower density. Therefore it moves upward and been collected.

Purification Of Copper

• In the refining or purification of copper, the impure copper is made the anode and
a thin, pure copper plate is used as a cathode.
• The electrolyte is usually acidified copper(II) sulphate solution.
• When electricity flows, the copper dissolves from the impure anode and goes into
solution as copper ions.
• Impurities in the copper do not dissolve, and instead fall off the anode as anode
sludge. At the cathode, the copper ions are deposited as pure copper metal.

Reaction in anode (impure copper)

In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form copper(II) ions.

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e

Reaction in cathode (pure copper)

Cu2+Cu ---> Cu + 2e

Electroplating
Electroplating: Coating with a Thin Protective Layer of Metal

• A very common use of electrolysis is to form a thin protective coating of a metal

on the surface of another which is likely to corrode.
• The diagram above illustrate the electroplating of a key with copper.

• In this process, we need to make the cathode the object for plating (the key.
• The anode is then made of the metal we wish to plate with (copper), and the
electrolyte needs to be a solution of a salt of this metal (copper(II) sulphate).

Anode

• In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form copper(II) ions.

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e

Cathode

• In cathode, the copper ions are discharged to form copper atom and then deposit
on the surface of the key

Cu2+ ---> Cu + 2e
Analysing voltaic Cell

Cells and Batteries

• A device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is called a cell or
battery. Battery is a collection of cells.
• A cell consists of a pair of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte.
• Figure above shows an example of a simple voltaic cell consist of a magnesium
electrode and a copper electrode immerse in magnesium sulphate solution.
• When chemical reaction happens, the more reactive metal, magnesium, dissolves
in the magnesium sulphate solution and become magnesium ions, thereby
producing electrons, as shown in the half equation below:

Mg ---> Mg2+ + 2e

• As electrons are produced, the magnesium acts as the negative electrode.

• These electrons then travel to the copper electrode.
• The hydrogen ions around the copper electrode receive the electrons and are
discharged to produce bubbles of hydrogen gas:

2H+ + 2e ---> H2

• As electrons are taken in, the copper is the positive electrode.

• This production and movement of electrons is electricity, so electrical energy has
been generated and the galvanometer is deflected. *Overall, the chemical reaction
can be represented by the ionic equation:
 Mg + 2H+ ---> Mg2+ + H2

• In voltaic cell, the negative electrode is the anode whereas the positive electrode
is the cathode, which is the opposite of the electrolytic cell.

[edit] Voltage of the cell

• The voltage of the cell depends on the difference in the reactivities of the two
metals.
• The greater the difference in reactivity, the bigger the voltage produced.
• Magnesium and copper are far apart in the reactivity series, so the voltage is high.
• However, as the magnesium dissolves rapidly in the magnesium sulphate solution,
the reading of the galvanometer decreeases.
• Also the copper electrode gets covered with bubbles of hydrogen gas, which
prevent the electricity from flowing. This is called polarisation.
• If you try the experiment with other less reactive metals such as zinc or iron,
instead of magnesium, the reading of the galvanometer will be lower, but the cell
will last longer.

[edit] Summary

• In a chemical cell

1. The more reactive metal acts as negative electrode while the less reactive metal
acts as positive electrode.
2. The negative electrode is anode while the positive electrode is cathode.

• During the process, the more reactive metal (negative electrode) being ionized
and form ion.

X ---> Xn+ + ne

• At the same time, negative ions are discharged at positive electrode. ( The ions are
from the solution )
• If there is more than one negative ion present, the ion situated at the lower
position in the electrochemistry series will be chosen to be discharged.

Yn+ + ne ---> Y

• The greater the difference in reactivity, the bigger the voltage produced.
[edit] Daniel Cell

• One of the first practical batteries is called the 'Daniel cell'.

• It uses a half-cell of copper dipped in copper(II) sulphate, and in electrical contact
with a 2nd half-cell of zinc dipped in zinc sulphate solution.

Anode

• The zinc is the more reactive, and is the negative electrode, releasing electrons
because on it zinc atoms lose electrons to form zinc ions,

Zn(s) ---> Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Cathode

• The less reactive metal copper, is the positive electrode, and gains electrons from
the negative electrode through the external wire connection and here .. the
copper(II) ions are reduced to copper atoms,

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ---> Cu(s)

• Overall the reactions is:

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ---> ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

or ionically:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ---> Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

 • The overall reaction is therefore the same as displacement reaction.
• The bigger the difference in reactivity, the bigger the cell voltage produced.

Cell With Salt Bridge

• A Daniel Cell can be substitute by a design as showing in diagram 1. The

chemical reaction remains the same.
• Using salt bridge can reduce the internal resistance of the cell.
• The function of the salt bridge is to allow ions follow from one solution to another
to complete the circuit.

Other Voltaic Cell