The Conversions of Electrical and Acoustic Energy

Thomas Physics Thesis - May 2005 E.J. Posselius

The most common type of microphone in use is the dynamic. The

dynamic microphone is like a miniature loudspeaker. The illustration shows
the basic construction of a dynamic microphone. A flexibly-mounted
diaphragm (a) is coupled to a coil of fine wire (b). The coil is mounted
in the air gap of a magnet (c) so that it is free to move back and forth
within the gap. When a sound strikes the diaphragm, the surface vibrates
in response. The motion of the diaphragm varies with the coil, which moves
back and forth in the field of the magnet. As the coil cuts through the
magnetic force in the gap, a small electrical current is induced in the
wire. The magnitude and direction of the current are directly related to
the motion of the coil. This current then becomes the electrical
representation of the input sound.
The next most common microphone type is the condenser. A gold-
coated plastic diaphragm (a), is mounted above a conductive back plate (b),
which is often made of gold-plated ceramic. The diaphragm and back plate
are separated by a small gap of air (c) which creates a capacitor. A
polarizing voltage between 9 and 48 volts is applied by an external power
supply. This gives it a fixed, static voltage. When the diaphragm
vibrates due to sound waves, it moves in relation to the back plate. As it
does so, the electrical charge that it induces changes proportionally.
Therefore, the fluctuating voltage on the back plate is an electrical
representation of the diaphragm motion.
There are many types of inputs which are turned into an audio
signal that travels through transducers that range from basic microphones
to laser and optical systems. However they all perform the same basic
function. A basic air pressure or velocity microphone converts sound waves
traveling in the air into an audio signal that travels through a microphone
cable. Many types of magnetic pickups exist as well. These convert
fluctuating magnet fields into audio signals. This exists mainly in tape
decks and specially designed systems. More complicated laser and optical
systems convert imprinted patterns of either pits or variations of density
into an audio signal. These representations can be very high quality.
The process by which acoustical energy is converted to electrical
energy and then back to acoustic is through a sound reinforcement system.
This is a system that takes existing acoustical energy and converts it
electrical energy by means of an input transducer. This, now electrical,
signal is then processed and, most likely, amplified. Finally the
electrical signal is converted back to acoustical energy through an output
transducer. This provides a modified (amplified) version of the input
source.
 Acoustical energy is a class of physical kinetic energy. This
energy consists of fluctuating waves of pressure in a physical medium that
is usually air. The waves within the range of human hearing range in
frequency from 20 to 22,100 cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz). When
represented electrically, the fluctuation is in the form of voltage or
current rather than in air pressure. The electrical and acoustical
representations of a sound are scaled proportionately.
Transducers are devices that convert one type of energy into
another. So naturally the mechanisms that convert acoustical and
electrical energy are transducers. The input transducer usually comes in
the form of a microphone or a pickup. This transducer converts sound waves
into a fluctuation in electrical current or voltage which is a precise
representation of the sound. This is referred to as an audio signal.
Typically, during signal processing, the audio signals power is increased
through a process called amplification. (Many other changes can be made to
the signal during this time, but this is the most basic form of
processing.) The now amplified signal is converted back to acoustical
energy by means of a speaker, the output transducer.
Acoustical ratios are defined in terms of decibels (dB). Decibels
define the relationship between two quantities, most often relating to
power. They are a logarithmic description of how we hear things. Decibels
are equal to 10 times the log of the ratio of the two powers in question.
dB = 10log(P1/P2). By plugging in various values, it becomes apparent that
when one power is twice another, it is 3 decibels greater. Also, when one
power is ten times another, it is 10 dB greater. The point here is that
decibels are only a method of describing acoustical ratios.
Much signal processing occurs between input and output, but the
most important step is amplification. This is the final stage before
sending the audio signal to the output transducer. In order to make the
conversions involved in amplification, Ohms law is necessary. However,
instead of resistance, a term called impedance is used. This describes the
opposition to the flow of an alternating current measured in ohms. When
describing the process of amplification, it begins with a signal source
developing a voltage (E1) across the input impedance (Z1). By Ohms law, we
know that P = E≤ / Z. This gives us the power of the input signal. By
applying the same principle to the load on the output transducer (with E2
and Z2), we get a second power value. Expressing the difference in the
decibel equivalents of these power value gives us the total change in dB.
In other words, this tells us how much the amplifier has effectively
increased the audio signal power.
Output transducers are usually just speakers in many different
variations. These systems take the processed audio signal and create
fluctuations in air pressure in order to recreate the sound that has been
processed. The different kinds of speakers that exist are designed to
recreate specific ranges of frequencies. Woofers and subwoofers recreate
low frequencies (usually below 500 Hz), while midrange speakers and
tweeters are designed to recreate the higher frequencies (500 Hz - 1.5 kHz
for midrange; 1.5 kHz - 6 kHz for tweeter). While all of these act on very
different sections of sound, they all perform the same basic function.
Loudspeakers most often operate on an electro-magnetically
modulated diaphragm. These speakers are built around electromagnetic
linear motors. An electromagnetic motor basically operates by means of an
electromagnetic field (current) interacting with the field of a magnet.
The force resulting from the interaction of the two causes a coil move.
The coil moves back and forth as a physical representation of the
alternations of a current. This is the general principle that drives most
electromagnetic transducers. The illustration shows the components of the
electromagnetic motor found in most loudspeakers. A typical coil
arrangement (a) is commonly referred to as a voice coil in this field. The
coil is wound around a cylinder called a former. A typical
magnetlectromagnetic motor basically operates by means of an
electromagnetic field (current) interacting with the field assembly (b) is
donut shaped. This is the permanent magnet which is fitted with plates of
a magnetic material. In the center of this magnetic is the pole piece (a).
The space between the top plate and the pole piece is the gap. When
alternating current from the amplifier passes through the coil, it moves
back and forth in the gap which in turn, moves the diaphragm applying
mechanical motion to the air.
The process by which acoustical and electrical energy interact
involves fluctuations in either air pressure or current/voltage. By taking
an existing acoustical fluctuation, an input transducer can convert the air
pressure changes into current/voltage changes in an audio signal. The
signal can then be processed in a variety of ways. Once a sufficient
amount of power is put into the signal effectively amplifying it, it is
ready to be converted back to acoustical energy. This is done by an output
transducer that takes the processed electrical audio signal and causes air
pressure fluctuations. The relationship lies in the similarities in the
fluctuations between two very different mediums.
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