Genetic ALGORITHM

Artificial Intelligence 2006 28 Aug.
2006
Trí tuệ nhân tạo (artificial intelligence)
Chapter 4. Informed search

Đặng Xuân Hà
DSE, FIT, HAU1
Office phone: 8276346; Ext.:132
Office location: Room 317, Administration building.
Email: dxha at hau1.edu.vn; dangxuanha at gmail.com
Website: http://www.hau1.edu.vn/it/dxha
Review: Tree search
A search strategy is defined by picking the order of

node expansion
28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 2
Review: Uninformed tree search

Breath-first search:
¾ Shallowest node first
Depth-first search
¾ Deepest node first
Uniform-cost search
¾ Least-cost node first
Depth-limited search
¾ Depth-first with limited depth
Iterative deepening search
¾ Depth-limited with increasing limit.
Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 1

Artificial Intelligence 2006 28 Aug. 2006
Review: Exercise
10 A
7
5
B C D
5 20 15
6 25 20
E F
G H I J
10
12
10 15
K L 8
N M O - Initial: A; Goal: I , N
Solution:
(1) ABCDEFGHI - Find seq. for each
(2) ABEKLFCGMN tree search algrithm?:
(3) ACDBGEN (1)BFS; (2)DFS; (3)uniform-cost;
(4) ABEFCGDHI (4)Depth-limited (l=2);
(5) A; ABCD; ABEKLFCGMN (5)Iterative deepening
Informed search
Best-first search
¾ (Greedy) best-first search
¾ A* search
Heuristics
Local search
¾ Hill
climbing
¾ Simulated annealing
¾ Genetic algorithms
Best-first search
Idea: use an evaluation function f(n) for each node
¾ estimate of "desirability"
Æ Expand most desirable unexpanded node
Implementation:
Order the nodes in fringe in decreasing order of
desirability
Special cases:
¾ greedy best-first search
¾ A* search

Romania with step costs in km
Greedy best-first search

Evaluation function f(n) = h(n) (heuristic) =
estimate of cost from n to goal
e.g., hSLD(n) = straight-line distance from n to
Bucharest
Greedy best-first search expands the node that
appears to be closest to goal
Greedy best-first search example


Properties of greedy best-first search

Complete? No – can get stuck in loops, e.g., Iasi Æ
Neamt Æ Iasi Æ Neamt Æ
Time? O(bm), but a good heuristic can give
dramatic improvement
Space? O(bm) -- keeps all nodes in memory
Optimal? No
A* search (A-star search)

Idea: avoid expanding paths that are already
expensive
Evaluation function f(n) = g(n) + h(n)
¾ g(n) = cost so far to reach n
¾ h(n) = estimated cost from n to goal
f(n) = estimated total cost of path through n to goal
A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)
A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)
A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)
A* search example
f(n)= g(n) + h(n)
Admissible heuristics
A heuristic h(n) is admissible if for every node n,
h(n) ≤ h*(n), where h*(n) is the true cost to reach the goal
state from n.
An admissible heuristic never overestimates the cost to
reach the goal, i.e., it is optimistic
Example: hSLD(n) (never overestimates the actual road
distance)
Theorem: If h(n) is admissible, A* using TREE-SEARCH
is optimal

Consistent heuristics
A heuristic is consistent if for every node n, every successor n' of n
generated by any action a,
h(n) ≤ c(n,a,n') + h(n')
If h is consistent, we have
f(n') = g(n') + h(n')
= g(n) + c(n,a,n') + h(n')
≥ g(n) + h(n) triangle inequality
= f(n)
i.e., f(n) is non-decreasing along any path.
Theorem: If h(n) is consistent, A* using GRAPH-SEARCH is optimal
Optimality of A*
A* expands nodes in order of increasing f value
Gradually adds "f-contours" of nodes
Contour i has all nodes with f=fi, where fi < fi+1
Properties of A*
Complete? Yes (unless there are infinitely many
nodes with f ≤ f(G) )
Time? Exponential
Space? Keeps all nodes in memory
Optimal? Yes

Admissible heuristics
E.g., for the 8-puzzle:
h1(n) = number of misplaced tiles
h2(n) = total Manhattan distance
(i.e., no. of squares from desired location of each tile)
h1(S) = ? 8
h2(S) = ? 3+1+2+2+2+3+3+2 = 18
Dominance
If h2(n) ≥ h1(n) for all n (both admissible)
then h2 dominates h1
h2 is better for search
Typical search costs (average number of nodes expanded):
d=12: IDS = 3,644,035 nodes

A*(h1) = 227 nodes
A*(h2) = 73 nodes
d=24 : IDS = too many nodes
A*(h1) = 39,135 nodes
A*(h2) = 1,641 nodes
Relaxed problems
A problem with fewer restrictions on the actions is called a
relaxed problem
The cost of an optimal solution to a relaxed problem is an
admissible heuristic for the original problem
If the rules of the 8-puzzle are relaxed so that a tile can
move anywhere, then h1(n) gives the shortest solution
If the rules are relaxed so that a tile can move to any
adjacent square, then h2(n) gives the shortest solution

Local search algorithms

In many optimization problems, the path to the goal is
irrelevant; the goal state itself is the solution
State space = set of "complete" configurations

Find configuration satisfying constraints, e.g., n-queens
In such cases, we can use local search algorithms: keep a

single "current" state, try to improve it
Example: n-queens
Put n queens on an n × n board with no two queens
on the same row, column, or diagonal
Move queens to reduce conflicts
Hill-climbing search
"Like climbing Everest in thick fog with amnesia"

"Like climbing Everest in thick fog with amnesia"
Problem: depending on initial state, can get stuck in
local maxima
Hill-climbing search: 8-queens problem
h = number of pairs of queens

that are attacking each other,
either directly or indirectly
successor function: move a
single queen to another square
in the same column
h = 17 for the above state

Drawbacks of hill climbing
Ridge = sequence of local maxima difficult for greedy

algorithms to navigate
Plateaux = an area of the state space where the evaluation
function is flat.
Gets stuck 86% of the time.
Hill-climbing search: 8-queens problem
A local minimum with h = 1: no better

successors
Hill-climbing variations
Stochastic hill-climbing
¾ Random selection among the uphill moves.
¾ The selection probability can vary with the steepness of the
uphill move.
First-choice hill-climbing
¾ cfr. stochastic hill climbing by generating successors
randomly until a better one is found.
Random-restart hill-climbing
¾ Tries to avoid getting stuck in local maxima.

Simulated annealing search
local minimum
global minimum
gradually decrease shaking to make sure the ball

escape from local minima and fall into the global minimum
Simulated annealing search

Idea: escape local maxima by allowing some "bad" moves
but gradually decrease their frequency
Implement:
¾ Randomly select a move instead of selecting best move
¾ Accept a bad move with probability less than 1 (p<1)
¾ p decreases by time
Properties of simulated annealing search

One can prove: If T decreases slowly enough, then
simulated annealing search will find a global optimum
with probability approaching 1
Widely used in VLSI layout, airline scheduling, etc

Local beam search

Keep track of k states rather than just one in hill climbing
Start with k randomly generated states
At each iteration, all the successors of all k states are
generated
If any one is a goal state, stop; else select the k best
successors from the complete list and repeat.
Comparison to random restart hill climbing:
¾ Information is shared among k search threads: If one state
generated good successor, but others did not Æ “come here, the
grass is greener!”
Genetic algorithms
Variant of local beam search with sexual recombination.
Genetic algorithms
A successor state is generated by combining two parent states
Start with k randomly generated states (population)
A state is represented as a string over a finite alphabet (often a string

of 0s and 1s)
Evaluation function (fitness function). Higher values for better

states.
Produce the next generation of states by selection, crossover, and

mutation

Genetic algorithms
Fitness function: number of non-attacking pairs of queens (min = 0,

max = 8 × 7/2 = 28)
24/(24+23+20+11) = 31%
23/(24+23+20+11) = 29% etc
Genetic algorithms
References
Slides provided by Prof. Russell at http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/
AIMA chapter 4

Genetic ALGORITHM

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Artificial Intelligence 2006 28 Aug.

Trí tuệ nhân tạo (artificial intelligence)

Chapter 4. Informed search

Review: Tree search

A search strategy is defined by picking the order of

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 2

Review: Uninformed tree search

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 1

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 4

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 5

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 6

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 2

Romania with step costs in km

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 7

Greedy best-first search

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 8

Greedy best-first search example

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 9

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 3

Greedy best-first search example

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 10

Greedy best-first search example

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 11

Greedy best-first search example

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 12

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 4

Properties of greedy best-first search

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 13

A* search (A-star search)

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f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

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Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 5

f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

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f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 17

f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 18

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 6

f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

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f(n)= g(n) + h(n)

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Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 7

h(n) ≤ c(n,a,n') + h(n')

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Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 8

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 25

 Typical search costs (average number of nodes expanded):

d=12: IDS = 3,644,035 nodes

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28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 27

Đặng Xuân Hà <dxha at hau1.edu.vn> 9

Local search algorithms

 State space = set of "complete" configurations

 In such cases, we can use local search algorithms: keep a

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 28

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 29

28 Aug. 2006 Artificial Intelligence 2006 30

A search strategy is defined by picking the order of

Typical search costs (average number of nodes expanded):

State space = set of "complete" configurations

In such cases, we can use local search algorithms: keep a

h = number of pairs of queens

Ridge = sequence of local maxima difficult for greedy

A local minimum with h = 1: no better

Widely used in VLSI layout, airline scheduling, etc

Start with k randomly generated states (population)

A state is represented as a string over a finite alphabet (often a string

Evaluation function (fitness function). Higher values for better

Produce the next generation of states by selection, crossover, and

Fitness function: number of non-attacking pairs of queens (min = 0,