Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications 7-1

Chapter 7
Low-Speed Wireless Local Area Networks

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms

• Technical Notes for Hands-On Projects

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Lecture Notes

Overview
Chapter 7 describes low-speed wireless local area networks. Students will learn how
WLANs are used. Next, students will see the components and modes of a WLAN.
Chapter 7 also describes how an RF WLAN works. Students will review the differences
between IR, IEEE 802.11, and IEEE 802.11b WLANs. Finally, Chapter 7 outlines the
user mobility features offered by IEEE 802.11 networks.

Objectives
• Describe how WLANs are used
• List the components and modes of a WLAN
• Describe how an RF WLAN works
• Explain the differences between IR, IEEE 802.11, and IEEE 802.11b WLANs
• Outline the user mobility features offered by IEEE 802.11 networks

Teaching Tips
WLAN Applications
1. Describe the various applications and problems solved by wireless networks.

2. Define a wireless residential gateway as a device that combines a router, Ethernet

switch, and wireless access point. It also allows Internet and printer sharing.

WLAN Components
1. This section describes the hardware components needed to create a WLAN.

Wireless Network Interface Card

1. Explain that a network interface card (NIC) allows a computer to be connected to a

network. A wireless NIC connects a computer to a network without cables.

2. Describe the various options for wireless NICs available for desktop and notebook
computers. Define a Mini PCI as a small card that is functionally equivalent to a
standard PCI expansion card. Mini PCI cards are normally used with notebook
computers. Use Figure 7-1 to show a Mini PCI wireless NIC.
Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications 7-3

3. Describe the various options for wireless NICs available for smaller devices, including
optional sled and compact flash (CF) or secure digital (SD) cards. Use Figure 7-2 to
illustrate your explanation.
4. Mention that Intel has developed a new chipset called Centrino that integrates all of the
functions of a wireless NIC directly on the motherboard.

Teaching For more information about the Centrino technology, visit:

Tip www.intel.com/products/centrino/.

Access Points

1. Explain that an access point (AP) provides wireless LAN devices with a point of access
into a wired network. Describe the following parts of an access points:
a. Radio transceiver
b. Antenna
c. RJ-45 wired network port

2. Use Figure 7-3 to describe the following two functions of an access point:
a. Acts as the wireless communications base station
b. Acts as a bridge between the wireless and wired networks

Teaching
Learn more about access points at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_point.
Tip

3. Mention that the range of an AP is approximately 375 feet (115 meters) in an

unobstructed environment. However, the data rate will drop as the signal strength,
quality, or both begin to fade. The AP will automatically select the highest possible data
rate for transmission depending on the strength and quality of the signal. This process is
called dynamic rate selection.

4. Describe the benefits of using power over Ethernet (PoE). PoE defines how DC power
is delivered to the AP through the unused wires in a standard UTP Ethernet cable.

Teaching Read more about power over Ethernet (PoE) at:

Tip http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_over_Ethernet.

WLAN Modes
1. In an RF WLAN, data can be sent in one of two connection modes: ad hoc mode and
infrastructure mode. This section describes both methods.
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Ad Hoc Mode

1. Explain that in the ad hoc mode, wireless clients communicate directly among
themselves without using an AP. Use Figure 7-4 to illustrate your explanation. The
drawback is that wireless clients can only communicate among themselves.
2. Mention that the ad hoc mode is also known as peer-to-peer mode, although its formal
name is Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) mode.

Infrastructure Mode

1. Explain that infrastructure mode, also known as the Basic Service Set (BSS), consists of
wireless clients and an AP. Extended Service Set (ESS) is simply two or more BSS
wireless networks installed within the same area, providing users with uninterrupted
mobile access to the network. Use Figure 7-5 to illustrate your explanation. All wireless
clients and APs must be part of the same network for users to be able to roam freely.

2. Describe the problems of managing a large network. Define subnets as network units
that contain fewer computers. Explain the impact of using subnets in an ESS wireless
network.

Wireless LAN Standards and Operation

1. This section describes the first IEEE standards for wireless LANs.

IEEE 802.11 Standards

1. Explain that the IEEE 802.11 standard defines a local area network that provides cable-
free data access for clients that are either mobile or in a fixed location at a rate of either
1 or 2 Mbps, using either diffused infrared or RF transmission.

2. Mention that the standard specifies that the features of a WLAN be transparent to the
upper layers of the TCP/IP protocol stack or the OSI protocol model. Use Figure 7-6 to
show the WLAN features in the PHY and MAC layers.

Teaching For more information about the IEEE 802.11 standard, visit:
Tip www.ieee802.org/11/.

IEEE 802.11 Infrared WLAN Standard

1. Explain that the IEEE 802.11 standards outline the specifications for infrared as well as
RF WLANs. The infrared specification is based on diffused transmissions.

2. Use Figure 7-7 to describe the functions of the following two sublayers of the PHY
layer:
a. Physical Medium Dependent (PMD)
b. Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP)
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3. Explain that the diffused infrared PHY layer convergence procedure reformats the data
received from the MAC layer into a frame that the PMD sublayer can transmit. Use
Figure 7-8 to illustrate your explanation.

4. Mention that the data rate value determines the speed of the transmission. Use Table 7-1
to show the infrared data rate and direct current level adjustment values. The direct
current level adjustment contains a pattern of infrared pulses that allows receiving
devices to determine the signal level.

5. Explain that PMD translates the binary 1s and 0s of the frame into light pulses that are
used for transmission. PMD transmits the data using a series of light impulses.

6. Use Table 7-2 and Table 7-3 to describe how 16-pulse position modulation (16-PPM)
and 4-pulse position modulation (4-PPM) work.

Quick Quiz 1
1. A(n) ____________________ is a small card that is functionally equivalent to a
standard PCI expansion card.
Answer: Mini PCI

2. The AP will automatically select the highest possible data rate for transmission,
depending on the strength and quality of the signal. This process is called
____________________.
Answer: dynamic rate selection

3. The ____________________ standard defines a local area network that provides cable-
free data access for clients that are either mobile or in a fixed location at a rate of either
1 or 2 Mbps, using either diffused infrared or RF transmission.
Answer: 802.11

4. Even though it contains data, a 802.11 frame’s size is not measured in bits but in
____________________.
Answer: time slots

IEEE 802.11b Standard

1. Explain that the 802.11b standard added two higher speeds, 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps, to
the original 1 or 2 Mbps 802.11 standard, and specified RF and direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) as the only transmission technology.

2. Mention that the 802.11b standard is also known as Wi-Fi.

Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications 7-6

Teaching Read more about the IEEE 802.11b standard at:

Tip www.cs.rit.edu/~aat0995/project/levine/80211b.html.

3. Use Figure 7-7 to describe the two sublayers that compose the IEEE PHY layer.

4. Explain that physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP) standards are based on direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). PLCP must reformat the data received from the
MAC layer into a frame that the PMD sublayer can transmit. Use Figure 7-9 to illustrate
your explanation.

5. Describe the structure of the PLCP frame, as explained in this section. Mention that the
frame preamble and header are always transmitted at 1 Mbps to allow for
communication between slower and faster devices.

6. Explain that the physical medium dependent standards translate the binary 1s and 0s of
the frame into radio signals that can be used for transmission. 802.11b standard uses the
Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band that specifies 14 available frequencies,
beginning at 2.412 GHz and incrementing by .005 GHz. Use Table 7-4 to illustrate your
explanation.

7. Mention that PMD can transmit the data at 11, 5.5, 2, or 1 Mbps. For transmissions at 1
Mbps, two-level differential binary phase shift key (DBPSK) is used. Transmissions at
2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps use differential quadrature phase shift keying. To transmit at rates
above 2 Mbps, Complementary Code Keying (CCK), a table containing 64 8-bit code
words, is used.

8. Describe the two sublayers that compose the 802.11b Data Link Layer:
a. Logical Link Control (LLC)
b. Media Access Control (MAC)

9. Mention that changes for 802.11b WLANs are confined to the MAC layer.

10. Explain that in the 802.11b standard, channel access methods are used to prevent
collisions. Use Figure 7-10 to illustrate your explanation. One of these methods is
carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). CSMA/CA is based
on CSMA/CD used in Ethernet. CSMA/CD is designed to handle collisions when they
occur. CSMA/CA attempts to avoid collisions altogether.

11. Describe how CSMA/CA works and the differences with CSMA/CD. Use Figure 7-11
to better describe CSMA/CA.

Teaching
Learn more about CSMA/CA at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSMA/CA.
Tip

12. Describe the following additional mechanisms to reduce collisions in 802.11b:

a. Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) protocol
Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications 7-7

b. Fragmentation
Use Figure 7-12 to explain how RTS/CTS works.

13. Define polling as another type of channel access method. With polling, each computer
is sequentially polled, or asked if it wants to transmit. Use Figure 7-13 to show how
polling works. Polling effectively eliminates collisions.

14. Mention that the 802.11b standard provides for an optional polling function known as
point coordination function (PCF). With PCF, the AP serves as the polling device, or
point coordinator, and queries each client in an orderly fashion to determine if the client
needs to transmit.

15. Explain that association and reassociation allow a client to join a WLAN and stay
connected. Association begins with the client scanning the airwaves.

16. Describe the following two types of scanning:

a. Passive scanning
b. Active scanning

17. Explain how the associate request and associate response frames are used to conclude
the association process.

18. Use Figure 7-14 to describe the reassociation process, as explained in this section.

19. Explain that since most clients in a WLAN are portable devices, they can go into sleep
mode to conserve battery power. When a client is part of a WLAN, it must remain fully
powered. Power management allows the mobile client’s NIC to be off as much as
possible but still not miss out on data transmissions. The key to power management is
synchronization.

20. Explain that when a mobile 802.11b client goes into sleep mode, the AP is informed of
the change. The AP temporarily stores the synchronized frames (this function is called
buffering). At predetermined times, the AP sends out a beacon frame to all clients
containing the traffic indication map (TIM). The traffic indication map (TIM) is a list of
the clients that have buffered frames waiting at the AP. Use Figure 7-15 to illustrate
your explanation.

21. Use Figure 7-16 through Figure 7-18 to describe the following three types of MAC
frame formats:
a. Management frames
b. Control frames
c. Data frames

Distributed Coordination Function Rules

1. Explain that to work with the distributed coordination function, the 802.11 standard
defines a number of interframe spaces (IFS) to handle the contention for the medium.

2. Use Table 7-5 to describe the following two interframe space types:
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a. Short interframe space (SIFS)

b. Distributed coordination function interframe space (DIFS)

3. Explain the basic rules of communication in an 802.11 network, as described in this

section. Use Figure 7-19 and Figure 7-20 to illustrate your explanation.

Quick Quiz 2
1. One type of channel access method is ____________________. With this method, each
computer is sequentially ____________________, or asked if it wants to transmit.
Answer: polling, polled

2. 802.11b standard ____________________ allows the mobile client’s NIC to be off as

much as possible to conserve battery life but still not miss out on data transmissions.
Answer: power management

3. In the 802.11b standard, ____________________ frames are used to set up the initial
communications between a client and the AP.
Answer: management

4. The ____________________ is a standard time interval during which all clients must
wait between transmissions of data frames.
Answer: Distributed coordination function interframe space (DIFS)
Distributed coordination function interframe space
DIFS

Class Discussion Topics

1. What is a wireless network interface card (WNIC)?

2. What are the three types of 802.11 MAC frame formats?

Additional Projects
1. Ask your students to use the Internet to research for access points that support power
over Ethernet (PoE). Is this technology exclusively reserved to expensive equipment?

2. Many commercial APs have the SSID broadcast option enabled by default, so clients
can easily detect the presence of an AP. Ask your students to write a one-page report
explaining the security implications of having the SSID broadcast option enabled.
Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications 7-9

Additional Resources
1. Centrino:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrino

2. Power over Ethernet:

www.panduit.com/enabling_technologies/098749.asp

3. IEEE 802.11:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11

4. CSMA/CA & CSMA/CD:

http://www.hackerscenter.com/wireless/csma.asp

5. CSMA:
http://csma.epfl.ch/

Key Terms
¾ 4-pulse position modulation (4-PPM) — A modulation technique that translates two
data bits into 4 light impulses.
¾ 16-pulse position modulation (16-PPM) — A modulation technique that translates
four data bits into 16 light impulses.
¾ 802.11 standard — An IEEE standard released in 1990 that defines wireless local area
networks at a rate of either 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps. All WLAN features are contained in the
PHY and MAC layers.
¾ 802.11b standard — A 1999 addition to the IEEE 802.11 standard for WLANs that
added two higher speeds, 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps. Also known as Wi-Fi.
¾ active scanning — The process of sending frames to gather information.
¾ ad hoc mode — A WLAN mode in which wireless clients communicate directly among
themselves without using an AP.
¾ associate request frame — A frame sent by a client to an AP that contains the client’s
capabilities and supported rates.
¾ associate response frame — A frame returned to a client from the AP that contains a
status code and client ID number.
¾ Basic Service Set (BSS) — A WLAN mode that consists of wireless clients and one
AP.
¾ buffering — The process that the AP uses to temporarily store frames for clients that
are in sleep mode.
¾ channel access methods — The different ways of sharing resources in a network
environment.
¾ collision — The scrambling of data that occurs when two computers start sending
messages at the same time in a shared frequency.
¾ compact flash (CF) card — A small expansion card that is used with PDA devices.
¾ Complementary Code Keying (CCK) — A table containing 64 8-bit code words used
for transmitting at speeds above 2 Mbps. This table of codes is used instead of the
process of adding a Barker code to the bit to be transmitted.
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¾ control frames — MAC frames that assist in delivering the frames that contain data.
¾ data frames — MAC frames that carry the information to be transmitted to the
destination clients.
¾ disassociation frame — A frame sent by the new AP to the old AP to terminate the old
AP’s association with the client.
¾ distributed coordination function (DCF) — The default access method for WLANs.
¾ distributed coordination function interframe space (DIFS) — The standard interval
between the transmission of data frames.
¾ dynamic rate selection — A function of an AP that allows it to automatically select the
highest transmission speed based on the strength and quality of the signal received from
a client NIC.
¾ Extended Service Set (ESS) — A WLAN mode that consists of wireless clients and
multiple APs.
¾ fragmentation — The division of data to be transmitted from one large frame into
several smaller frames.
¾ Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) — A WLAN mode in which wireless clients
communicate directly among themselves without using an AP.
¾ infrastructure mode — A WLAN mode that consists of wireless clients and one AP.
¾ interframe spaces (IFS) — Time gaps used for special types of transmissions.
¾ management frames — MAC frames that are used to set up the initial communications
between a client and the AP.
¾ Mini PCI — A small card that is functionally equivalent to a standard PCI expansion
card used for integrating communications peripherals onto a notebook computer.
¾ null data frame — The response that a client sends back to the AP to indicate that the
client has no transmissions to make.
¾ packet acknowledgment (ACK) — A procedure for reducing collisions by requiring
the receiving station to send an explicit packet back to the sending station.
¾ passive scanning — The process of listening to each available channel for a set period
of time.
¾ peer-to-peer mode — A WLAN mode in which wireless clients communicate directly
among themselves without using an AP.
¾ point coordination function (PCF) — The 802.11 optional polling function.
¾ polling — A channel access method in which each computer is asked in sequence
whether it wants to transmit.
¾ power management — An 802.11 standard that allows the mobile client to be off as
much as possible to conserve battery life but still not miss out on data transmissions.
¾ power over Ethernet (PoE) — A technology that provides power over an Ethernet
cable.
¾ probe — A frame sent by a client when performing active scanning.
¾ probe response — A frame sent by an AP when responding to a client’s active
scanning probe.
¾ reassociation — The process of a client dropping a connection with one AP and
reestablishing the connection with another.
¾ reassociation request frame — A frame sent from a client to a new AP asking whether
it can associate with the AP.
¾ reassociation response frame — A frame sent by an AP to a station indicating that it
will accept its reassociation with that AP.
¾ Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) — An 802.11 protocol option that allows
a station to reserve the network for transmissions.
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¾ scanning — The process that a client uses to examine the airwaves for information that
it needs in order to begin the association process.
¾ secure digital (SD) card — A small expansion card that is used with PDA devices. SD
cards are smaller than CF cards. See also compact flash (CF) cards.
¾ Service Set Identifier (SSID) — A unique identifier assigned to an AP.
¾ short interframe space (SIFS) — A time gap used for immediate response actions
such as ACK.
¾ sled — An external attachment for a PDA that permits external cards to attach to the
device.
¾ sleep mode — A power-conserving mode used by notebook computers.
¾ subnets — Smaller units of a network.
¾ time slots — The measurement units in a PLCP frame. The length of a time slot is
predefined by the standard or specification for a particular system.
¾ traffic indication map (TIM) — A list of the stations that have buffered frames
waiting at the AP.
¾ Wi-Fi — A trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, often used to refer to 802.11b WLANs
that pass the organization’s interoperability tests.
¾ wireless residential gateway — A combination of several technologies that permit
home users to have wireless capabilities and also allow Internet and printer sharing and
provide better security than connecting a computer directly to the Internet.

Technical Notes for Hands-On Projects

Project 7-1: This project requires a notebook computer with a WNIC and the latest
version of Windows XP.

Project 7-2: This project requires a Linksys WRT54G access point.

Project 7-3: This project requires a computer running Windows.