ARYABHATA

Name- While there is a tendency to misspell his name as "Aryabhatta"

by analogy with other names having the "bhatta" suffix, his name is
properly spelled Aryabhata: every astronomical text spells his name
thus,[1] including Brahmagupta's references to him "in more than a
hundred places by name".[2] Furthermore, in most instances
"Aryabhatta" does not fit the metre either.[1]
[edit]Birth

Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that it was composed 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga,
when he was 23 years old. This corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476 CE.
[1]

Aryabhata provides no information about his place of birth. The only information comes
from Bhāskara I, who describes Aryabhata as āśmakīya, "one belonging to the aśmaka country."
It is widely attested that, during the Buddha's time, a branch of the Aśmaka people settled in the
region between the Narmada and Godavari rivers in central India, today the South Gujarat–North
Maharashtra region. Aryabhata is believed to have been born there.[1][3] However, early Buddhist
texts describe Ashmaka as being further south, in dakshinapath or the Deccan, while other texts
describe the Ashmakas as having fought Alexander, which would put them further north.[3]
WORKS
Aryabhata is the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy, some of which are
lost. His major work, Aryabhatiya, a compendium of mathematics and astronomy, was extensively
referred to in the Indian mathematical literature and has survived to modern times. The
mathematical part of the Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry,
and spherical trigonometry. It also contains continued fractions, quadratic equations, sums-of-
power series, and a table of sines.

The Arya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations, is known through the writings of
Aryabhata's contemporary, Varahamihira, and later mathematicians and commentators,
including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I. This work appears to be based on the older Surya
Siddhanta and uses the midnight-day reckoning, as opposed to sunrise in Aryabhatiya. It also
contained a description of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon (shanku-yantra), a
shadow instrument (chhAyA-yantra), possibly angle-measuring devices, semicircular and circular
(dhanur-yantra / chakra-yantra), a cylindrical stick yasti-yantra, an umbrella-shaped device called
the chhatra-yantra, and water clocks of at least two types, bow-shaped and cylindrical.[3]
IN MATHS
Place value system and zero
The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd century Bakhshali Manuscript, was clearly in place
in his work. While he did not use a symbol for zero, the French mathematician Georges
Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was implicit in Aryabhata's place-value system as a place
holder for the powers of ten with null coefficients[8]

However, Aryabhata did not use the Brahmi numerals. Continuing the Sanskritic tradition
from Vedic times, he used letters of the alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities, such
as the table of sines in a mnemonic form.[9]

[edit]Approximation of pi
Aryabhata worked on the approximation for pi (π), and may have come to the conclusion that π is
irrational. In the second part of the Aryabhatiyam (gaṇitapāda 10), he writes:

caturadhikam śatamaṣṭaguṇam dvāṣaṣṭistathā sahasrāṇām

ayutadvayaviṣkambhasyāsanno vṛttapariṇāhaḥ.
"Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle
with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached."[10]

This implies that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is ((4+100)×8+62000)/20000 =
62832/20000 = 3.1416, which is accurate to five significant figures.

It is speculated that Aryabhata used the word āsanna (approaching), to mean that not only is this
an approximation but that the value is incommensurable (or irrational). If this is correct, it is quite
a sophisticated insight, because the irrationality of pi was proved in Europe only in 1761
by Lambert.[11]

After Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 CE) this approximation was mentioned
in Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra.[3]

[edit]Mensuration and trigonometry

In Ganitapada 6, Aryabhata gives the area of a triangle as

tribhujasya phalashariram samadalakoti bhujardhasamvargah

that translates to: "for a triangle, the result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the
area."[12]

Aryabhata discussed the concept of sine in his work by the name of ardha-jya. Literally, it
means "half-chord". For simplicity, people started calling it jya. When Arabic writers
translated his works from Sanskrit into Arabic, they referred it as jiba. However, in Arabic
writings, vowels are omitted, and it was abbreviated as jb. Later writers substituted it
with jiab, meaning "cove" or "bay." (In Arabic, jiba is a meaningless word.) Later in the 12th
 century, when Gherardo of Cremona translated these writings from Arabic into Latin, he
replaced the Arabic jiabwith its Latin counterpart, sinus, which means "cove" or "bay". And
after that, the sinus became sine in English.[13]
BHASKARRR
Bhaskara[1] (Marathi: भासकर, Kannada: ಭಸಕರಚಯರ) (1114–1185), also known as Bhaskara
II and Bhaskara Achārya ("Bhaskara the teacher"), was an Indian mathematician and
anastronomer. He was born near Bijjada Bida which is in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka,
India. Bhaskara was the head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical
center of ancient India. His predecessors in this post had included both the noted Indian
mathematicians Brahmagupta and Varahamihira. He lived in the Sahyadri region.[1]

Bhaskara and his works represent a significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical
knowledge in the 12th century. He has been called the greatest mathematician of medieval India.
[2]
His main work was the Siddhanta Siromani which is divided in to four parts
called Lilavati , Bijaganita, Grahaganita and Goladhyaya.[3] Siddhanta Siromani is Sanskrit for
"Crown of treatises".[4] The English translations of four titles are "Dealing with Arithmetic",
Algebra, "Mathematics of the planets" and Sphere respectively.

Bhaskara's work on calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by half a millennium.[5][6] He is

particularly known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its
application to astronomical problems and computations. While Newton and Leibniz have
been credited with differential and integral calculus, there is strong evidence to suggest
that Bhaskara was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus. He was
perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus.[7
Mathematics
Some of Bhaskara's contributions to mathematics include the following:

 A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways
and then canceling out terms to get a² + b² = c².

 In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations are

explained.

 Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax² + b = y²).

  Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations (Kuttaka). The rules he
gives are (in effect) the same as those given by the Renaissance European mathematicians
of the 17th century

 A cyclic Chakravala method for solving indeterminate equations of the form ax²
+ bx + c = y. The solution to this equation was traditionally attributed to William Brouncker in
1657, though his method was more difficult than the chakravala method.

 The first general method for finding the solutions of the problem x² − ny² = 1 (so-called
"Pell's equation") was given by Bhaskara II.[10]

 Solutions of Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x² + 1 = y². This very
equation was posed as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, but
its solution was unknown in Europe until the time of Euler in the 18th century.

 Solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown, and

found negative and irrational solutions.

 Preliminary concept of mathematical analysis.

 Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with notable contributions

towards integral calculus.

 Conceived differential calculus, after discovering the derivative and differential coefficient.

 Stated Rolle's theorem, a special case of one of the most important theorems in analysis,
the mean value theorem. Traces of the general mean value theorem are also found in his
works.

 Calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae. (See Calculus section
below.)

 In Siddhanta Shiromani, Bhaskara developed spherical trigonometry along with a number

of other trigonometric results. (See Trigonometry section below.)

[edit]Arithmetic
Bhaskara's arithmetic text Lilavati covers the topics of definitions, arithmetical terms, interest
computation, arithmetical and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the
shadow of the gnomon, methods to solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.

Lilavati is divided into 13 chapters and covers many branches of mathematics, arithmetic,
algebra, geometry, and a little trigonometry and mensuration. More specifically the contents
include:

 Definitions.
 Properties of zero (including division, and rules of operations with zero).
 Further extensive numerical work, including use of negative numbers and surds.
 Estimation of π.
 Arithmetical terms, methods of multiplication, and squaring.
 Inverse rule of three, and rules of 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
 Problems involving interest and interest computation.
 Arithmetical and geometrical progressions.
 Plane (geometry).
 Solid geometry.
 Permutations and combinations.
 Indeterminate equations (Kuttaka), integer solutions (first and second order). His
contributions to this topic are particularly important, since the rules he gives are (in effect) the
same as those given by the renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century, yet
his work was of the 12th century. Bhaskara's method of solving was an improvement of the
methods found in the work of Aryabhata and subsequent mathematicians.

His work is outstanding for its systemisation, improved methods and the new topics that he has
introduced. Furthermore the Lilavati contained excellent recreative problems and it is thought that
Bhaskara's intention may have been that a student of 'Lilavati' should concern himself with the
mechanical application of the method.

Trigonometry
The Siddhanta Shiromani (written in 1150) demonstrates Bhaskara's knowledge of trigonometry,
including the sine table and relationships between different trigonometric functions. He also
discovered spherical trigonometry, along with other interesting trigonometrical results. In
particular Bhaskara seemed more interested in trigonometry for its own sake than his
predecessors who saw it only as a tool for calculation. Among the many interesting results given
by Bhaskara, discoveries first found in his works include the now well known results
for and :

INDIAN MATHEMATICS

Indian mathematics refers to the mathematics that emerged in the Indian subcontinent,[1] from
1200 BCE [2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400
AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta,
and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system in use today[3] and the binary number
system[4] were first recorded in Indian mathematics.[5] Indian mathematicians made early
contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[6] negative numbers,[7] arithmetic,
and algebra.[8] In addition, trigonometry [9] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the
modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[10] These mathematical concepts
were transmitted to theMiddle East, China, and Europe[8] and led to further developments that
now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.

Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a
section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in
order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the
problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution. In the prose section, the form
(and therefore its memorization) was not considered as important as the ideas involved.[1][11] All
mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were
transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant
mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali
Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan)
and is likely from the 7th century CE.[12][13]
NUMERALS AND DECIMALS
well known that the decimal place-value system in use today was first recorded in India, then
transmitted to the Islamic world, and eventually to Europe.[48] The Syrian bishop Severus Sebokht
wrote in the mid-7th century CE about the "nine signs" of the Indians for expressing numbers.
[48]
However, how, when, and where the first decimal place value system was invented is not so
clear.[49]
The earliest extant script used in India was the Kharoṣṭhī script used in the Gandhara culture of
the north-west. It is thought to be of Aramaic origin and it was in use from the 4th century BCE to
the 4th century CE. Almost contemporaneously, another script, the Brāhmī script, appeared on
much of the sub-continent, and would later become the foundation of many scripts of South Asia
and South-east Asia. Both scripts had numeral symbols and numeral systems, which were
initially not based on a place-value system.[50]

The earliest surviving evidence of decimal place value numerals in India and southeast Asia is
from the middle of the first millennium CE.[51] A copper plate from Gujarat, India mentions the date
595 CE, written in a decimal place value notation, although there is some doubt as to the
authenticity of the plate.[51] Decimal numerals recording the years 683 CE have also been found in
stone inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia, where Indian cultural influence was substantial.[51]

There are older textual sources, although the extant manuscript copies of these texts are from
much later dates.[52] Probably the earliest such source is the work of the Buddhist philosopher
Vasumitra dated likely to the 1st century CE.[52] Discussing the counting pits of merchants,
Vasumitra remarks, "When [the same] clay counting-piece is in the place of units, it is denoted as
one, when in hundreds, one hundred."[52] Although such references seem to imply that his readers
had knowledge of a decimal place value representation, the "brevity of their allusions and the
ambiguity of their dates, however, do not solidly establish the chronology of the development of
this concept."[52]

A third decimal representation was employed in a verse composition technique, later

labeled Bhuta-sankhya (literally, "object numbers") used by early Sanskrit authors of technical
books.[53] Since many early technical works were composed in verse, numbers were often
represented by objects in the natural or religious world that correspondence to them; this allowed
a many-to-one correspondence for each number and made verse composition easier.
[53]
According to Plofker 2009, the number 4, for example, could be represented by the word
"Veda" (since there were four of these religious texts), the number 32 by the word "tooth" (since a
full set consists of 32), and the number 1 by "moon" (since there is only one moon).[53]So,
Veda/tooth/moon would correspond to the decimal numeral 1324, as the convention for numbers
was to enumerate their digits from right to left.[53] The earliest reference employing object numbers
is a ca. 269 CE Sanskrit text, Yavanajātaka (literally "Greek horoscopy") of Sphujidhvaja, a
versification of an earlier (ca. 150 CE) Indian prose adaptation of a lost work of Hellenistic
astrology.[54] Such use seems to make the case that by the mid-3rd century CE, the decimal place
value system was familiar, at least to readers of astronomical and astrological texts in India.[53]
It has been hypothesized that the Indian decimal place value system was based on the symbols
used on Chinese counting boards from as early as the middle of the first millennium BCE.
[55]
According to Plofker 2009,