Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
by
K.S. Srinivasa
Retd. Principal &
Professor of Mathematics
Bangalore
Published by
Sharada Vikas Trust (R)
Bangalore
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / MATHEMATICS
Syllabus
1. Matrix Theory :
Review of the fundamentals. Solution of linear equations by Cramers' Rule and by Matrix method, Eigen values and
Eigen vectors, Cayley Hamilton's Theorem, Diagonalization of matrices, simple problems.
2. Algebraic Structures
Definition of a group, properties of groups, sub groups, permutation groups, simple problems, scalars & vectors,
algebra of vectors, scalar & vector products, scalar triple product, simple problems.
4. Differential Calculus :
Limits, continuity and differentiability (definition only), standard derivatives, rules for differentiation, derivatives of
function of a function and parametric functions, problems. Successive differentiation, nth derivative of standard
functions, statement of Leibnitz's Theorem, problems, statements of Rolle's, Lagrange's, Cauchy's and Taylor's Mean
Value Theorems and simple problems, Indeterminate forms, L' Hospital's rule, partial derivatives, definition and
simple problems.
5. Integral Calculus
Introduction, standard integrals, integration by substitution and by parts, integration of rational, irrational and
trigonometric functions, definite integrals, properties (no proof), simple problems, reduction formulae and simple
problems.
Text Books
1. Elementary Engineering Mathematics by Dr. B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications
2. Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications
Reference Books
1. Differential Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
2. Integral Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
3. Modern Abstract Algebra by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
CONTENTS
Page Nos.
1. Matrix Theory 01
2. Algebraic Structures 21
4. Differential Calculus 65
5. Integral Calculus 96
Examples
a1 b1
Matrix of order 3 × 2 is a2 b2
a b
3 3
a1 a 2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Matrix of order 4 × 3 is
c1 c2 c3
d d 2 d 3
1
a1 b1 c1
Matrix of order 3 × 3 is a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Note :- Elements of Matrices are written in rows and columns with in the bracket ( ) or [ ].
Types of Matrices
(1) Equivalent Matrices : Two matrices are said to be equivalent if the order is the same.
(2) Equal Matrices : Two matrices are said to be equal if the corresponding elements are equal.
(3) Rectangular & Square Matrices : A matrix of order m × n is said to be rectangular if m ≠ n, square if m = n.
(4) Row Matrix : A matrix having only one row is called Row Matrix.
(5) Column Matrix : A matrix having only one column is called Column Matrix.
(6) Null Matrix or Zero Matrix : A matrix in which all the elements are zeros is called Null Matrix or Zero Matrix
denoted as O. [English alphabet O not zero where as elements are zeros]
(7) Diagonal Matrix : A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all elements except the elements in the principal
diagonal are zeros.
2 0 0
4 0
Example 0 1 0
0 6 0 0 4
are diagonal matrices of order 2 & 3.
(8) Scalar Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal are same.
2 KSOU Matrix Theory
8 0 0
4 0
Example 0 8 0
0 4 0 0 8
are Scalar Matrices of order 2 & 3.
(9) Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal is 1 is
called Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix denoted by I.
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
Example : ,
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
are unit matrices of order 2 & 4.
(10) Transpose of a Matrix : If A is any matrix then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows & columns of A is
called 'Transpose of A and it is written as A' or AT.
a b
a e
Example : If A = c d then A′ is
c
b f
e f d
Matrix addition
Two matrices can be added or subtracted if their orders are same.
a1 b1 c1 c d1 e1
Example : If A = & B = 1
a2 b2 c2 c2 d2 e2
a +c b1 + d1 c1 + e1
A + B = 1 1
a2 + c2 b2 + d 2 c2 + e2
a −c b1 − d1 c1 − e1
A − B = 1 1
a2 − c2 b2 − d 2 c2 − e2
Matrix Multiplication
If A is a matrix of order m × p and B is matrix of order p × n, then the product AB is defined and its order is m × n. (ie. for AB
to be defined number of columns of A must be same as number of rows of B)
α 1 β1
a b1 c1
Example : Let A = 1 & B = α 2 β2
a2 b2 c2 α β 3
3
which is of order 2 × 2.
Note :- In a skew symmetric matrix the elements in principal diagonal are all zeros.
2 3 5
Example : A = 3 7 6 is symmetric where A = A′
5 6 8
0 − 2 7
B= 2 0 6 is skew symmetric where B = − B′
− 7 − 6 0
Determinant
A determinant is defined as a mapping (function) from the set of square matrices to the set of real numbers.
If A is a square matrix its determinant is denoted as A .
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
Example : Let A = a2 b2
c2 then det. A or A = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a 22 a 23
Consider
a32 a33 which is a determinant formed by leaning all the elements of row and column in which all lies. This
determinant is called Minor of a11. Thus we can form nine minors. In general if A is matrix of order n × n then minor of aij is
4 KSOU Matrix Theory
obtained by leaning all the elements in the row and column in which aij lies in A . The order of this minor is n – 1where as the
order of given determinant is n if this minor is multiplied by (–1)i + j then it is called Co-factors of aij.
a 22 a 23
Minor of a11 =
a32 a33
a22 a23 a 22 a 23
Co - factor of a11 = ( −1)1+1 =
a32 a33 a32 a33
a12 a13
Minor of a 21 is
a32 a33
Value of a determinant
Consider a matrix A of order n × n. Consider all the elements of any row or column and multiply each element by its corresponding
co-factor. Then the algebraic sum of the product is the value of the determinant.
a1 b1
Example : Let A =
a2 b2
Co-factor of a1 is b2
Co-factor of b1 is –a2
∴ A = a1b2 − b1a2
a1 b1 c1
Let A = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
b2 c2 b2 c2
Co - factor of a1 is ( −1)1+1 =
b3 c3 b3 c3
a2 c2 a2 c2
Co - factor of b1 is ( −1)1+ 2 =−
a3 c3 a3 c3
a2 b2 a2 b2
Co - factor of c1 is ( −1)1+ 3 =
a3 b3 a3 b3
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
∴ A = a1 − b1 + c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
Properties of determinants
(1) If the elements of any two rows or columns are interchanged then value of the determinant changes only in sign.
(2) If the elements of two rows or columns are identical then the value of the determinant is zero.
(3) If all the elements of any row or column is multipled by a constant K, then the value of the determinant is multipled
by K.
(4) If all the elements of any row or column are written as sum of two elements then the determinant can be written as
sum of two determinants.
(5) If all the elements of any row or column are multiplied by a constant and added to the corresponding elements of
any other row or column then the value of the determinant donot alter.
Adjoint of a Matrix
a1 b1 c1
Let A = a2 b2 c2
a c3
3 b3
Let us denoted the co-factors of a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2, a3, b3, c3 as A1, B1, C1, A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3 transpose of matrix of
co-factors is called Adjoint of the Matrix.
A1 B1 C1
Matrix of Co - factors = A2 B2 C2
A C3
3 B3
A1 A2 A3
Adjoint of A = B1 B2 B3
C C C3
1 2
a1 b1 c1 A1 A2 A3
A. adj. A = a2 b2 c2 B1 B2 B3
a c3 C1 C 2 C3
3 b3
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
Now a1 A1 + b1 B1 + c1C1 = a1 − b1 + c1 =∆ The value of the det. A.
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
Similarly a 2 A2 + b2 B2 + c 2C 2 = ∆
a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3C3 = ∆
b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1
a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1C 2 = −a1 + b1 − c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
∆ 0 0
∴ A. adj. A = 0 ∆ 0 where ∆ = A
0 0 ∆
1 0 0
= ∆ 0 1 0 = ∆.I
0 0 1
∴ A. adj. A = A ⋅ I = adj. A
Inverse of a Matrix
Two non-singular matrices A & B of the same order is said to be inverse of each other if AB = I = BA. Inverse of A is denoted
as A–1. Inverse of B is denoted as B–1 and further (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.
A.adj. A = A ⋅ I
multiply by A −1 , AA −1.adj. A = A A −1
adj. A
ie adj. A = A A −1 ⇒ A −1 =
A
1 4 − 2
Example : Find the inverse of − 2 − 5 4
1 −2 1
1 4 − 2
Let A = − 2 − 5 4
1 −2 1
−5 4 −2 4 −2 −5
−
−2 1 1 1 1 −2
4 −2 1 −2 1 4
Matrix of Co - factors = − −
−2 1 1 1 1 −2
4 −2 1 −2 1 4
−
− 5 4 −2 4 − 2 − 5
(−5 + 8) − (−2 − 4) (4 + 5)
= − (4 − 4) (1 + 2) − (−2 − 4)
(16 − 10) − (4 − 4) (−5 + 8)
3 6 9
= 0 3 6
6 0 3
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 7
3 0 6
∴ adj.A = 6 3 0
9 6 3
1 4 −2
A = − 2 − 5 4 = 1( −5 + 8) − 4( −2 − 4) − 2( 4 + 5) = 3 + 24 − 18 = 9
1 −2 1
3 0 6 39 0 6
9
−1 1 1
A = adj.A = 6 3 0 = 6 9 3
9 0
A 9 9 6 3
9 6 3 9 9 9
13 0 2
3
−1
A = 23 1
3 0
2 1
1 3 3
Cramer's Rule
To solve the equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d 3
a1 b1 c1
Consider ∆ = a2 b2 c2
(1)
a3 b3 c3
first evaluate & if it is not zero then multiply both sides of (1) by x.
a1 b1 c1 a1 x b1 c1
∆x = x a2 b2 c 2 = a 2 x b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 x b3 c3
multiply the elements of columns 2 & 3 by y & z and add to elements of column 1.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z b1 c1
then ∆x = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z b2 c2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z b3 c3
d1 b1 c1
= d2 b2 c2 = ∆1 (say) (2)
d3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 y c1
∆y = y a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 y c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 y c3
8 KSOU Matrix Theory
multiply the elements of columns 1 & 3 by x & z and add to the elements of column 2.
a1 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z c1 a1 d1 c1
= a2 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z c2 = a2 d2 c2 = ∆ 2 (say) (3)
a3 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z c3 a3 d3 c3
multiply both sides of (1) by z
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 z
∆z = z a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 z
a3 b3 c 3 a3 b3 c3 z
multiply the elements of columns 1 & 2 by x & y and add to the elements of column 3.
a1 b1 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z
= a2 b2 a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z
a3 b3 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z
a1 b1 d1
= a2 b2 d 2 = ∆ 3 (say) (4)
a3 b3 d3
∆1
then x = from (2)
∆
∆2
y= from (3)
∆
∆3
z= from (4)
∆
Note :- Verification of values of x, y, z can be done by substituting in the given equations.
Example - 1
Solve 2 x + y − z = 3
x + y + z =1
x − 2 y − 3y = 4
2 1 -1
Let ∆ = 1 1 1
(1)
1 −2 −3
= 2( −3 + 2) − 1( −3 − 1) − 1( −2 − 1) = −2 + 4 + 3 = 5
3 1 -1
=1 1 1 = 3( −3 + 2) − 1( −3 − 4) − 1( −2 − 4) = −3 + 7 + 6 = 10
4 −2 −3
10 10
∴ x= = =2
∆ 5
multiply both sides of (1) by y
2 3 -1 2 y -1
∆y = y 1 1 1 == 1 y 1
1 4 −3 1 − 2y − 3
multiply the elements of column 1 by x & 3 by z and to the corresponding elements of column 2.
2 2 x + y − z -1
then ∆y = 1 x + y + z 1
1 x − 2 y − 3z − 3
2 3 -1
= 1 1 1 = 2( −3 − 4) − 3( −3 − 1) − 1( 4 − 1) = −14 + 12 − 3 = −5
1 4 −3
−5 −5
∴ y= = = −1
∆ 5
multiply both sides of (1) by z
2 3 -1 2 3 -z
∆z = z 1 1 1 = 1 1 z
1 4 − 3 1 4 − 3z
multiply the elements of column 1 by x & column 2 by y and to the corresponding elements of column 3.
2 1 2x + y − z
then ∆z = 1 1 x+ y+z
1 − 2 x − 2 y − 3z
2 1 3
= 1 1 1 = 2( 4 + 2) − 1( 4 − 1) + 3( −2 − 1) = 12 − 3 − 9 = 0
1 −2 4
0 0
∴ z= = =0
∆ 5
Thus solution is x = 2, y = –1 & z = 0 which can be verified by substituting in the given equations.
Example - 2
Solve 4 x + y = 7
3 y + 4z = 5
5x + 3z = 2
4 1 0
∆ = 5 3 4 = 4(9 − 0) − 1(0 − 20) + 0(0 − 15) = 36 + 20 = 56
2 0 3
10 KSOU Matrix Theory
7 1 0
∆1 = 5 3 4 = 7(9 − 0) − 1(15 − 8) + 0(0 − 6) = 63 − 7 = 56
2 0 3
4 7 0
∆ 2 = 0 5 4 = 4(15 − 8) − 7(0 − 20) + 0(0 − 25) = 28 + 140 = 168
5 2 3
4 1 7
∆ 3 = 0 3 5 = 4(6 − 0) − 1(0 − 25) + 7(0 − 15) = 24 + 25 − 105 = −56
5 0 2
∆1 56
∴ x= = =1
∆ 56
∆ 2 168
y= = =3
∆ 56
∆ 3 − 56
z= = = −1
∆ 56
a1 b1 c1 x d1
Consider A = a 2 b2 c2 X = y & B = d2
a c3 z d
3 b3 3
then given equations can be written in Matrix form as AX = B. If A ≠ 0 solution exists multiply both sides by A–1
A−1 ( AX ) = A−1 B
A −1 AX = A −1 B
ie IX = A −1 B
∴ X = A−1B
Example
Solve 3 x − y + 2 z = 13
2x + y − z = 3
x + 3 y − 5z = −8
3 −1 2 x 13
Let A = 2 1 − 1 X = y , B = 3
1 3 − 5 z − 8
then given equations can be written as AX = B
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 11
∴ X = A−1B (1)
To find A–1
3 −1 2
A = 2 1 − 1 = 3( −5 + 3) + 1( −10 + 1) + 2(6 − 1) = −6 − 9 + 10 = −5
1 3 −5
1 −1 2 −1 2 1
−
3 −5 1 −5 1 3
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
Matrix of Co - factors = − −
3 −5 1 −5 1 3
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
−
1 − 1 2 −1 2 1
(−5 + 3) − (−10 + 1) (6 − 1) − 2 9 5
= − (5 − 6) (−15 − 2) − (9 + 1) = 1 − 17 − 10
1 − 2 − (−3 − 4) (3 + 2) − 1 − 7 5
− 2 1 − 1 − 2 1 − 1
1 1
adj.A = 9 − 17 7 ∴ A −1 = adj. A = − 9 − 17 7
5 − 10 5 A 5
5 − 10 5
Using this in (1)
− 2 1 − 1 13 − 26 3 8 − 15 3
1 1 1
X = − 9 − 17 7 3 = − 117 − 51 − 56 = − 10 = − 2
5 5 5
5 − 10 5 − 8 65 − 30 − 40 −5 1
∴ x = 3, y = –2, z = 1 is the solution
Example - 1
1 4
Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix
2 3
1 4 1 4 1 0
Let A = Characteristic equation is 2 3 − λ 0 1 = 0
2 3
1− λ 4
ie =0 ⇒ (1 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 8 = 0
4 3− λ
⇒ 3 − 3λ − λ + λ2 − 8 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 4λ − 5 = 0
12 KSOU Matrix Theory
⇒ (λ − 5)(λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, 5
x + 4y − x
⇒ =
2x + 3 y − y
x + 4 y = −x ix = −4 y x y
⇒ ⇒ ⇒∴ =
2x + 3y = − y ie x = −2 y −2 1
⇒ x1 + 4 x2 = 5 x1 x1 x2
ie x1 = x2 ie =
2 x1 + 3 x2 = 5 x2 1 1
Example - 2
6 −2 2
Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix − 2 3 − 1
2 −1 3
6 −2 2 6−λ −2 2
Let A = − 2 3 − 1 Characteristic equation is − 2 3 − λ − 1 = 0
2 −1 3 −1 3 − λ
2
[ ]
ie (6 − λ ) (3 − λ ) 2 − 1 + 2[− 2(3 − λ ) + 2]+ 2[2 − 2(3 − λ )] = 0
ie (6 − λ )[9 + λ2
]
− 6λ − 1 + 2[− 6 + 2λ + 2]+ 2[2 − 6 + 2λ )] = 0
6 − 2 2 x1 x1 x1
ie − 2 3 − 1 x2 = 2 x2 where X = x2
2 − 1 3 x x x
3 3 3
⇒ 6 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 2 x1 ⇒ 4 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
−2 x1 + 3 x2 − x3 = 2 x2 −2 x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 2 x3 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
a1 − λ b1 c1
then characteristic equation is a 2 b2 − λ c 2 =0
a3 b3 c3 − λ
Then as per Cayley Hamilton Theorem − A3 + a1 A 2 + a2 A + a3 I = 0 where I is a unit matrix of order 3 & 0 is a null
matrix of order 3.
In general if A is a square matrix of order n then characteristic equation will be of the form
(−1) n A n + aA n −1 + a2 A n − z + ........ + an I = 0
where I is a unit matrix of order n & 0 is a null matrix of order n.
∴ If an = 0, matrix A is singular & a n ≠ 0 the matrix A is non-singular & hence inverse exists and we can find the
inverse of A using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
Example - 1
a b
Let A =
c d
a −λ b
Characteristic equation is =0
c d −λ
ie λ2 + a1λ + a2 = 0 where a1, a2 are constants.
A2 + a1 A + a2 I = 0
multiply both sides by A–1
ie A + a1 I + a2 A−1 = 0
∴ a2 A−1 = −( A + a1I )
1
∴ A −1 = − ( A + a1 I )
a2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 15
Example - 2
The characteristic equation of a matrix A of order 2 is λ2 − 5λ + 10 = 0 find A .
Example - 3
2 − 1
Find the inverse of − 3 4 using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
2 − 1 2−λ −1
Solution : Let A = C.E. is =0
−3 4 −3 4−λ
ie ( 2 − λ )(4 − λ ) − 3 = 0 ie 8 − 4λ − 2λ + λ2 − 3 = 0
ie λ2 − 6λ + 5 = 0
A 2 − 6 A + 5I = 0
multiply both sides by A–1
A − 6 I + 5 A −1 = 0
∴ 5 A−1 = − A + 6I
2 − 1 1 0 − 2 + 6 1 + 0 4 1
= − + 6 = =
− 3 4 0 1 3 + 0 − 4 + 6 3 2
1 4 1
∴ A −1 =
5 3 2
Diagonalisation of Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order n where all the eigen values are linearly independent then a matrix P can be found such that
P–1AP is a Diagonal Matrix.
Let A be a square matrix of order 3 and let λ1, λ2, λ3 be the eigen values, corresponding to these. Let X1, X2, X3 be three
vectors where
x1 y1 z1
X 1 = x2 , X 2 = y 2 , X 3 = z 2
x3 y3 z3
x1 y1 z1 λ1 0 0
Let P = x2 y2 z 2 Then P AP = 0 λ2
−1
0
x3 y3 z3 0 0 λ3
Example - 1
1 − 2
Let A =
− 5 4
1− λ −2
C.E. is = 0 ⇒ (1 − λ )( 4 − λ ) − 10 = 0
−5 4−λ
16 KSOU Matrix Theory
1 − 2 x1 6 x1
ie =
− 5 4 x2 6 x2
x1 − 2 x2 = − x1
⇒ 5 x1 = −2 x2
− 5 x1 + 4 x2 = − x2
x1 x − 2
ie = 2 ∴ eigen vector is
−2 5 5
1 − 2 1 5 2
Let P = Then P −1 =
1 5 7 − 1 1
1 5 2 1 − 2 1 − 2
∴ P −1 AP =
7 − 1 1 − 5 4 1 5
1 5 − 10 − 10 + 8 1 − 2 1 − 5 − 2 1 − 2
= − 1 − 5 2 + 4 1 5 = − 6 6 1 5
7 7
1 − 5 − 2 10 − 10 1 − 7 0 − 1 0
= = =
7 − 6 + 6 12 + 30 7 0 42 0 6
1 − 2 1 − 2
Thus P = diagonalize the matrix
1 5 − 5 4
Example - 2
1 1 3
Let A = 1 5 1
3 1 1
1− λ 1 3
Characteristic equation is 1 5−λ 1 =0
3 1 1− λ
x1
where X 1 = x2
x3
1 1 3 x1 − 2 x1
ie 1 5 1 x2 = − 2 x2
3 1 1 x − 2 x
3 3
ie x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = −2 x1 ie 3 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = 0 (1)
x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = −2 x2 x1 + 7 x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
3 x1 + x2 + x3 = −2 x3 3 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = 0 (3)
(1) & (3) are same.
Put x2 = 0 in (1) or (2), then x1 + x3 = 0
− 1
∴ eigen vector X 1 = 0
x x
ie x1 = − x3 ⇒ 1 = 3
−1 1
1
Let X2 be the eigen vector for λ = 3.
ie AX 2 = 3 X 2
1 1 3 y1 3 y1 y1
ie 1 5 1 y 2 = 3 y 2 where X 2 = y 2
3 1 1 y 3 y y3
3 3
ie y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y1 ie −2 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 0 (1)
y1 + 5 y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y 2 y1 + 2 y 2 + y3 = 0 (2)
3 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y3 3 y1 + y 2 − 2 y3 = 0 (3)
y1 y3
⇒ 5 y1 = 5 y3 ⇒ y1 = y3 ∴ = (5)
1 1
18 KSOU Matrix Theory
1
∴ X 2 = − 1
y y y
From (4) & (5) 1 = 2 = 3
1 −1 1
1
Next, let X3 be the eigen vector for λ = 6
ie AX 3 = 6 X 3
1 1 3 z1 6 z1 z1
ie 1 5 1 z 2 = 6 z 2 where X 3 = z 2
3 1 1 z 6 z z3
3 3
ie z1 + z 2 + 3 z 3 = 6 z1 ie −5 z1 + z 2 + 3 z 3 = 0 (1)
z1 + 5 z 2 + z 3 = 6 z 2 z1 − z 2 + z 3 = 0 (2)
3 z1 + z 2 + z 3 = 6 z 3 3 z1 + z 2 − 5 z 3 = 0 (3)
z1 z 2
ie 2 z1 = z 2 ⇒ = (5)
1 2
1
∴ X 3 = 2
z z z
From (4) & (5), 1 = 2 = 3
1 2 1
1
− 1 1 1 − 2 0 0
Let P = 0 − 1 2 Then P AP = 0 3 0
−1
1 1 1 0 0 6
− 1 1 1 1 1 3
∴ P = 0 − 1 2 diagonalize 1 5 1
1 1 1 3 1 1
Exercise
1 2 3
1. Evaluate − 1 2 3 .
2 3 1
a −b b−c c−a
2. Evaluate b − c c − a a − b .
c −a a−b b−c
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 19
1 2 3
3. Evaluate 2 3 4 .
3 4 4
2 0 4
4. If 6 x 5 = 0, then find x.
−1 − 3 1
1 p −q
5. Evaluate − p 1 r .
q −r 1
2 0
6. Find the adjoint of .
2 3
1 2 3
.
7 If A = 2 3 4 find the co - factor of 1.
3 4 2
2 1 5
8. If A = find AA′ & A′A.
0 3 7
secθ tanθ
9. Find the inverse of .
tanθ secθ
2 3 4 1 − 2 3
10. If A = and B = find 5 A − 3B and 6 B − 7 A.
−1 0 5 0 4 2
4 − 2 5 2 0 4
11. If 3 A + B = and 2 B + A = find A and B.
3 7 6 −1 2 3
1 + x x x y − 4 5
12. If + = find x and y.
5 x 7 − y 12 4 x
5 6 7
13. If A = verify that (A ′)′ = A.
8 9 10
2 4
− 3 4 5
14. If A = and B = − 4 3 find A + B′ and A′ − B.
6 − 2 1 3 − 2
3 4
15. If A = prove that A 2 − 10 A + I = 0.
5 7
6 5
16. Find the inverse of .
3 2
1 2
17. Find the characteristic equation of .
0 4
20 KSOU Matrix Theory
2 3
18. Find the eigen values of .
0 4
19. Solve 2 x + z = −1, 2 y + x = 5, z − y = −2 by Cramer' s Rule.
20. Solve 5 x − y + 4 z = 5
2x + 3 y + 5z = 2
7 x − 2 y + 6z = 5
by matrix method.
2 − 1
21. Find the characteristic roots of .
0 1
1 0 − 1
22. Find the characteristic roots of 1 2 1 .
2 2 3
1 2
23. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix .
3 4
2 0
24. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix .
1 − 1
1 2
25. Find the eigen vectors for the matrix .
2 1
6 −2 2
26. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors for the matrix − 2 3 − 1.
2 −1 3
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 21
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
Abreviations used
N : represent set of natural numbers.
Z or I : represent set of +ve and –ve integers including zero.
Z+ : represent non-negative integers ie. +ve integers including zero.
Q : represent set of rational numbers.
R : represent set of real numbers.
C : represent set of complex numbers.
Zn = {0, 1, 2, 3, .............. n – 1} ie. Zn represent set of integers modulo n.
Q+ : represent set of +ve rational numbers.
z - {o} : represent set of integers except 0.
Q - {o} : represent set of rational numbers except zero.
R - {o} : set of real numbers except zero.
A set in general is denoted by S.
∀ : for all
∈ : belongs to
Binary Operation
If S is a non-empty set then a mapping (function) from S × S to S is defined as Binary Operation (in short B.O.) and denoted
by ∗ (read as star). ie. : S × S → S (Star maps S cross S to S)
Another Definition
If S is non-empty set then ∗ (star) is said to be a Binary operation if ∀ a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S.
Examples
(1) on N + and × (ie addition & multiplication) are B.O.
2 + 3 = 5∈ N 2×3 = 6∈ N
4 + 5 ∈ Z , 3 − 4 = 1∈ Z , 4 − 3 = 1 ∈ Z , 5 × 6 = 30 ∈ Z
a
(3) On Q & R +, – & × are B.O. but ÷ is not a B.O. on Q & R Q for 0, ∉ Q & R but on Q - {o} & R - {o} ÷ is a B.O.
0
(4) on C, + and × are B.O.
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 ) ∈ C
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 x2 − y1 y 2 ) + i ( x1 y 2 + x2 y1 ) ∈ C
22 KSOU Algebraic Structures
Definitions
(1) A non-empty set S with one or more binary operations is called an 'Algebraic Structure'.
(N, +), (Z, +, ×), (Q, +, ×) are all algebraic structures.
Examples
(i) + and × (addition and multiplication) are associative and commutative on N, Z, Q & R.
(iii) 1 is an identity for B.O. × on N but + has no identity on N. Where as O is an identity on Z, Q and R for the B.O. +.
1 0
(iv) If S is a set of 2 × 2 matrices and B.O. is matrix multiplication then I = is an identity element.
0 1
Group
A non-empty set G together with a B.O. ∗ ie (G, ∗) is said to form a group if the following axioms are satisfied.
G4. Inverse : ∀ a ∈ G, there exists an element b such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a. This b is called inverse of a and usually denoted
as a–1
ie. a ∗ a–1 = e = a–1 ∗ a.
In addition to the above four axions if ∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a. Then (G, ∗) is called an 'abelian group' or 'commutative
group'.
Examples
(i) (N, +) is a groupoid and semigroup.
Note :- Every group is a monoid but the converse is not true, (Z, +) is a group and also a monoid but (N, ×) is a monoid but
not a group.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 23
Properties of Groups
1. Cancellation laws are valid in a group
ie if (G , ∗) is a group then ∀ a, b, c ∈ G ,
(i) a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (left cancellation law)
(ii ) b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c ( right cancellation law)
Proof :- a ∗ b = a ∗ c, as a ∈ G, a −1 ∈ G
∴ a −1 ∗ (a ∗ b) = a −1 ∗ (a ∗ c)
ie (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ b = (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ c
ie e ∗ b = e ∗ c where e is the identity.
⇒b=c
Similarly by considering
(b ∗ a) ∗ a −1 = (c ∗ a) ∗ a −1
we get b = c
a −1 ∗ (a ∗ x) = a −1 ∗ b
ie (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ x = a −1 ∗ b
ie e ∗ x = a −1 ∗ b
∴ x = a −1 ∗ b
ie (a −1 ∗ a ) ∗ x1 = (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ x2
ie e ∗ x1 = e ∗ x2
⇒ x1 = x2
∴ solution is unique.
Proof :- To prove identity is unique. If possible let e1 & e2 are two identities then
∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e1 = a = e1 ∗ a (1)
& a ∗ e2 = a = e2 ∗ a (2)
From LHS of (1), a ∗ e1 = a = e2 ∗ a (using (2))
ie a ∗ e1 = e2 ∗ a = a ∗ e2 (using LHS of (2))
24 KSOU Algebraic Structures
4. ( )
In a group G, a −1
−1
= a ∀a ∈ G
We have a ∗ a −1 = e = a −1 ∗ a
it can be easily seen from above relation that inverse of a–1 is a ie a −1( ) −1
=a.
Note :- If b & c are elements of G, such that b ∗ c = e = c ∗ b then each is the inverse of the other.
5. In a group (G , ∗)
∀a, b ∈ G, (a ∗ b) −1 = b −1 ∗ a −1
Proof :- Consider (a ∗ b) ∗ (b −1 ∗ a −1 )
= a ∗ (b ∗ b −1 ) ∗ a −1 = a ∗ e ∗ a −1 = a ∗ a −1 = e
∴ (a ∗ b) −1 = b −1 ∗ a −1
Proof :- Order of group means the number of elements in a group. If a group G has n elements. The order of G is n, which
is denoted as O(G) = n.
If n is finite it is called finite group and n is Infinite then it is called Infinite group.
Subgroups
A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to form a subgroup with respect to the same binary operation ∗ if ( H , ∗) is a
group.
Eg. (1) (z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +)
(2) H = { 0, 2, 4} is a subgroup of G = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with B.O. + mod 6 ie ⊕ 6
(3) H = { −1, 1} is a subgroup of G = {1, − 1, i, − i} with respect to the B.O. multiplication.
Theorem
A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if ∀a, b ∈ H , ab −1 ∈ H .
Permutation group
Let S = { a1 , a 2 , a3 , .......... a n }
Then a one-one and onto mapping or function from S onto itself is called a Permutation.
a1 a2 a3 .......... a n
Permutation is denoted as
f ( a1 ) f (a 2 ) f ( a3 ) .......... f ( a n )
There will be n ! ie ∠n permutations the set of permutations is denoted by Sn.
Let f , g ∈ S n . There is a composite mapping for f & g denoted as f o g , this can be taken as binary operation. Then the
set Sn with binary operation 'O' (ie composite mapping) will form a group. For convenience f o g is denoted as gf.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let f = & g = ∈ S 4 the B.O. composite function is given by
3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
f o g = o =
3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1 ? ? ? ?
to fill up the second row, following is the procedure.
in g : g (1) = 2, g ( 2) = 3, g (3) = 4, g ( 4) = 1
& in f : f (1) = 3, f ( 2) = 1, f (3) = 4, f ( 4) = 2
Now f o g (1) = f [ g (1)] = f ( 2) = 1
f o g ( 2) = f [ g ( 2)] = f (3) = 4
f o g (3) = f [ g (3)] = f ( 4) = 2
f o g ( 4) = f [ g (4)] = f (1) = 3
26 KSOU Algebraic Structures
1 2 3 4
∴ f o g =
1 4 2 3
for convenience f o g is written as gf
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
ie f o g = o =
3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1 1 4 2 3
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
& gf = =
2 3 4 1 3 1 4 2 1 4 2 3
the composite function is also called product function.
1 2 1 2 1 2
then =
1 2 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
=
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
=
2 1 2 1 1 2
1 2
closure law is satisfied, associative law can be easily verified. inverse e =
1 2
−1
1 2 1 2
=
1 2 1 2
−1
1 2 1 2
=
2 1 2 1
∴ S2 forms a group.
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
S 3 =
1 2 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1
Let us denote the elements as f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f 5 & f 6 respectively.
ie S 3 = {f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f 5 , f 6 }
identity e = f1
Q f 3 f 4 = f 6 but f 4 f 3 = f 2 ∴ f 3 f 4 ≠ f 4 f 3 .
Examples
(1) Show that the set R - {o} with B.O. × forms a group.
Solution : For any elements a, b ∈ R - {o}. a ∗ b ∈ R - {o}
2, 3 ∈ R - {o}, 2 × 3 = 6 ∈ R - {o}
∴ closure law is satisfied.
For any three elements a, b, c ∈ R - {o}
(a × b)× c = a × (b × c)
(–3 × 4) × 5 = –12 × 5 = –60.
–3 × (4 × 5) = –3 × 20 = –60.
∴ associative law is satisfied.
Identity element is 1,
ie. ∀ a ∈ R - {o}, a × 1 = a = 1 × a.
Let a ∈ R - {o} then there exists
1 1 1
∈ R - { o} such that a × = 1 = × a
a a a
∴ inverse exists for all elements R - {o}.
∴ (R - {o}, ×) forms an abelian group.
⊕5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
28 KSOU Algebraic Structures
From the above table it can be easily seen that closure law is satisfied.
2 ⊕ 5 (3 ⊕ 5 4) = 2 ⊕ 5 2 = 4
( 2 ⊕ 5 3) ⊕ 5 4 = 0 ⊕ 5 4 = 4
ie 2 ⊕ 5 (3 ⊕ 5 4) = ( 2 ⊕ 5 3) ⊕ 5 4
a ⊕5 b = b ⊕5 a
∴ ( Z 5 , ⊕ 5 ) is an abelian group.
(3) Show that G = {1, 2, 3, 4} with B.O. multiplication mod 5 ie ⊗ 5 is an abelian group.
⊗5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
From the above table it can be seen that closure law is satisfied.
( 2 ⊗5 3) ⊗5 4 = 1 ⊗5 4 = 4
2 ⊗5 (3 ⊗5 4) = 2 ⊗5 2 = 4
∴ associate law is satisfied.
identity is 1.
inverse of 1 is 1
inverse of 2 is 3
inverse of 3 is 2
inverse of 4 is 4
∴ (G , ⊗5 ) forms a group and it can be seen from the table that it forms an abelian group.
y ∗ x = 1 + yx ∴ x∗ y = y∗ x
Associative property ( x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ ( y ∗ z )
LHS = (1 + xy ) ∗ z = P ∗ z = 1 + pz = 1 + (1 + xy ) z = 1 + z + xyz
RHS = x ∗ (1 + yz ) = x ∗ Q = 1 + xQ = 1 + x(1 + yz ) = 1 + x + xyz
∴ LHS ≠ RHS ∴ ∗ is not a associative
ab
6. In a group (G , ∗), a ∗ b = . Find the identity element, inverse of 4 and solve 4 ∗ x = 5
2
To find e : a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a
ae
a∗e = = a ∴ e = 2 i.e. identity element is 2.
2
a ∗ a −1 = e = a −1 ∗ a
aa −1 4
a ∗ a −1 = 2 ⇒ = 2 ∴ a −1 =
2 a
4
4 −1 = = 1. ∴ inverse of 4 is 1.
4
4x 10 5
4∗ x = 5 ⇒ = 5 ∴x = =
2 4 2
= cos{(α + β ) + γ } + i sin{(α + β ) + γ }
= cos{α + ( β + γ )} + i sin{α + ( β + γ )}
= x (yz) Q multiplication is associative on R ∴ Associative axiom is satisfied.
iii) 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 ∈ G is the identity element
30 KSOU Algebraic Structures
iv) (cos θ + i sinθ )(cosθ − i sinθ ) = 1 ⇒ cos θ − i sinθ is the multiplicative inverse of cos θ + i sinθ .
8. Show that the cube roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication
We know that the cube roots of unity are 1, ω and ω 2 . Let G = {1, ω , ω 2 }
. 1 ω ω2
1 1 ω ω2 here ω 3 = 1
ω ω ω2 1 & ω 4 = ω 3 ⋅ ω = ω.
ω2 ω2 1 ω
i) All the entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set. This means the closure law is satisfied.
(1⋅ ω ) ⋅ ω 2 = ω ⋅ ω 2 = 1
1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
9. Show that the four matrices , , and form an abelian group under matrix
0 1 0 1 0 − 1 0 − 1
multiplication.
1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
Take = I , = A, = B, = C ; G = {1, A, B, C}
0 1 0 1 0 − 1 0 − 1
IA = AI = A, IB = BI = B, IC = CI = C
−1 0 1 0 −1 + 0 0 + 0 −1 0
AB = = = = C
0 1 0 − 1 0 + 0 0 − 1 0 − 1
Similarly, it can be shown that BA = C , AC = CA = B, BC = CB = A, A ⋅ A = I etc.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 31
i) The entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set G. ∴ Closure law is satisfied.
ii) A( BC ) = A( A) = I ; ( AB)C = (C )C = I ∴ Associative law is satisfied.
iii) I is the identity element.
iv) Inverses of I , A, B are respectively I , A, B, C. ∴ G is a group under matrix multiplication
∴ (G , ⋅) is a group.
v) Since the entries on either side of the leading diagonal are symmetric, (G, ⋅) is an abelian group.
10. If every element of a group G has its own inverse, show that G is abelian
Given a −1 = a, ∀ a, b ∈ G (1)
11. In a group (G, ⋅) if (ab) 2 = a 2b 2 , ∀ a, b ∈ G. Prove that (G, ⋅) is abelian and conversely.
12. { }
Given Q0, the set of non zero rational numbers is a multiplicative group and H = 2 n n ∈ Z , show that H is a subgroup
of Q0 under multiplication.
{ } {
H = 2 n n ∈ Z = ...2 −2 , 2 −1 , 2 0, 21..... }
i) 2 m , 2 n ∈ H , 2 m ⋅ 2 n = 2 m + n ∈ H ∴ closure law is satisfied
ii) (2 m ⋅ 2 n )2 r = 2 m ⋅ (2 n ⋅ 2 r ), ∀ m, n, r ∈ z ie (2 m+ n )2 r = 2 m (2 n + r )
Exercise
1. If N = {1, 2, 3, ....}, which of the following are binary operation of N.
a
(1) a ∗ b = a + 2b ( 2) a ∗ b = 3a − 4b (5) a ∗ b =
b
2. Which of the following operations on the given set are binary
(1) on I, the set of integers, a ∗ b = 3a − 4b
(2) on R, a * b = a 2 − b 2
(3) on R, a ∗ b = ab
6. (
In a group G, ∀ a, b ∈ G, find a −1b −1 )−1
.
7. If the binary operation ∗ on the set Z is defined by a ∗ b = a + b + 5, find the identity element.
8. In the group of non zero integers mod 5. Find the multiplicative inverse of 4.
1 2 3 1 2 3
9. If f = and g = are permutations in S 3 , find f o g .
1 2 3 2 3 1
10. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} w.r.t. multiplication (mod 7), solve the equation 3x = 5 in S.
11. Show that S = {1, 2, 3} under multiplication (mod 4) is not a group.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
12. If f = and g = find gf .
3 4 1 2 2 3 1 4
ab
13. The binary operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = , on set of rational numbers, show that ∗ is associative.
7
ab
14. If ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = , on the set of real numbers, show that ∗ is both commutative and associative.
2
17. On the set of real numbers, R, ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = 2a − 3b + ab, examine whether ∗ is commutative and associative.
18. In the set of rationals except 1, binary operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = a + b − ab. Find the identity and inverse of 2.
ab
19. On the set of positive rational numbers Q + , a ∗ b = , ∀ a, b ∈ Q + . Find the identity element and the inverse of 8.
4
20. In a group of integers, an operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = a + b − 1. Find the identity element.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 33
Scalar : A physical quantity which has only magnitude and no direction is called a 'Scalar'. A
Eg. speed, volume, mass, density, temperature etc.
Vectors are represented by directed line segments. Let AB be the line segment. Vector from A to B is denoted by AB and
vector from B to A is denoted by BA. AB can also be represented by a. The length of AB is magnitude of the vector denoted
as AB or a or simply a. For AB, A is the initial point and B the terminal point.
Co-initial vectors : Vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.
Coplanar vectors : Vectors in the same plane are called 'coplanar vectors'.
Let OA = a & OB = b
Complete the parallelogram OACB.
then OA + AC = OC by triangle law
B C
but AC = OB (parallel vectors)
∴ OC = OA + OB = a + b
b
Note : - AB = OB − OA
& BA = OA − OB
O A
a
34 KSOU Algebraic Structures
Properties
(ii) ( )( )
Vector addition is associative ie a + b + c = a + b + c.
(iii) Set of vectors V, with binary operation vector addition will form a 'Group'. The identity being 0 (null vector) and
inverse of a is − a.
Position vectors
Y
(i) Let P be a point in a plane where O is the origin and OX & OY are co-
ordinate axes. OP is called position vectors of P.
OP = x 2 + y 2
Note :- A plane vector is an ordered pair of real numbers and the distance between O & P is the magnitude of OP.
(ii) Let P be a point in three dimensional space where OX, OY & OZ are co-ordinate axes. Let (x, y, z) be the co-ordinates of
P. Draw PQ ⊥ r to the plane XOY & QA & QB parallel to OY & OX respectives to meet OX at A & OY at B.
j B
OP = OQ + QP (by triang le law) O Y
i
= xi + yj + zk
A
OP = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 Q
= ( x2 − x1 )i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k
O Y
and unit vector in the direction of
( x2 − x1 )i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k
PQ is
( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
If a = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k are two non-zero vectors, then a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a3b3 is defined as 'scalar product'
of two vectors a & b, denoted as a ⋅ b also known as 'dot product'.
i j k
ie a1 a2 a3 is defined as ' vector product' of two vector a & b, denoted as a × b also known as cross product.
b1 b2 b3
i j k
ie a × b = a1 a2 a3 = ∑ (a 2b3 − a3b2 ) i
b1 b2 b3
∴ a × b or − b × a is a null vector, hence two vectors are said to be parallel or coincident if a × b = 0 (null vector)
36 KSOU Algebraic Structures
Note :- N
B
n
b a × b = ab sinθn represent anti - clockwise rotation.
θ
O A
a
B
O θ A
a
− n
Projection of b upon a
B
Let OA = a , OB = b & A OB = θ . Draw BD ⊥ r to OA then OD is the projection of b upon a.
b
a ⋅b
Since a ⋅ b = ab cos θ , cos θ =
ab θ
O A
a D
OD OD
from the ∆le OBD cos θ = =
OB b
a ⋅b
∴ OD = b cos θ = b ⋅
ab
a
= ⋅ b = a ⋅ b
a
further area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are OA & OB is given by
BD
OA ⋅ BD = ab sinθ Q = sinθ but a × b = ab sinθ .
OB
1
and therefore area of ∆le OAB = a×b .
2
1
Also area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are d1 & d 2 is d1 × d 2
2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 37
a1 a2 a3
which is b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Thus a ⋅ (b × c ) or (a × b) ⋅ c
which is 'Scalar Triple Product' which is usually denoted as [ a b c ] also called 'Box-Product'.
∴ OP =
b×c
⋅a =
( )
a ⋅ b×c O
b B
b×c b×c
= b×c
( )
a⋅ b×c
b×c
( )
= a ⋅ b×c = [ abc ]
∴ Volume of parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are given by a, b, c is
a1 a2 a3
[ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
( ) ( ) ( )
a × b× c = a ⋅c b − a ⋅b c
Examples
Solution : a ⋅b = −4 + 15 = 11
2. ( )(
If α = i + 2 j − 3k, β = 3i − j − 2k, find 2α + β ⋅ α + 2 β )
( )( )
Solution : 2α + β ⋅ α + 2 β = (5i + 3 j − 8k ) ⋅ (7i − 7 k ) = 35 + 0 + 56 = 91
3. Prove that the vectors a = 3i − 2 j − k, b = 2i + j − 4k are perpendicular to each other.
4. Find m such that 3i + mj + k and 2i − j − 8k are orthogonal .
Solution : Given a + b = a − b
( )( ) ( )( )
Squaring both the sides, a + b ⋅ a + b = a − b ⋅ a − b
a ⋅ a + a ⋅b + b ⋅a + b ⋅b = a ⋅ a − a ⋅b − b ⋅ a + b⋅b ( )
i.e. 2 a ⋅ b = 0
∴ a ⋅ b = 0 ∴ a is perpendicular to b.
a⋅b −3+3+ 5 5
Solution : Projection of a on b = = = .
b 9 +1+1 11
( )
Solution : Projection of a + c on b =
(a + c)⋅ b = (5i − 3 j + 3k)⋅ (i − 2 j + 2k) = 5 + 6 + 6 = 17
b 1+ 4 + 4 3 3
8. Find the cosine of the angle between vectors a = 4i − 3 j + 3k and b = 2i + j − k
a ⋅b 8−3−3 2
Solution : cosθ = = =
a b 16 + 9 + 9 4 + 1 + 1 34 6
i j k
Solution : a × b = 9 − 1 4 = i(−1 + 4) − j (9 − 32) + k(−9 + 8) = 3i + 23 j − k
8 −1 1
iˆ ˆj kˆ
Solution : a × b = 1 2 2 = iˆ(−4 − 2) − ˆj (−2 − 4) + kˆ(1 − 4) = −6iˆ + 6 ˆj − 3kˆ
2 1 −2
a × b = 36 + 36 + 9 = 81 = 9
11. Find the unit vecto r perpendicular to the pair of vectors a = 6i − 2 j + k and b = 3i + j − 2k
i j k
Solution : Vector perpendicular to a & b is a × b = 6 − 2 1 = i(4 − 1) − j (−12 − 3) + k(6 + 6) = 3i + 15 j + 12k
3 1 −2
12. ( )( ) ( )
Prove that 2a + b × a + 2b = 3 a × b
Solution : a × b + a × c + b × c + b × a + c × a + c × b = a × b + a × c + b × c − a × b − a × c − b × c = 0.
14. Find the sine of the angle between th e vectors a = i + j + k and b = 2i − 3 j + 2k
i j k
Solution : a × b = 1 1 1 = i(2 + 3) − j (2 − 2) + k(−3 − 2) = 5i − 5k , a × b = 5 2 + 5 2 ,
2 −3 2
52 + 52 5 2
∴ sinθ = =
1+1+1 4 + 9 + 4 3 17
Solution : Given a + b + c = 0
( ) ( )
a × a + b + c = a × a + a × b + a × c = 0 ∴ a × b = − a × c [Q a × a = 0 ] ∴ a × b = c × a
Similarly b × a = c × b or c × b = − a × b or a × b = b × c
Similarly c × a = b × c ∴ a × b = b × c = c × a
16. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are a = 3i − 2 j + k and b = i − 3 j + 5k
1
Solution : A = a×b
2
i j k
a × b = 3 − 2 1 = i(−10 + 3) − j (15 − 1) + k(−9 + 2) = −7i − 14 j − 7k
1 −3 5
40 KSOU Algebraic Structures
49 + 196 + 49 294
area = = sq.units
2 2
17. Position v ectors of the points A, B and C are respectively i − j + k, 2i + j − k and 3i − 2 j + k. Find the area of triangle
ABC.
Solution : AB = OB − OA = ( 2i + j − k) − (i − j + k) = i + 2 j − 2k.
i j k
AB × AC = 1 2 − 2 = i(0 − 12 − j (4) + k(−1 − 4) = −2i − 4 j − 5k.
2 −1 0
1 45
area = 4 + 16 + 25 = sq.units
2 2
18. Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a = 3i + 2 j − k and b = i + 2 j + 3k.
i j k
Solution : a × b = 3 2 − 1 = i(6 + 2) − j (9 + 1) + k(6 − 2) = 8i − 10 j + 4k
1 2 3
19. Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are d1 = 3i + j + 2k and d 2 = i − 3 j + 4k.
1
Solution : A = d1 × d 2
2
i j k
d1 × d 2 = 3 1 2 = i(4 + 6) − j (12 − 2) + k(−9 − 1) = 10i − 10 j − 10k
1 −3 4
1 1
d1 × d 2 = 100 + 100 + 100 ; d1 × d 2 = 300 sq.units = 5 3 sq.units.
2 2
20. Find the scalar triple product of vectors a = 2i − j + 3k, b = i + 2 j + 3k and c = 3i + j − k.
2 −1 3
( )
Solution : a ⋅ b × c = 1 2 3 = 2(−2 − 3) + 1(−1 − 9) + 3(1 − 6) = −10 − 10 − 15 = −35.
3 1 −1
1 −1 1
( )
Solution : a ⋅ b × c = 2 − 4 5 = 1(−4 + 25) + 1(2 − 15) + 1(−10 + 12) = 21 − 13 + 2 = 10 cubic units
3 −5 1
2 −3 4
[ ]
Solution : a b c = 1 2 − 1 = 0
λ −1 2
i.e., 2(4 − 1) + 3( 2 + λ ) + 4( −1 − 2λ ) = 0
8
6 + 6 + 3λ − 4 − 8λ = 0 ⇒ 5λ = 8 ; λ = .
5
24. Show that the points A( 4, 5, 1), B(0, − 1, − 1), C (3, 9, 4) and D (−4, 4, 4) are coplanar.
Exercise
1. The position vectors of the points A, B and C are respectively a , b and 2a − 3b. Express vectors BC , AC , AB in terms of
a and b.
2. Position v ectors are A, B, C and D are 2a + 4c, 5a + 3 3 b + 4c, − 2 3 b + c and 2a + c respectively.
3
Show that AB || CD and AB = CD
2
4. Find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c where a = i + 4 j + 2k , b = 3i − 3 j − 2k and c = −2i + 2 j + 6k.
6. Show that the vectors (–1, 2, 3) and (2, –5, 4) are orthogonal.
7. Find the values of λ such that λi − 3 j + k and λi + λj + 2k may be orthogonal .
8. If a and b are unit vecto r show that the vectors a + b and a − b are orthogonal .
13. If a = ( 2, − 1, 3), b = ( −2, 1, 4) and c ≡ ( 2, 1, − 7), find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c.
19. Find the sine of the angle between the vectors 2i − 3 j + k and 3i + j − 2k.
20. Find the unit vecto r perpendicu lar to the vectors 3i + j + 2k and 2i − 2 j + 4k.
21. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose co-terminal edges are represented by a = 2i − 3 j + 4k ; b = i + 2 j − k and
c = 3i + j + 2k.
22. Show that vectors 2i − j + k , i + 2 j − 3k and 3i − 4 j − 5k are coplanar.
23. If the vectors i + 2 j + 5k , 2 i + xj − 10k and 3i + 9 j − 2k are coplanar. find x.
24. Show that points A (2, 3, –1), B (1, –2, 3), C (3, 4, –2) and D (1, –6, 6) are coplanar.
25. Find the scalar tri ple product of, a = i − 2 j + k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + 2 j + k.
26. ( )( ) ( )
Prove that 2a + 3b × a + 4b = 5 a × b
27. Find the area of the triangle whose 2 sides represented by a = i − 3 j − 2k, b = i + 2 j + k.
28. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are i − j + 2k, 2 j + k and j + 3k.
29. Find the area of parallelogram whose diagonals are a = 3i + j − 2k and b = i − 3 j + 4k.
30. ( ) ( )
If a = (1, − 1, 2), b = (1, 2, 3) & c = (3, − 2, 4). Find a × b × c and a × b × c.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 43
∴ PQ = OQ − OP = ( x2 − x1 )i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k
∴ PQ = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
Z
Section Formula
Let R divide PQ in the ratio m : n z 1)
, y 1, R n Q (x2, y2, z2)
x1 m
PR m P(
then =
RQ n
ie n PR = m RQ k
∴ n PR = m RQ O Y
( ) (
ie n OR − OP = m OQ − OR ) i
j
ie n OR − n OP = m OQ − m OR
∴ ( m + n) OR = m OQ + n OP
X
44 KSOU Solid Geometry
m OQ + n OP
∴ OR =
m+n
OQ + OP
If R is the mid - point, then OR =
2
= (l 2 + m 2 + n 2 )r 2
but x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2
∴ l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
∴ l 2 + m2 + n2 = a 2k 2 + b2k 2 + c 2k 2
but l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
∴ (a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )k 2 = 1
1 1
ie k 2 = ∴k=
a +b +c
2 2 2
a + b2 + c2
2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 45
∴ If a, b, c are the direction ratios of any line then direction cosines are
a b c
, ,
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
If P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are any two points in 3-space. The direction ratios of PQ are given by x2 − x1 ,
y 2 − y1 , z 2 − z1 and hence the direction cosines are
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
, ,
( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2 ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2 ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
Note :- Co-ordinates of a unit vector represents the direction cosines of the line of the vector. For any other vectors the co-
ordinates represent the direction ratios.
Examples
1. Find the distance between the points (4, 3, –6) & (–2, 1, –3).
Solution : Let P = ( 4, 3, − 6), Q = ( −2, 1, − 3)
PQ = ( 4 + 2) 2 + (3 − 1) 2 + ( −6 + 3) 2
= 6 2 + 2 2 + ( −3) 2 = 36 + 4 + 9 = 7
2. Show that the points (–2, 3, 5), (1, 2, 3) & (7, 0, –1) are colinear.
Solution : Let A = ( −2, 3, 5), B = (1, 2, 3), C = (7, 0, − 1)
AB = ( −2 − 1) 2 + (3 − 2) 2 + (5 − 3) 2 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14
BC = (1 − 7) 2 + ( 2 − 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 36 + 4 + 16 = 56 = 2 14
AC = (−2 − 7) 2 + (3 − 0) 2 + (5 + 1) 2 = 81 + 9 + 36 = 126 = 3 14
AB + BC = 14 + 2 14 = 3 14 = AC
∴ The points A, B, C are colinear.
Alternate Method
Direction ratios AB are – 2 – 1, 3 – 2, 5 – 3 ie –3, 1, 2
Direction ratios of BC are 1 – 7, 2 – 0, 3 + 1, ie – 6, 2, 4 ie – 3, 1, 2
Direction ratios of AB & BC are same. ∴ A, B & C are colinear.
3. Show that the points (3, 2, 2), (–1, 1, 3), (0, 5, 6), (2, 1, 2) lie on a sphere whose centre is (1, 3, 4).
Find also the radius of the sphere.
Solution : Let the given points be P = (3, 2, 2), Q = ( −1, 1, 3), R = (0, 5, 6) & S = ( 2, 1, 2). Let C = (1, 3, 4) be the centre.
CP = (1 − 3) 2 + (3 − 2) 2 + ( 4 − 2) 2 = 4 + 1 + 4 = 3
CQ = (1 + 1) 2 + (3 − 1) 2 + ( 4 − 3) 2 = 4 + 4 + 1 = 3
CR = (0 − 1) 2 + (5 − 3) 2 + (6 − 4) 2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3
CS = ( 2 − 1) 2 + (1 − 3) 2 + ( 2 − 4) 2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3
46 KSOU Solid Geometry
∴ CP = CQ = CR = CS = 3
∴ P, Q, R & S lie on a sphere & radius is 3.
4. Find the co-ordinates of the point which divide the line joining the points (2, –4, 3) & (–4, 5, –6) in the ratio 2 : 1.
Solution : Let a = ( 2, − 4, 3), b = ( −4, 5, − 6)
2b + a
Point of section is given by
2 +1
2( −4, 5, − 6) + 1( 2, − 4, 3)
=
2 +1
( −8 + 2, 10 − 4, − 12 + 3)
=
3
( −6, 6, − 9)
= = ( −2, 2, − 3)
3
5. Find the co-ordinates of the point which divide the line joining (3, 2, 1) & (1, 3, 2) in the ratio – 2 : 1.
Solution : Let a = (3, 2, 1), b = (1, 3, 2)
− 2b + 1 ⋅ a
Point of section is given by
− 2 +1
− 2(1, 3, 2) + 1(3, 2, 1)
=
−1
( −2, − 6, − 4) + (3, 2, 1)
=
−1
(1, − 4, − 3)
= = ( −1, 4, 3)
−1
6. Find the ratios in which XY plane divides the join of (– 3, 4, – 8) & (5, – 6, 4).
Also obtain the coordinates of the point of section.
Solution : Let a = ( −3, 4, − 8), b = (5, − 6, 4)
Let k : 1 be the ratio.
k b + a 5k − 3 − 6 k + 4 4k − 8
Point of section is given by = , ,
k +1 k +1 k +1 k +1
This point lies on XY plane
4k − 8
∴ = 0 ⇒ 4k = 8 ⇒ k = 2
k +1
7 8
∴ ratio is 2 : 1 and co - ordinates of the point are , − , 0
3 3
Solution : Now 6 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 = 36 + 4 + 9 = 7
6 2 3
∴ direction cosines are , , .
7 7 7
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 47
8. Find the direction cosines of the line joining the points (1, 4, – 3) & (4, 7, – 6).
Solution : Direction ratios of the line joining the points (1, 4, – 3) & (4, 7, – 6) are 4 – 1, 7 – 4, – 6 + 3
ie 3, 3, – 3.
3 3 −3
∴ direction cosines are , ,
9+9+9 9+9+9 9+9+9
3 3 −3 1 1 −1
ie , , ie , , .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Let AO B = θ B
Let a = OA = l1i + m1 j + n1k, b = OB = l 2 i + m2 j + n2 k , n2
l 2, m
2
Note :- Two lines will be parallel if direction cosines of the two lines are same or if the direction ratios are proportional.
The Plane
To find the equation of the plane passing through the point
Normal to
(x1, y1, z1) and having a, b, c as the direction ratios of the normal
the Plane
to the plane.
Let A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be a point in the plane. P (x, y, z)
Let P( x, y, z ) be any point in the plane then direction ratios of AP ne
Pla A (x1, y1, z1)
are given by x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 as this is perpendicular to the normal
to the plane, we have
a ( x − x1 ) + b( y − y1 ) + c( z − z1 ) = 0
ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d = 0 (2)
ie a ( kx2 + x1 ) + b( ky 2 + y1 ) + c( kz 2 + z1 ) + d ( k + 1) = 0
kx + x ky 2 + y1 kz 2 + z1
This shows that the point whose coordinates are 2 1 , ,
k +1 k +1 k +1
satisfy the equation ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Thus every point on the line joining P & Q lie on the locus. ∴ The equation represents the plane.
To find the length of the perpendicular from (x1, y1, z1) upon the plane ax + by + cy + d = 0.
Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the given point & PA is the length of the
P (x1, y1, z1)
perpendicular on the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Let Q( x, y, z ) be any point in the plane, AP is the projection
of QP upon the normal to the plane if n is the unit normal vector
of the plane then
ai + bj + ck
n = Q (x, y, z) A
a +b +c
2 2 2
( )
AP = QP ⋅ n = ( x1 − x )i + ( y1 − y ) j + ( z1 − z ) k ⋅ n
a( x1 − x) + b( y1 − y ) + c( z1 − z )
=
a2 + b2 + c2
Note :- Two points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) & ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) lie on the same side or on opposite sides of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
according as ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d & ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d are of same sign or of opposite signs.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 49
Let p represents length of the ⊥ r from the origin upon the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
d
then p =
a + b2 + c2
2
lx + my + nz = p where l , m, n are the direction cosines of the normal to the plane, is taken as the normal equation of
the plane.
d
( a, o, o) lies on the plane ∴αa + d = 0 ∴α = −
a
d
(o, b, o) lies on the plane ∴ βb + d = 0 ⇒ β = −
b
d
(o, o, c) lies on the plane ∴ γc + d = 0 ⇒ γ = −
c
d d d
∴ equation of the plane is − x− y− z+d =0
a b c
x y z
ie − − − +1 = 0
a b c
x y z
ie + + = 1 is the equation of the plane in the intercept form.
a b c
Examples
(1) Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 2, 3) and having the vector n = 2i − j + 3k as normal.
Solution : Direction ratios of the normal to the planes are 2, –1, 3
∴ equation to the plane is
2( x − 1) − 1( y − 2) + 3( z − 3) = 0
ie 2 x − 2 − y + 2 + 3 z − 9 = 0
ie 2 x − y + 3 z − 9 = 0
50 KSOU Solid Geometry
(2) Find the equation of the plane through the point (2, 1, 0) and perpendicular to the planes 2 x − y − z = 5 and
x + 2 y − 3y = 5
Solution : Equation of the plane through t he point (2, 1, 0) is a ( x − 2) + b( y − 1) + c( z − 0) = 0
This plane is ⊥ r to 2 x − y − z = 5
∴ 2a − b − c = 0 (1)
from (1), 2a − a − c = 0 ⇒ a = c
∴ a=b=c
∴ Equation of the plane is a ( x − 2) + b( y − 1) + c( z − 0) = 0
ie x − 2 + y − 1 + z + 0 = 0
ie x + y + z = 3.
(3) Find the equation of the plane through (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the plane 4 x + 5 y − 3z = 7.
Solution : Equation of the plane parallel to 4 x + 5 y − 3z = 7 can be taken as 4 x + 5 y − 3 z = k where k is a constant. The plane
passes through (1, 2, 3)
∴ 4(1) + 5( 2) − 3(3) = k ie 4 + 10 − 9 = k ∴ k = 5
(4) Find the ⊥ r distance of the point (3, 2, 1) from the plane passing through the points (1, 1, 0), (3, – 1, 1) & (–1, 0, 2)
Solution : Let P = (3, 2, 1) & A = (1, 1, 0), B = (3, − 1, 1), C = ( −1, 0, 2)
AB = 2i − 2 j + k
AC = −2i − j + 2k
ˆj kˆ
iˆ
∴ AB × AC = 2 − 2 1
− 2 −1 2
(5) Show that the four points (0, –1, 0), (2, 1, –1), (1, 1, 1) & (3, 3, 0) are coplanar. Find the equation of the plane.
ie ax + by + cz + b = 0
( 2, 1, − 1) lies on it
∴ 2a + b − c + b = 0
ie 2a + 2b − c = 0 (1)
(1, 1, 1) lies on it
∴ a + 2b + c = 0 (2)
a b c
from (1) & (2) = =
2 + 2 −1 − 2 4 − 2
a b c
ie = =
4 −3 2
∴ Equation of the plane is 4( x − 0) − 3( y + 1) + 2( z − 0) = 0
ie 4 x − 3 y + 2 z − 3 = 0.
Consider D = (3, 3, 0)
it can be seen that it lies on the plane. ∴ the given points are coplanar.
−6+5 −1 1
= = =
6 6 6
1
∴ distance between parallel planes is
6
2+ 2−3 1 1 1
= = = =
1+ 4 + 9 4 +1+1 14 6 7×2 2×3 2 21
1
∴ θ = cos −1
2 21
52 KSOU Solid Geometry
(8) Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes x + y + z = 1 and 2 x + 3 y − z + 4 = 0
and perpendicular to the plane 2 y − 3 z = 4
Solution : Equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the given two planes can be taken as
( x + y + z − 1) + λ ( 2 x + 3 y − z + 4) = 0
where λ is a constant.
ie (1 + 2λ ) x + (1 + 3λ ) y + (1 − λ ) z − 1 + 4λ = 0
this plane is ⊥ r to 2 y − 3z = 4
ie 2 + 6λ − 3 + 3λ = 0
1
ie 9λ = 1 ⇒ λ =
9
1
∴ Equation of plane is ( x + y + z + 1) + ( 2 x + 3 y − z + 4) = 0
9
ie 9 x + 9 y + 9 z − 9 + 2 x + 3 y − z + 4 = 0
ie 11x + 12 y + 8 z − 5 = 0
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 O
∴ = =
l m n
represent two equations of the line. This is called Symmetric form of the equation
of the line.
3. If a, b, c are the direction ratios of the line passing through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), then equations of the line are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
a b c
If the line passes through the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) & ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , then the direction ratios of the line are x2 − x1 , y 2 − y1 ,
z 2 − z1
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
∴ its equations are = =
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 53
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
4. To find the angle between the line = = and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.
l m n
Solution : If θ is the normal angle between the line and the plane N o rm a l
90° − θ is the angle between the line and the normal to
e
the plane. L in
la + mb + nc
∴ cos(90° − θ ) = q
l 2 + m2 + n2 a2 + b2 + c2 º
90
q
la + mb + nc
∴ sinθ = .
a2 + b2 + c2 P lan e
l m n
If the line is perpendicular to the plane then = =
a b c
Examples
x −1 y + 2 3 −1
(1) Show that the line = = is parallel to the plane 2 x + 2 y − z = 6 and find the distance between them.
3 −2 2
Solution : Direction ratios of the normal to the plane 2 x + 2 y − z = 6 are 2, 2, − 1
Direction ratios of the given line are 3, –2, 2
Now 2(3) + 2(– 2) – 1(2) = 6 – 4 – 2 = 0.
(2) Find the equation of the line through (1, 2, – 1) perpendicular to each of the lines
x y z x y z
= = and = = .
1 0 −1 3 4 5
Solution : Let a, b, c be the direction ratios of the required line.
Then a + o − c = 0 & 3a + 4b + 5c = 0.
a b c
∴ = =
0+ 4 −3−5 4−0
a b c a b c
ie = = ie = =
4 −8 4 1 −2 1
x −1 y − 2 3 +1
∴ equations of the required line are = = .
1 −2 1
x +1 y z − 3
(3) Find the angle between the line = = and the plane 3 x + y + z = 7.
2 3 6
Solution : If θ is the angle between line and the plane, then
54 KSOU Solid Geometry
15
∴ θ = sin −1
7 11
x−2 y+3 z
(4) Find the perpendicular distance of the point (1, 1, 1) from the line = =
2 2 −1
Solution : Let A( 2, − 3, 0) is a point on the line & P(1, 1, 1) be the given point
∴ AP = 1 + 16 + 1 = 18 = 3 2 1, 1)
P (1 ,
AP = OP − OA = −i + 4 j + k
(2i + 2 j − k)
Projection of AP on the line = AQ = (−i + 4 j + k) ⋅
4 + 4 +1
e
− 2 + 8 −1 5 l in
= = Q
3 3
–3 , 0)
25 162 − 25 137
∴ PQ 2 = AP 2 − AQ 2 = 18 − = = A (2 ,
9 9 9
137
∴ PQ =
3
Alternate Method
x−2 y+3 z
Let = = =r
2 2 −1
any point on the line is ( 2r + 2, 2r − 3, − r )
direction ratios of the line joining this point & the point (1, 1, 1) are 2r + 1, 2r − 4, − r − 1
10 10 −5 28 − 17 − 5
∴ Co - ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular are + 2, − 3, ie , ,
9 9 9 9 9 9
2 2 2
28 − 17 − 5 28 − 17 − 5
Distance between , , & (1, 1, 1) is − 1 + − 1 + − 1
9 9 9 9 9 9
19 2 + 26 2 + 14 2 9 × 137 137
= = =
9 9 3
2r + 1 + 1 − r + 3 + 3 r + 4 + 4
, ,
2 2 2
− r + 6 r +8
ie r + 1, , this point lie on the plane
2 2
−r +6 r +8
∴ 2( r + 1) − + +3 = 0
2 2
ie 4r + 4 + r − 6 + r + 8 + 6 = 0
ie 6r = −12 ⇒ r = −2
Q
∴ Q = ( −4 + 1, 2 + 3, − 2 + 4) = ( −3, 5, 2)
∴ Image of (1, 3, 4) in the given plane is ( −3, 5, 2)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
(6) To find the condition for two lines = = and = = to intersect (or to be
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
coplanar) and to find the equation of the plane.
Solution : The equation of the plane containing the first line is given by a ( x − x1 ) + b( y − y1 ) + c( z − z1 ) = 0 (1)
where al1 + bm1 + cn1 = 0 (2)
the second line will lie in the plane if al 2 + bm2 + cn2 = 0 (3)
and ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) satisfy (1)
ie a ( x2 − x1 ) + b( y 2 − y1 ) + c( z 2 − z1 ) = 0 (4)
eliminating a, b, c from (2), (3) & (4)
x2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
We get l1 m1 n1 = 0
l2 m2 n2
which is the required condition for coplanarity of two lines.
Equation to the plane is by eliminating a, b, c from (1), (2) & (3)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
ie l1 m1 n1 = 0
l2 m2 n2
is the required equation of the plane.
Exercise
1. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (– 2, 2, 2) and containing the line joining the points (1, 1, 1) &
(1, – 1, 2).
( Ans : x − 3 y − 6 z + 8 = 0)
2. Show that the points (– 6, 3, 2), (3, – 2, 4), (5, 7, 3) and (– 13, 17, – 1) are coplanar.
3. Find the equation of the plane through the points (2, 2, 1) and (9, 3, 6) and perpendicular to the plane 2 x + 6 y + 6 z = 9
( Ans : 3 x + 4 y − 5 z = 0)
56 KSOU Solid Geometry
4. Find the equation of the plane through the points whose position vectors are 3i − j + k, i + 2 j − k and i + j + k
( Ans : 2 x + 2 y + z = 5)
5. Find the equation of the plane through the points (2, 2, 1), (1, – 2, 3) and parallel to the joining the points (2, 1, – 3),
(– 1, 5, – 8)
( Ans : 12 x − 11 y − 16 z + 14 = 0)
x − 1 y − 3 z − 13
6. Find the equation of the plane which contains the line = = and is perpendicular to the plane
2 1 2
x + y + z = 3.
( Ans : x − z + 12 = 0)
x −1 y − 4 z − 4 x +1 y −1 z + 2
7. Find the equation of the plane through the line = = and parallel to the line = =
3 2 −2 3 −4 1
( Ans : 2 x + 3 y + 6 z = 38)
x −1 y − 2 z − 3 x−2 y −3 z −4
8. Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar and find the equation of the plane
2 3 4 3 4 5
containing them.
( Ans : x − 2 y + z = 0)
x+3 y+5 z −7 x +1 y +1 z +1
9. Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar and find the equation of the plane
2 3 −3 4 5 −1
containing them.
( Ans : 6 x − 5 y − z = 0)
8− y
10. Show that the line x + 10 = = z lies in the plane x + 2 y + 3 z = 6.
2
11. Find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (–1, –3, 2) upon the plane 3x + 4 y + 5 z = 5 .
2 11
Ans : − , − , 3
5 5
x − 4 y + 3 z +1 x − 1 y + 1 z + 10
12. Prove that the lines = = and = = intersect and find the co-ordinates of the point of
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
intersection.
[Ans : (5, − 7, 6)]
Sphere
Definition :- A Sphere is the locus of a point which remains at a constant distance from a fixed point in three dimension.
The fixed point is the centre and constant distance is called radius.
Equation of the sphere whose centre is at (x1, y1, z1) and radius r is given by
( x − x1 ) 2 + ( y − y1 ) 2 + ( z − z1 ) 2 = r 2
ie ( x + u) 2 − u 2 + ( y + v) 2 − v 2 + ( z + w) 2 − w 2 + d = 0
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 57
ie ( x + u ) 2 + ( y + v) 2 + ( z + w) 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d
which represents a sphere whose centre is (–u, –v, –w) and radius is u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d
Then AB 2 = AC 2 − BC 2 = R 2 − p 2
B r A
∴ radius of the small circle is AB = R 2 − p 2
Then the equation of the sphere passing through the circle is S + λP = 0 where λ is a constant.
represents two spheres then the equation of the circle common to S1 = 0 & S 2 = 0 is S1 − S 2 = 0
AP is ⊥ r to PB. B (x 2, y 2, z 2)
(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) A
Direction ratios of AP are
x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1
Since AP is ⊥ r to PB,
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y 2 ) + ( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ) = 0.
4. To find the equation of the tangent plane at ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
Let Q( x, y, z ) be any point in the tangent plane then direction ratios of PQ are x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 and direction
ratios of PC are x1 + u , y1 + v, z1 + w where C is the centre of the sphere.
58 KSOU Solid Geometry
As PQ is ⊥ r to PC, we have
( x − x1 )( x1 + u ) + ( y − y1 )( y1 + v) + ( z − z1 )( z1 + w) = 0
5. To find the condition for two spheres to cut orthogonally (ie. the tangents plane at a point of intersection are at right
angles).
Let C1 & C 2 be the centres of two spheres whose radii
are r1 & r2 . P is point of intersection. P
Let the spheres be r1 r2
S1 : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u1x + 2v1 y + 2w1z + d1 = 0
C1 C2
S1 : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2u 2 x + 2v 2 y + 2w2 z + d 2 = 0 ( −u 1 , −y 1 , −w 1 ) ( −u 2 , −y 2 , −w 2 )
Now C1 Pˆ C 2 = 90° ∴ C1C12 = r12 + r22
Note :- If ax 2 + ay 2 + az 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 be the given equation then it can be reduced to the standard form as
2u 2v 2w d
x2 + y2 + z2 + x+ y+ z+ =0
a a a a
Examples
1. Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is at (2, –3, 4) and radius 3 units.
Solution : The required equation is ( x − 2) 2 + ( y + 3) 2 + ( z − 4) 2 = 32
ie x 2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 + 6 y + 9 + z 2 − 8 y + 16 − 9 = 0
ie x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x + 6 y − 8 z + 20 = 0
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 59
3
2. Find the centre and radius of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x + 4 y − 3 z − =0
4
3
Solution : Comparing with standard equation 2u = −6, 2v = 4, 2 w = −3, d = −
4
3
∴ u = −3, v = 2, w = −
2
3
∴ Centre = ( −u , − v, − w) = 3, − 2,
2
9 3 9+3
radius r = 9 + 4 + + = 13 + = 16 = 4.
4 4 4
3. Find the equation of the sphere whose diameter is the line joining the points (4, 0, –2) and (0, 3, 1).
Solution : Required equation is of the form ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y 2 ) + ( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ) = 0
∴ Required equation is ( x − 4)( x − 0) + ( y − 0)( y − 3) + ( z + 2)( z − 1) = 0
ie x 2 − 4 x + y 2 − 3 y + z 2 + z − 2 = 0
ie x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x − 3 y + z − 2 = 0
4. Find the equation of the sphere through the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9, 2 x + 3 y + 4 z = 5 and the point (1, 2, 3).
1
ie 5 + λ (15) = 0 ⇒ λ = −
3
1
∴ Equation of the sphere is ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 9) − ( 2 x + 3 y + 4 z − 5)
3
ie 3x 2 + 3 y 2 + 3z 2 − 27 − 2 x − 3 y − 4 z + 5 = 0
ie 3x 2 + 3 y 2 + 3z 2 − 2 x − 3 y − 4 z − 22 = 0
5. Find the equation of the sphere for which the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 3 x + 4 y − 2 z − 5 = 0, 5 x − 2 y + 4 z + 7 = 0 is a great
circle.
1 1 1
Centre of this sphere is − ( −3 + 5λ ), − ( 4 − 2λ ), − ( −2 + 4λ )
2 2 2
Circle will be a great circle if the centre lies on the plane.
5
∴ − ( −3 + 5λ ) + ( 4 − 2λ ) − 2( −2 + 4λ ) + 7 = 0
2
15 25
ie − λ + 4 − 2λ + 4 − 8λ + 7 = 0
2 2
45 45
ie − λ+ = 0 ⇒ λ =1
2 2
60 KSOU Solid Geometry
ie x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z + 2 = 0.
6. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere 3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 2 x − 3 y − 4 z − 22 = 0 at the point (1, 2, 3)
2 4 22
Solution : Equation of the sphere is x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − x− y− z− =0
3 3 3
1 1 2 22
Tangent plane at (1, 2, 3) is x(1) + y (2) + z (3) − ( x + 1) − ( y + 2) − ( z + 3) − =0
3 2 3 3
1 1 y 2z 22
ie x + 2 y + 3 z − x − − − 1 − −2− =0
3 3 2 3 3
multiply through out by 6
6 x + 12 y + 18z − 2 x − 2 − 3 y − 6 − 4 z − 12 − 44 = 0
ie 4 x + 9 y + 14 z − 64 = 0
8. Show that the plane 2 x − 2 y + z + 12 = 0 touches the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 4 y + 2 z = 3 and find the point of
contact.
Solution : Let C be the centre of the sphere, then C = (1, 2, –1).
Length of the ⊥ r from C upon the plane
2 − 4 − 1 + 12 9
2 x − 2 y + z + 12 = 0 is = = 3. P
4 + 4 +1 3
Let P be the point of Contact then CP is ⊥ r to the plane.
∴ Equation to CP can be taken as
x −1 y − 2 z +1
= = = r (say)
2 −2 1
C (1 , 2, −1 )
∴ Co - ordinates of P can be taken as ( 2r + 1, − 2r + 2, r − 1)
This will lie in the plane if 2( 2r + 1) − 2( −2r + 2)(r − 1) + 12 = 0
ie 4r + 2 + 4r − 4 + r − 1 + 12 = 0
9 r + 9 = 0 ⇒ r = −1
∴ Co - ordinates of P are ( −2 + 1, 2 + 2, − 1 − 1) = ( −1, 4, − 2)
∴ Point of contact is ( −1, 4, − 2)
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 61
V (Ve rtex )
A C
B
a
axis
G e ne rato r
a x is
a
A B
C
V (Ve rtex )
Examples
(1) Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is at the origin, semi-vertical angle is α and having axis of Z as
its axis. Z
Solution : Let P( x, y, z ) be any point on the generator, OZ is
the axis whose direction cosines are 0, 0, 1.
Direction ratios of OP are x, y, z P (x , y , z )
a xis
x ⋅ 0 + y ⋅ 0 + z ⋅1 z
∴ cos α = =
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ⋅1 x2 + y2 + z2
Squaring both sides
a
z2
cos α =
2
x2 + y2 + z2 V (0 , 0, 0 )
Y
∴ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = z 2 sec 2 α
ie x 2 + y 2 = z 2 (sec2 α − 1) = z 2 tan2 α
3( x − 2) + 4( y − 1) − 1( z + 3)
∴ cos 30° =
( x − 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z + 3) 2 9 + 16 + 1
3 3x + 4 y − z − 6 − 4 − 3
ie =
2 ( x − 2) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 + ( z + 3) 2 26
62 KSOU Solid Geometry
Examples
(1) Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius 2 units, whose axis passes through (1, 2, 3) and has direction
ratios 2, –3, 6.
Solution : Let P( x, y , z ) be any point on the generator and
A(1, 2, 3) be the given point on the axis.
Now AP 2 = AQ 2 + PQ 2
2
2 x − 3 y + 6 z − 14
∴ ( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 + ( z − 3) 2 = +4
7
ie 49[( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 + ( z − 3) 2 ] = [2 x − 3 y + (6 z − 14)]2 + 196
x −1 y z − 3
(2) Find the equation of the right circular cylinder of radius 3 units and axis given by = =
2 3 1
Solution : Let A(1, 0, 3) be a point on the axis, Let P ( x, y, z ) be a point on the generator
AP = ( x − 1)i + ( y − 0) j + ( z − 3) k
)
x, y, z
Draw PQ ⊥ to the axis
r
P (
2( x − 1) + 3 y + 1( z − 3)
AQ = Projection of AP on AQ = & PQ = 3
4 + 9 +1 s
axi
Now AP 2 = AQ 2 + PQ 2 Q
(2 x + 3 y + z − 5) 2 0,
3)
∴ ( x − 1) 2 + y 2 + ( z − 3) 2 = +3 (1 ,
14 A
ie 14[( x − 1) + y + ( z − 3) = (2 x + 3 y + z − 5) + 42
2 2 2 2
ie 14[ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 6 z + 10] = 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 + ( z − 5) 2 + 12 xy + 6 y ( z − 5) + 4 x( z − 5) + 42
ie 10 x 2 + 5 y 2 + 13z 2 − 12 xy − 6 yz − 4 xz − 8x + 30 y − 74z + 73 = 0
is the equation of the right circular cone.
Exercise
(1) Find the equation of the sphere through the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x + 3 y + 6 = 0, x − 2 y + 4 z = 9 and passing through
the centre of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x + 4 y − 6 z + 5 = 0
(Ans : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 7 y − 8 z + 24 = 0)
(2) Obtain the equation of the sphere having the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 10 y − 4 z − 8 = 0, x + y + z = 3 as the great cirlce.
(Ans : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x + 6 y − 8 z + 4 = 0)
(3) Find the equation of the sphere passing through the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 3 y + 4 z + 8 = 0, x − 2 y + z = 8 and having
its centre on the plane 4 x − 5 y − z = 3
(Ans : 13( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 35x − 21y + 43z + 176 = 0)
(4) Obtain the equation of the sphere whose centre is on the line 2 x − 3 y = 0 = 5 y + 2 z and passing through two points
(0, –2, –4), (2, –1, –1)
(Ans : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x − 4 y + 10 z + 12 = 0)
(5) Find the value of a for which the plane x + y + z = a 3 touches the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 2 y − 2 z − 6 = 0
(Ans : 3 ±3 )
(6) Find the equations of the spheres passing through the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x − 2 z + 5 = 0, y = 0 and touching the
plane 3 y + 4 z + 5 = 0
(Ans : 4( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 24x − 11y + 8 z + 20 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x − 4 y − 2 z + 5 = 0)
64 KSOU Solid Geometry
(7) Find the equations of two spheres which pass through the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x + 2 y + 4 z − 3 = 0, 2 x + y + z = 4 and
touch the plane 3x + 4 y = 14
(Ans : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x + 2 y + 4 z − 3 = 0 and x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x + 4 y + 6 z − 11 = 0)
(8) Find the equation if the right circular cone which passes through the point (1, 1, 2) and has its vertex at the origin and
x y z
the line = = as axis.
2 −4 3
(Ans : 4 x 2 + 40 y 2 + 19 z 2 − 48 xy − 72 yz + 36 xz = 0)
(9) Find the equation of the right circular cone with the vertex (1, –2, –1), semi-vertical angle 60º and the line
x −1 y + 2 z +1
= = as its axis.
3 −4 5
(Ans : 7 x 2 − 7 y 2 − 25z 2 + 48xy + 80 yz − 60 zx + 22 x + 4 y + 170z + 78 = 0)
(10) Find the equation of the circular cylinder having for its base the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9, x − y + z = 3.
(Ans : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + xy + yz − zx = 9)
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 65
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Limits of functions
x 2 −1
Consider y = f ( x) = the function is defined for all values of x except for x = 1.
x −1
1 −1 0
∴ for x = 1, f ( x) = = which is indeterminate.
1 −1 0
Let us consider the values of f (x) as x approaches 1
x 2 −1
x f ( x) =
x −1
.9 1.9
.99 1.99
.999 1.999
1.01 2.01
1.001 2.001
1.0001 2.0001
x −1
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 x2 −1
This value 2 is called " Limit of as x approaches 1" which can be written as lim or Lt = 2.
x −1 x →1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1
In general the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a is denoted as l and which is written as
lim f ( x) = l or Lt f ( x) = l
x→a x →a
Properties
(1) lim[ f ( x) ± g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x)
x →a x →a x→a
(2) lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) lim g ( x) in particular lim kf ( x) = k ⋅ lim f ( x) where k is a contant
x →a x →a x →a x →a x →a
f ( x) xlim f ( x)
(3) lim = →a provided lim g ( x) ≠ 0.
x→ a g ( x) lim g ( x) x →a
x→a
Standard Limits
xn − an
(1) lim = na n −1
x→a x−a
66 KSOU Differential Calculus
sinθ tanθ
(2) lim = 1 (θ in radians) also lim =1
θ →0 θ θ→ 0 θ
n
1 1
(3) lim 1 + = e 2 < e < 3 or lim(1 + x) x = e
n →∞ n x →0
a x −1 e x −1
(4) lim = log e a ( a > 0) in particular lim = 1.
x →0 x x →0 x
Examples
x2 + 4x + 3 0+0+3 3
(1) lim = =
x →0 x − 5x + 4
2
0−0+4 4
3 4
+ 2−
(2) lim 2
2 x 2 − 3x + 4
(dividing Nr & Dr by x 2 ) = lim
x x2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2
x →∞ 3 x + 2 x + 1 x →∞ 2
3+ +
1 3+0+0 3
x x2
x 4 − 81 x 4 − 34
(3) lim = lim = 4(3) 3 = 108
x →3 x − 3 x →3 x − 3
x7 + a7 x 7 − (−a) 7
x +a
7 7
x − (−a) 7( − a ) 6
= lim 5x + a 5 = lim
7
(4) lim 5
= = a2
x →− a x 5 + a 5 x →− a x + a x →− a x − (−a) 5
5 − (−a) 4
5
x+a x − (−a)
sin 7 x sin 7 x
(5) lim = lim × 7 = 1× 7 = 7
x →0 x x →0 x
1 − cos 2θ 2 sin 2 θ
(6) lim = lim =2
θ →0 θ2 θ →0 θ2
tan3 x
−1
tan3 x − x x 3 −1
(7) lim (dividing Nr & Dr by x) = lim = =1
x →0 3 x − sin x x →0 sin x 3 −1
3−
x
ab
b 1
(8) lim(1 + ax) x = lim (1 + ax)
ax = e ab
x →0 x →0
3
n n
3 3 3
(9) lim 1 + = lim 1 + = e3
n →∞ n n →∞ n
−2
1 −
1
(10) lim(1 − 2 x) x = lim (1 − 2 x) 2 x = e −2
x →0 x →0
ax − bx ( a x − x ) − (b x − x ) ax − x bx − x a
(11) lim = lim = lim − lim = log e a − log e b = log e
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x b
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 67
2x −1
2 −1
x
log e 2
(12) lim = lim x = = log e 2
x →0 sin x x →0 sin x 1
x
Continuity of a function
A function f ( x) is said to be continuous at x = a if lim f ( x) = f (a)
x →a
∴ A function f ( x) is said to be continuous if lim f ( x) exists, f (a) exists and they are equal.
x→0
If these donot happen then the function is said to be not continuous or discontinuous.
A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at all points in the interval.
Examples
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 0
(1) f ( x) = is not continuous at x = 1 Q lim = 2 exists but f (0) = donot exists.
x −1 x →1 x −1 0
where as it is continuous at all other values of x.
4 x + 3 for x ≥ 4
(2) Discuss the continuity of function f ( x) = at x = 4.
3x + 7 for < 4
Solution : While finding the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a, if we consider the limit of the function as x approaches
a from left hand side, the limit is called 'Left Hand Limit' (LHL) and if x approaches a from right hand side the
limit is called 'Right Hand Limit' (RHL) and the limit of the function is said to exists if both LHL & RHL exists
and are equal, for convenience LHL & RHL are denoted as lim− f ( x) and lim+ f ( x) and further
x →a x →a
and f ( 4) = 19
∴ The function is continuous at x = 4
sin x
for x ≠ 0
(3) Examine the continuity of f ( x) = x at x = 0.
2 for x = 0
sin x
Solution : lim = 1, but f (0) = 2
x →0 x
∴ The function is discontinuous at x = 0.
5 x − 4 for 0 < x ≤ 1
(4) Examine the continuity of the function f ( x) = 4 x 2 − 2 x for 1 < x < 2
4 x + 4 for x ≥ 2
at x = 1 and x = 2.
68 KSOU Differential Calculus
LHL ≠ RHL at x = 1
and f (2) = 4 × 2 + 4 = 12
∴ lim f ( x) = f (2)
x →2
Differentiability of a function
f ( a + h) − f ( a )
A function f ( x) is said to be differentiable at a point a if lim exists and the derivative is denoted as f '( a ).
h →0 h
f ( x + δx ) − f ( x )
A function f ( x) is said to be differentiable at x if lim exists and the derivative is denoted as f '( x).
δx
δx →0
To find the derivates of xn, loge x, ax, sin x, cos x and a constant C with respect to x.
dy ( x + δx ) n − x n
(1) Let y = x n , = lim = nx n −1
dx δx →0 x + δx − x
Eg. (i)
d 7
dx
( )
x = 7 x 6 , (ii )
d −4
dx
( )
x = −4 x − 5 (iii)
d 94
dx
( )
9 9 1 9 5
x = x 4− = x 4
4 4
(iv)
dx
x ( )
d − 53 5 5 1
3
5 8
= − x− 3− = − x− 3
3
( v)
d
dx
( x )= 2 1 x
dy log e ( x + δx ) − log e x
(2) Let y = log e x then = lim
dx δx →0 δx
x
1 x x + δx 1 δx δx 1 1
= lim ⋅ log = lim ⋅ log1 + = log e e = .
δx →0 x δx x δx →0 x x x x
(3) Let y = a x
dy a x + δx − a x ( a δx − 1) d x
= lim = lim a x = a x log e a ( a > 0) in particular (e ) = e x
dx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx dx
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 69
x + δx + x x + δx − x δx
2 cos sin sin
2 2 δx 2 = cos( x + 0) ⋅1 = sin x.
= lim = lim cos x + ⋅
δx →0 δx δx →0 2 δx
2
(5) Let y = cos x
dy cos( x + δx ) − cos x
= lim
dx δx →0 δx
δx
sin
δx 2 = − sin(x + 0) ⋅1 = − sin x.
= lim − sin x + ⋅
δx →0 2 δx
2
dy c−c
(6) Let y = c (a constant) = lim =0
dx δ x →0 δx
Thus derivative of a constant is zero.
ax a x log e a
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
constant zero
dy du dv
ie = +
dx dx dx
dy du dv dw
Note : - If y = u + v − w then = + −
dx dx dx dx
dy d 6 d d
Eg. (1) If y = x 6 + sin x − cos x then = ( x ) + (sin x) − (cos x)
dx dx dx dx
= 6 x 5 + cos x − (− sin x) = 6 x 5 + cos x + sin x.
dy 1
( 2) If y = 3 x − log e x + c then = 3 x log e 3 − + 0.
dx x
II Product Rule
dy
If y = uv where u & v are functions of x then to find .
dx
Give a small increment δx to x, let the corresponding increments in u , v & y be δu , δv & δy respectively.
∴ δy = y + δy − y = uδv + vδu + δu ⋅ δv
divide through out by δx,
δy δv δu δv
=u +v + δu ⋅
δx δx δx δx
take limit on both sides as δx → 0,
δy δv δu δv
then lim = u lim + v lim + lim δu ⋅
δx →0 δx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx
dy dv du dv
ie =u +v +o
dx dx dx dx
dy dv du
ie =u +v
dx dx dx
dy dv
Note (1) If y = kv where k is a constant then =k
dx dx
dy dw dv du
( 2) If y = uvw, then = uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx dx
3 dy 3 d d 3
Eg. (1) If y = x 2 sin x then =x 2 (sin x) + sin x x 2
dx dx dx
3 3 12
=x 2 cos x + sin x ⋅ x
2
dy
( 2) If y = 8 cos x then = −8 sin x
dx
dy d d d
(3) If y = e x sin x ⋅ log x then = e x sin x (log x) + e x log x ⋅ (sin x) + sin x ⋅ log x (e x )
dx dx dx dx
1
= e x sin x ⋅ + e x log x ⋅ cos x + sin x ⋅ log x ⋅ e x .
x
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 71
u + δu
then y + δy =
v + δv
u + δu u v(u + δu ) − u (v + δv) vu + vδu − uv − uδv
∴ δy = − = =
v + δv v v ( v + δv ) v ( v + δv )
divide through out by δx
δu δv
v −u
δy
= δx δx
δx v ( v + δv )
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
ie =
dx v2
This rule can be easily remembered in the following manner
u Nr
If y = = (say)
v Dr
dy Dr (derivative of Nr ) − Nr (derivative of Dr )
Then =
dx ( Dr ) 2
k dy k dv
Note : - If y = where k is a constant then =− 2
v dx v dx
sin x
Eg. (1) If y = tan x =
cos x
d d
cos x (sin x) − sin x (cos x)
dy dx dx
then =
dx cos 2 x
cos x ⋅ cos x − sin x( − sin x) cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1
= = = = sec 2 x.
cos x
2
cos x
2
cos 2 x
dy
∴ If y = tan x, then = sec 2 x.
dx
cos x
( 2) If y = cot x =
sin x
dy sin x( − sin x) − cos x(cos x)
then =
dx sin 2 x
− sin 2 x − cos 2 x −1
= = = −cosec 2 x.
sin x
2
sin 2 x
72 KSOU Differential Calculus
dy
∴ If y = cot x, then − cosec 2 x.
dx
1
(3) If y = sec x =
cos x
dy 1 d
then =− ⋅ (cos x)
dx cos x
2
dx
1 1 1 sin x
=− ( − sin x) = (sin x ) = ⋅ = sec x tan x.
cos x
2
cos x cos x cos x
dy
∴ If y = sec x, then = sec x tan x.
dx
1
( 4) If y = cosec x =
sin x
dy 1
then = − 2 ⋅ cos x
dx sin x
1 cos x
=− ⋅ = −cosec x ⋅ cot x.
sin x sin x
dy
∴ If y = cosec x, then = −cosec x ⋅ cot x.
dx
x 2 −1
(4) If y = tan 2
x +1
dy x2 −1 d x2 −1
then = sec 2 2 2
dx x + 1 dx x + 1
x 2 − 1 ( x 2 + 1)(2 x ) − ( x 2 − 1)2 x 2
x − 1 × 2 x( x + 1 − x + 1)
2 2 2
= sec 2 2 × = sec
x2 +1
x +1 ( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x 2 + 1) 2
x 2 −1 4x
= sec 2 2
x + 1 × ( x 2 + 1) 2
dy d d e x + e−x e x − e−x
then = (sinh x) = = = cosh x.
dx dx dx 2
2
( 2) If y = cosh x,
dy d d e x − e−x e x + e−x
then = (cosh x) = = = sinh x.
dx dx dx 2
2
sinh x
(3) If y = tanhx = ,
cosh x
dy d sinh x
then =
dx dx cosh x
cosh x
( 4) If y = coth x = ,
sinh x
dy d cosh x
then =
dx dx sinh x
dy d 1 1 d
then = =− (cosh x)
dx dx cosh x cosh 2 x dx
−1 −1 sinh x
= ⋅ sinh x = ⋅ = −sech x tanhx.
cosh 2 x sech x cosh x
74 KSOU Differential Calculus
1
(6) If y = cosech x = ,
sinh x
dy −1 d
then =− (sinh x)
dx sinh2 x dx
−1 − 1 cosh x
= ⋅ cosh x = ⋅ = −cosech x ⋅ coth x.
sinh x
2
sinh x sinh x
Implicit Functions
Function of the type f ( x, y ) = 0 is called Implicit function.
dy
To find treat y as a function of x & use chain rule.
dx
Eg. (1) If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
dy dy
then 2ax + 2h x + y + 2by =0
dx dx
dy
ie (2hx + 2by ) = −2ax − 2hy
dx
dy − 2( ax + hy ) − ( ax + hy)
∴ = =
dx 2(hx + by ) hx + by
Eg. (2) If x sin y + y sin x = 10
differentiating w.r.t. x
dy dy
x cos y + sin y + y cos x + sin x =0
dx dx
dy
ie ( x cos y + sin x) = − sin y − y cos x
dx
dy − (sin y + y cos x)
∴ =
dx ( x cos y + sin x )
Parametric functions
Functions of the type x = f (t ), y = g (t ) taken together is called Parametric function, where t is the paramter. Parametric
functions are also denoted as x = f (θ ), y = f (θ ) where θ is the parameter.
dy dx dy dx dy
To find , consider & or &
dx dt dt dθ dθ
dy dy dt dy dy dθ
then = or =
dx dx dt dx dx dθ
dy
Eg. (1) If x = a cos 3 t , y = a sin 3 t , find
dx
dx dy
Solution : x = a cos 3 t , = −3a cos 2 t sin t , y = a sin 3 t , = 3a sin 2 t cos t
dt dt
dy dy dt 3a sin 2 t cos t
∴ = = = − tant
dx dx dt − 3a cos 2 t sin t
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 75
dy
( 2) If x = a (3 cos θ − 4 sin 3 θ ) & y = a (3 sinθ − 4 cos 3 θ ), find
dx
dy dy dθ a (3 cosθ + 12 cos 2 θ sin θ )
Solution : = =
dx dx dθ a (−3 sin θ − 12 sin 2 cos θ )
3 cosθ (1 + 4 sin θ cos θ )
= = − cot θ
− 3 sin θ (1 + 4 sin θ cosθ )
If y = f ( x) g ( x )
use logarithms on both sides
dy g ( x) f '( x)
∴ = f ( x) g ( x ) + g '( x ) log f ( x )
dx f ( x)
dy
Eg. (1) Find if y = x x
dx
Solution : log y = x log x
1 dy 1
∴ = x ⋅ + log x ⋅1
y dx x
dy
ie = x x [1 + log x]
dx
dy
( 2) If y = x sin x + (cos x) tanx , find .
dx
Solution : Let y = u + v where u = x sin x & v = (cos x) tanx
log u = sin x log x
1 du sin x
∴ = + cos x log x
u dx x
du sin x
ie = x sin x + cos x log x
dx x
v = (cos x ) tanx
log v = tan x log cos x
1 dv 1( − sin x)
∴ = tan x + sec 2 x log cos x
v dx cos x
dv
∴ = (cos x) tan x [ − tan2 x + sec 2 x log cos x]
dx
dy du dv sin x
∴ = + = x sin x + cos x log x + (cos x) tan x [ − tan2 x + sec 2 x log cos x]
dx dx dx x
76 KSOU Differential Calculus
d 1
(3) (tanh−1 x) = for x < 1
dx 1− x2
d −1
( 4) (coth−1 x) = 2 for x > 1
dx x −1
d −1
(5) (sech −1 x) = for x < 1
dx x 1− x2
d −1
( 6) (cosech −1 x) =
dx x 1+ x2
Exercise
dy
Find of the following
dx
1. y = x 2 + a 2 2. y = loge (3x + 2) 3. y = log e cos x
x +1
4. y = 5. y = x 2 e x 6. y = ( 2 x + 3) 2
x −1
7. y = ax 2 + bx + c 8. y = e x
9. y = (3 x + 5)1 / 3
x2 + x +1
16. y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x 17. y = (1 + x 2 ) sin x 18. y =
x
ex e x + e− x
22. y = 2
23. y = 24. y = sin x ⋅ sin 2 x
x 2
2x x+a
25. y = ( x + a)( x + b)( x + c) 26. y = sin −1 27. y = tan−1
1+ x 2
1 − ax
1 − cos x
28. y = 29. y = e sinh x 30. y = log e sin x
1 + cos x
1+ x
31. y = log e ( x 2 tan x) 32. y = (1 − x 2 ) cos −1 x 33. y = tan−1
1− x
1− x
34. y = tan−1 35. xy = c 2 36. sin −1 x + sin −1 y = 0
1+ x
1
40. x = t , y = 41. x = 4 cosh t , y = 4 sinh t 42. x = a cos t , y = b sin t
t
( x 2 + 1)e x e x − e−x
46. y = 47. y = 48. y = (1 + x 2 ) tan x
log e x ⋅ cosec x e x + e−x
xe x x2 + ex cos −1 x
49. y = 50. y = 51. y =
1 + cos x 1 − x log e x log e x
x 3e x x2 +1 3x − x 3
52. y = 53. y = sec −1 2 54. y = tan−1 2
cos −1 x x −1 1 − 3x
Successive Differentiation
dy
If y = f ( x) then = f ′( x ) is also a function of x, hence further derivatives can be obtained.
dx
d2y
The second derivative is denoted by or f ′′( x) or y 2 or D 2 y.
dx 2
d3y
The third derivative is denoted by or f ′′′( x) or y3 or D 3 y.
dx 3
dny
In general n th derivative is denoted as or f ( n ) ( x) or y n or D n y.
dx n
Examples
d2y
1. If y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x find at x = 1
dx 2
Solution : y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x
dy 1
= (1 + x 2 ) × + tan−1 x ⋅ ( 2 x) = 1 + 2 x tan−1 x.
dx 1+ x 2
d2y 1
= 0 + 2x × + 2 tan−1 x
dx 2 1+ x2
d2y 2 π π
at x = 1, 2 = + 2× = 1+ .
dx x =1 1 + 1 4 2
d2y − 4a
2. If y 2 = 4ax, show that 2
=
dx y3
Solution : y 2 = 4ax
differentiating w.r.t. x
dy dy 2a
2y = 4a ⇒ =
dx dx y
again differentiating w.r.t. x
d2y 2a dy 2a 2a − 4a 2
=− = − =
dx 2 y 2 dx y 2 y y3
t d2y sin t
3. If x = a cos t + log tan & y = a sin t , then show that =
2 dx 2
a cos 4 t
t
Solution : x = cos t + log tan
2
dx 1 1 t
∴ = a − sin t + sec 2
dt 1
tan 2 2
2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 79
1 1 1 − sin 2 t + 1 a cos 2 t
= a − sin t + = a − sin t + = a − sin t + = a =
1 t t t sin t sin t sin t
2 tan cos 2 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2
dy
y = a sin t , ∴ = a cos t
dt
dy dy dt a cos t
∴ = = × sin t = tant
dx dx dt a cos 2 t
d2y d dy d dy dt 1 sec 2 t
∴ = = = sec 2 t × =
dx 2 dx dx dt dx dx dx dt a cos 2 t
sin t
d2y sin t
∴ =
dx 2
a cos 4 t
d2y
4. If y = sin 2 x, find
dx 2
dy
Solution : = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2 x
dx
d2y
= cos 2 x ⋅ 2 = 2 cos 2 x
dx 2
d2y
5. If y = x 2 log e x find
dx 2
dy 1
Solution : = x 2 ⋅ + log e x ⋅ 2 x = x( 2 log e x + 1)
dx x
d2y 2
= x + (2 log e x + 1) = 3 + 2 log e x
dx 2 x
d2y
6. If y = e ax ⋅ sin(bx + c) find
dx 2
dy
Solution : = e ax ⋅ cos(bx + c) ⋅ b + sin(bx + c) ⋅ ae ax
dx
d2y
dx 2
{ }
= e ax − b 2 sin(bx + c) + ab cos(bx + c) + ae ax {b cos(bx + c) + a sin(bx + c)}
{
= e ax 2ab cos(bx + c) + (a 2 − b 2 ) sin(bx + c) }
d2y
7. If x = a (θ − sinθ ), y = b(1 − cos θ ) find
dx 2
dx dy
Solution : = a (1 − cos θ ), = b sinθ
dθ dθ
dy b sinθ b ⋅ 2 sin(θ 2) cos(θ 2) b
= = = cot(θ 2)
dx a (1 − cos θ ) a ⋅ 2 sin 2 (θ 2) a
80 KSOU Differential Calculus
d2y b θ 1 dθ b θ 1 b
= − cosec 2 ⋅ ⋅ = − cosec 2 ⋅ = − 2 cosec 4 (θ 2).
dx 2
a 2 2 dx 2 a 2 a (1 − cos θ ) 4a
−1
8. If y = e m sin x
, then prove that (1 − x 2 ) y 2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0
dy −1 m
Solution : = e m sin x ⋅
dx 1− x2
cross multiplying & squaring, we have
(1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 y 2
differentiating w.r.t. x
(1 − x 2 ) ⋅ 2 y1 y 2 + y12 (−2 x) = m 2 ⋅ 2 yy1
m
Solution : y1 = cos(m sin −1 x) ⋅
1− x2
m 1− y2
y1 = ⇒ (1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 (1 − y 2 )
1− x 2
differentiating w.r.t. x
(1 − x 2 )2 y1 y 2 + y12 (−2 x) = m 2 (−2 yy1 )
dy 1
Solution : = ex ⋅ + e x tan−1 x
dx 1+ x 2
(1 + x 2 )[ y1 − y] = e x
differentiating w.r.t. x
(1 + x 2 )( y2 − y1 ) + 2 x( y1 − y) = e x
(1 + x 2 ) y 2 − (1 + x 2 − 2 x) y1 − 2 xy = (1 + x 2 ) y1 − (1 + x 2 ) y
⇒ (1 + x 2 ) y 2 − 2(1 + x 2 − x) y1 + (1 − x) 2 y = 0
Exercise
d2y 16 d2y −2
(1) If 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 36 show that =− ( 2) If x 2 + 2 xy + 3 y 2 = 1 prove that =
dx 2
9y 2
dx 2
( x + 3 y) 3
d2y 1 d2y
(3) If x = a cos 3 θ , y = a sin 3 θ find ( 4) If x = a tanθ , y = a sin 2θ find
dx 2 2 dx 2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 81
d2y sec 3 θ
(5) If x = a (cos θ + θ sinθ ), y = a (sinθ − θ cos θ ) show that =
dx 2
aθ
d2y d2y
(6) If y = sin −1 2 x, then find 2
(7) If y = x log e x, then find
dx dx 2
d2y d2y
(8) If y = e 4 x ⋅ sec 3 x, then find 2
(9) If y = a x , then find
dx dx 2
d2y d2y
(10) If x = at 2 , y = 2at , then find 2
(11) If x 3 y 3 = a x , then find
dx dx 2
d2y
(12) If y = a cos mx + b sin mx, prove that 2
+ m2 y = 0
dx
m
(13) If y = x + x 2 + 1 , prove that ( x 2 + 1) y 2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
b
(18) If y = ax + 2
then show that x 2 y 2 + 2( xy1 − y ) = 0
x
b
(19) If y = ax n +1 + then show that x 2 y 2 = n( n + 1) y
xn
d 2x
( 20) If x = a cos nt + b sin nt then show that + n2 x = 0
dt 2
y n = m(m − 1) L (m − n + 1)(ax + b) m− n a n
1
in particular if m = −1, ie y =
ax + b
differentiating ( n − 1) times
( −1) n −1 a n −1 ( −1) n −1 a n
yn = ⋅a =
( ax + b) n ( ax + b) n
3. If y = a mx to find yn
∴ In general, yn = m n (log a) n a mx
4. If y = sin(ax + b) to find y n
π
Solution : y1 = a cos(ax + b) = a sin ax + b +
2
again differentiating w.r.t. x
π π
y 2 = a 2 cos ax + b + = a 2 sin ax + b + 2 ⋅
2 2
π π
y3 = a 3 cos ax + b + 2 ⋅ = a 3 sin ax + b + 3 ⋅
2 2
π
∴ In general, y n = a n sin ax + b + n ⋅
2
5. If y = cos(ax + b) to find y n
π
Solution : y1 = −a sin(ax + b) = a cos ax + b +
2
again differentiating w.r.t. x
π π
y 2 = −a 2 sin ax + b + = a 2 cos ax + b + 2 ⋅
2 2
π
∴ In general, y n = a n cos ax + b + n ⋅
2
6. If y = e ax cos(bx + c) to find y n
y1 = ae ax cos(bx + c) − be ax sin(bx + c)
y2 = r 2 e ax cos(bx + c + 2α )
b
In general, y n = r n e ax cos(bx + c + nα ) where r = a 2 + b 2 & α = tan−1
a
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 83
7. If y = e ax sin(bx + c) to find yn
Solution : differentiating w.r.t. x
y1 = ae ax sin(bx + c) + be ax cos(bx + c)
put a = r cos α , b = r sin α
y 2 = r 2 e ax sin(bx + c + 2α )
b
In general, y n = r n e ax sin(bx + c + nα ) where r = a 2 + b 2 & α = tan−1
a
8. Statement of Leibmitz's Theorem on nth derivative of a product
If u & v are functions of x, the n th derivative of the product uv is given by
(uv) n = u n v + nc1u n −1v 2 + nc2 u n − 2 v2 + LL + ncn uvn
where suffixes of u & v represent order of the derivatives of u & v.
Examples
1
1. Find the n th derivative of
x − 6x + 8
2
1 1 A B
Solution : Let y = = = + (Say)
x − 6x + 8
2
( x − 2)( x − 4) ( x − 2) ( x − 4)
multiplying throughout by ( x − 2)( x − 4)
1 = A( x − 4) + B ( x − 2)
1
put x = 2, 1 = A( −2) ⇒ A = −
2
1
put x = 4, 1 = 2 B ⇒ B =
2
1 1
−
∴ y= 2 + 2
( x − 2) ( x − 4)
1 1
− ( −1) n n ! ( −1) n n !
differentiating n times, we have y n = 2 + 2
( x − 2) n +1 ( x − 4) n +1
2. Find the n th derivative of sin 2 x cos 3 x
(1 − cos 2 x) cos 3 x + 3 cos x
Solution : Let y = sin 2 x cos 3 x = ×
2 4
1
ie y = [cos 3 x + 3 cos x − cos 3 x cos 2 x − 3 cos 2 x cos x]
8
1 1 3
= cos 3 x + 3 cos x − (cos 5 x + cos x) − (cos 3 x + cos x)
8 2 2
1 1 1 3 3
= cos 3 x + 3 cos x − cos 5 x − cos x − cos 3 x − cos x)
8 2 2 2 2
84 KSOU Differential Calculus
1 1 1
∴ y= cos x − cos 3 x − cos 5 x
8 2 2
1 π 1 n π 1 n π
differentiating n times, we have y n = cos x + − ⋅ 3 cos 3x + n − ⋅ 5 cos 5 x + n
8 2 2 2 2 2
3. If y = e 2 x sin2 x to find yn
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
Solution : y = e (1 − cos 2 x) y= e − e cos 2 x
2 2 2
1 n 2x 1 n 2x
differentiating n times, we have y n = 2 e − ⋅ r e cos( 2 x + n − α )
2 2
2 π
where r = 4 + 4 = 8 , α = tan−1 = tan−1 1 =
2 4
∴ y n = 2 n −1 e 2 x −
1
2
( 8) n π
cos 2 x + n ⋅
2
ie y n =
1
2
( 80 ) e n 4x
sin(8 x + n tan−1 2) +
1
2
( 20 ) en 4x 1
sin 2 x + n tan−1
2
5. If y = x 2 log 3x find yn
Solution : y = x 2 log 3x
Let u = log 3 x = log 3 + log x
( −1) n −1
∴ un = , v = x2
xn
differentiating n times, using Leibnitz' s Theorem,
=
( −1) n −3
x n−2
[(−1) 2
+ ( −1)1 2n + n( n − 1) = ] ( −1) n −3
x n−2
[1 − 2n + n 2
−n ]
ie y n =
( −1) n −3
x n−2
[n 2
− 3n + 1 ]
6. If y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x) show that x 2 y n + 2 + (2n + 1) x y n +1 + (n 2 + 1) y n = 0
Solution : Let y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x)
differentiating w.r.t. x
1 1
y1 = −a sin(log x) + b cos(log x)
x x
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 85
1 1
xy 2 + y1 = −a cos(log x) − b sin(log x )
x x
ie x 2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
differentiating n times, using Leibnitz' s Theorem, we have
x 2 y n + 2 + nC1 2 xyn +1 + nC 2 ⋅ 2 y n
+ xy n +1 + nC1 ⋅1 y n
+ yn = 0
adding, x 2 y n + 2 + (2n + 1) xy n +1 + [ n(n − 1) + n + 1] y n = 0
ie x 2 y n+ 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 + 1) y n = 0
−1
7. If y = e m cos x
, prove that (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − ( n 2 + m 2 ) y n = 0
−1
Solution : y = e m cos x
differentiating w.r.t. x
−m
y1 = e m cos x ⋅ ie 1 − x 2 y1 = −my
1− x2
dividing by 2 y1 , we have
(1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0
(1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 + nC1 y n +1 ( −2 x) + nC 2 y n ( −2)
− xy n +1 + nC1 y n ( −1)
− m 2 yn = 0
adding, (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − ( n 2 − n + n + m 2 ) y n = 0
ie (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n 2 + m 2 ) yn = 0
Solution : y1 m + y −1 m = 2 x
( )
ie y1 m
2
+ 1 = 2 xy1 m
∴ (y ) 1m 2
− 2 xy1 m + 1 = 0
86 KSOU Differential Calculus
2x ± 4x2 − 4
which is a quadratic equation in y1 m ∴ y1 m = = x ± x 2 −1
2
m
Consider, y1 m = x + x 2 − 1 ∴ y = x + x 2 − 1
differentiating w.r.t. x
2
m −1 m −1 x − 1 + x
y1 = m x + x − 1 2 1 + = m x + x − 1
2x 2
2 x −1 x −1
2 2
ie x 2 − 1 y1 = my
( x 2 − 1) y2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
differentiating n times using Leibnitz' s Theorem
( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + nC1 y n +1 2 x + nC 2 y n 2
+ xy n +1 + nC1 y n 1
− m 2 yn = 0
adding, ( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 + ( n 2 − n + n − m 2 ) y n = 0
ie ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − m 2 ) y n = 0
m
We obtain the same result if y1 m = x − x 2 − 1 ie y = x − x 2 − 1
Exercise
1
1. Find the n th derivative of
x − 5x + 6
2
2. Find the n derivative of (i) sin3 x (ii) cos3 x (iii) sin 4 x cos 3x (iv) sin 8 x sin 4 x (v) cos 5x cos x.
th
3. Find the n th derivative of (i) e3 x sin2 x (ii) e 2 x cos 2 x (iii) e x sin 5x cos 2 x
Rolle's Theorem
Statement : If f (x) is a function
(i) Continuous in the closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b
(ii) differentiable in the open interval a < x < b and
(iii ) f (a ) = f (b) then there exists at least one value c of x such that f ′(c) = 0 for a < c < b.
P
Geometrical Meaning y = f (x )
A & B are points on the curve such that f (a ) = f (b). Tangent at P is parallel to A B
AB such that the slope of the tangent is f ′(c) = 0
f (a ) f (b )
f (b) − f (a)
then there exists at least one value c of x in the interval such that = f ′(c)
b−a
f (b) − f (a ) f ′(c)
then there exists at least one value c of x in (a, b) such that =
g (b) − g (a ) g ′(c)
Taylor's Theorem
If f ( x) is a function such that (i) f ( x) and its (n − 1) derivatives are continuous in the closed interval [a, a + h]
Then there exists at least one number θ (0 < θ < 1) such that
h2 h n ( n)
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′(a) + f ′′(a) + L + L + f (a + θh)
21 n!
x2 x n ( n)
Note : - put a = 0 & h = x, then f ( x) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) + L + L + f (θx), where 0 < θ < 1
21 n!
xn
This expression for f ( x) is called Maclaurin' s Expansion and further if f (θx) tends to zero as n → ∞.
n!
x2
Then f ( x) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) + LL to ∞. This is called Maclaurin' s Series for f ( x).
2!
Examples
Solution : f ( x) is continuous in the closed interval [−2, 3] & differentiable in (−2, 3) and further f (−2) = 0, f (3) = 0
ie f (−2) = f (3)
∴ There exists a value c in (−2, 3) such that f ′(c) = 0
f ′( x) = 3( x + 2) 2 ( x − 3) 4 + 4( x + 2) 3 ( x − 3) 3
( 2) Find ' c' of the Lagrange' s Mean Value Theorem for the function f ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) in (0, 4)
12 ± 144 − 96 12 ± 48 12 ± 4 3
∴ c= = =
6 6 6
2 2 2
∴ c = 2± ie c = 2 − & 2+
3 3 3
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 89
(3) Using Maclaurin' s Series Express sin x & cos x as an infinite series.
nπ
differentiating n times f ( n ) ( x) = sin x +
2
nπ
put x = 0, ∴ f ( n ) (0) = sin
2
∴ f (0) = 0, f ′(0) = 1, f ′′(0) = 0, f ′′′(0) = −1, f iv (0) = 0
x2 x3 x 4 iv x3 x4
∴ f ( x) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) + f ′′′(0) + f (0) + LL = 0 + x + 0 + (−1) + 0
2! 3! 4! 3! 4!
x3 x5
∴ sin x = x − + LL
3! 5!
nπ
& let g ( x) = cos x, g ( n ) ( x) = cos x +
2
nπ
put x = 0, g (0) = 1, g ( n ) (0) = cos
2
x2
∴ g ( x) = g (0) + xg 2′ (0) + g ′′(0) LL
2
x2 x4
∴ cos x = 1 − + LL
2 ! 4!
put x = 0, f ( n) (0) = e 0 = 1
f (0) = 1, f ′(0) = 1, f ′′(0) = 1, LL
x2
∴ f ( x) = f (0) + xf ′(0) + f ′′(0) + LL
2!
x 2 x3
ie e x = 1 + x + + + LL
2 ! 3!
Exercise
2
1. Examine the application of Rolle' s Theorem for f ( x) = 2 + ( x + 1) 3
in the interval (0, 2)
(Answer : Rolle' s Theorem donot apply because f ′(1) donot exists.)
1
2. Find ' c' of the Mean Value Theorem for f ( x ) = x( x − 1)( x − 2) a = 0, b =
2
Answer : c = 1 − 21
6
x 2 x3 x 4
3. Show that log(1 + x) = x − + − LL using Maclaurin' s Series.
2 3 4
90 KSOU Differential Calculus
Indeterminate Forms
f ( x) 0 ∞
While evaluating lim or lim[ f ( x) − g ( x) ] or lim f ( x) g ( x ) when it takes the forms , , ∞ − ∞, 1∞ , ∞°, 0° they
x→a g ( x) x→a x→a 0 ∞
are called Indeterminate forms and to evaluate such forms the following rule known as L' Hospital's Rule is used.
f ( x) 0 ∞ f ( x) f ′( x) 0 ∞
If lim is of the form or then lim = lim again if this is of the form or then
x→a g ( x) 0 ∞ x → a g ( x) x → a g ′( x ) 0 ∞
f ( x) f ′′( x) 0 ∞
lim = lim whenever it is of the or This rule can be applied.
x→a g ( x) x → a g ′′( x) 0 ∞
1 1
−
g ( x) f ( x)
Consider lim [ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim
0
which is of the form & hence L' Hospital' s Rule can be applied.
x→a x→a 1 0
g ( x) f ( x)
Consider lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = y (say)
x →a
log f ( x)
then log y = lim log f ( x) g ( x ) = lim g ( x) log f ( x) = lim
x →a x →a x →a 1
g ( x)
0 ∞
which is of the form or and hence L' Hospital' s rule can be applied.
0 ∞
Examples
log x
(1) Evaluate lim
x →1 x 2 − 3x + 2
log x 0
Solution : lim this is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
x →1 x − 3x + 2
2
0
1
1
= lim x = = −1
x →1 2 x − 3 2−3
2 sin x − sin 2 x
(2) Evaluate lim
x →0 x3
2 sin x − sin 2 x 0
Solution : lim This is of the form ∴ applying L' Hospital' s rule
x →0 x3 0
2 cos x − 2 cos 2 x 0
= lim again it is of the form ∴ applying L' Hospital' s rule again
x →0 3x 2 0
1 4
= − + =1
3 3
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 91
tan x − x
(3 ) Evaluate lim
x→0 x 2 tan x
tan x − x tan x − x x tan x − x x
Solution : lim = lim × = lim Q lim =1
x →0 x 2 tan x x →0 x3 tan x x → 0 x 3 x → 0 tan x
0
This is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
0
1 1
(4) Evaluate lim − x
x→0 x e − 1
Solution : This is of the form ∞ − ∞
1 1 (e x − 1) − x 0
∴ lim − x = lim which is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
x →0 x e − 1 x → 0 (e − 1) x
x
0
ex −1
= lim
x →0 e x
− 1 + xe x
0
which is again of the form ∴ using the rule again
0
ex 1 1
= lim = =
x→0 e x + xe + e x x
1+ 0 +1 2
x 1
(5) Evaluate lim −
x →1 x − 1 log x
Solution : This of the form ∞ − ∞
x −1
x log x −
1 x
∴ lim − = lim
x →1 x − 1 log x
x →1 x − 1
log x
x
0
This is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
0
1 1
−
x x2 x −1 0
= lim = lim is form again applying the L' Hospital' s rule
x →1 1 x − 1 1 x →1 log x + x − 1 0
log x × 2 + ×
x x x
1 1
= lim =
x →1 1
+1 2
x
log tan x
log y = lim log(tan x) cot x = lim cot x log tan x = lim using L' Hospital' s rule
x→
π
x→
π
x→
π tan x
2 2 2
1
⋅ sec 2 x
= lim tan x = lim
1
= lim cot x = 0
x → tan x
π sec x2 π π
x→ x→
2 2 2
∴ y = e0 = 1
1
sin x x
( 7) Evaluate lim
x →0 x
sin x
log
1 sin x x
log y = lim log = lim
x →0 x x x →0 x
0
This is of the form ∴ applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
x x cos x − sin x
×
sin x x2 x x cos x − sin x x cos x − sin x
= lim = lim × = 1 × lim
x →0 1 x →0 sin x x 2 x → 0 x2
0
This is of the form ∴ again applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
cos x − x sin x − cos x − x sin x − sin x
= lim = lim = lim =0
x →0 2x x → 0 2x x →0 2
ie log y = 0 ∴ y = 1
a sin x − sin 2 x
(8) If lim is finite, find the value of a and the limit.
x →0 tan3 x
0
Solution : The given limit is of the form ∴ applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
a cos x − 2 cos 2 x
= lim
x →0 3 tan2 x ⋅ sec 2 x
0
limit exists if this is of the form
0
∴ a cos x − 2 cos 2 x = 0 for x = 0 ∴ a = 2
Exercise
Evaluate the following
cosh x − cos x e x − e sin x
(1) lim ( 2) lim
x →0 x sin x x →0 x − sin x
e x − sin x − 1 xe x − log(1 + x)
(3) lim ( 4) lim
x →0 log(1 + x) x →0 x2
1 1 1 1
(5) lim 2 − ( 6) lim −
x →0 x sin 2 x x →0 sin x
x
1 1
(7) lim(cos x) x2 (8) lim( x) 1− x
x →0 x →1
1
1
ax + bx + cx x
(9) lim(cot x) log x
(10) lim
x →0 x →0 3
3 1 1 1 1 1
Answers : (1) 1 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) (5) − (6) 0 (7) (8) (9) (10) ( abc) 3
2 3 e e e
94 KSOU Differential Calculus
Partial Derivatives
A function of two independent variables and a dependent variable is denoted as z = f ( x, y ) which is explicit function where
x & y are independent variables and z a dependent variable. Implicit function is denoted by φ ( x, y, z ) = C
f ( x + δx, y ) − f ( x, y ) ∂z ∂f
If lim exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. x and denoted by or
δ x →0 δx ∂x ∂x
f ( x, y + δy ) − f ( x, y ) ∂z ∂f
If lim exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. y and denoted by or
δy →0 δy ∂y ∂y
∂z ∂z
while obtaining the derivative differentiate the given function w .r.t. x treating y as a constant and while finding
∂x ∂y
differentiate the given function with respect to y, treating x as a constant.
∂z ∂z
Eg. (1) If z = x 2 + xy − y 2 then = 2x + y + 0 = 2x + y & = x − 2y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
( 2) If z = x 2 y − x sin xy then = 2 xy − x cos xy ⋅ y − sin xy & = x 2 − x cos xy ⋅ x = x 2 (1 − cos xy)
∂x ∂y
2 xy ∂ ( x 2 − y 2 ) 2 y − 2 xy ⋅ 2 x
(3) If z = tan−1 2 then z = 1
×
x −y
2
∂x
1+
4x2 y 2 (x 2
− y2 ) 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
=
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
×
2x2 y − 2 y3 − 4x2 y
=
− 2 y3 − 2x2 y
=
− 2 y( y 2 + x 2 )
=
− 2y
(x 2
−y 2 2
) + 4x y 2 2
(x 2
−y 2 2
) (x 2
+y )
2 2
(x 2
+y )
2 2 x + y2
2
∂z 1 ( x 2 − y 2 )(2 x) − 2 xy (−2 y )
& = ×
∂y
1+
4x y 2 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
=
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
×
2 x 3 y − 2 xy 2 + 4 xy 2
=
2 x 3 + 2 xy 2
=
2 x( x 2 + y 2 )
=
2x
(x 2
−y 2 2
) + 4x y 2 2
(x 2
−y 2 2
) (x 2
+y )
2 2
(x 2
+y )
2 2 x + y2
2
Successive derivatives
∂z ∂z
For the function z = f ( x, y ) & are first order partial derivatives, the second order partial derivatives are
∂x ∂y
∂2z ∂2z
In example (2) = 2 x + x 2 y sin xy − x cos xy − x cos xy & = 2 x + x 2 y sin xy − 2 x cos xy
∂y∂x ∂x∂y
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 95
∂2z ∂2z
∴ =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂ − 2y ( x 2 + y 2 )(−2) + 2 y ⋅ 2 y − 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 + 4 y 2 − 2( x 2 − y 2 )
= = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
In example (3)
∂y∂x ∂y x 2 + y 2
x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
∂2z ∂ 2x ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 − 2 x ⋅ 2 x 2 y 2 − 2 x 2 − 2( x 2 − y 2 )
= 2 = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
and
∂x∂y ∂x x + y 2 x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
x2 + y 2
2
∂2z ∂2z
Thus in general, always =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
Exercise
∂z ∂z ∂2z ∂2z
(1) Find , for z = log( x 2 + y 2 ) and show that =
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂2z
( 2) If x = f ( x + ct ) + φ ( x − ct ) show that = c2 where c is a constant.
∂t 2 ∂x 2
∂z ∂z
(3) If z = e ax +by f (ax − by ) then show that b +a = 2abz
∂x ∂y
2
x2 + y2 ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
( 4) If u = then show that − = 41 − −
x+ y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
y ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
(5) If u = sin −1 then show that = .
x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
100 KSOU Matrix Theory
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
dy
Given = f ( x), the process of finding y is called 'Integration' and the resulting function is called 'Integral'. If g (x) is
dx
the integral then ∫ f ( x)dx = g ( x) is the notation used to represent the process.
In the above notation f (x) is called 'Integrand' and further
d
[g ( x)] = f ( x).
dx
But
d
[g ( x) + c] = g ′( x) when c is a constant ∴ ∫ f ( x)dx = g ( x) + c
dx
Thus integral of a function is not unique and two integrals always differ by a constant.
Properties
x n+1 d x n +1
1. ∫ x n dx =
n +1
+ c (n ≠ − 1) Q
+ c = xn
dx n + 1
∫ x dx = log
1 d 1
2. e x+c Q (log x + c) =
dx x
ax d ax
3. ∫ a x dx = +c Q + c = a x in particular ∫ e dx = e +c
x x
log a
dx log a
4. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c
5. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
6. ∫ sec x tanx dx = sec x + 1
7. ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c
8. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + c
9. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c
10. ∫ sech x tanhx dx = −sech x + c
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 97
∫
1
13. dx = sin −1 x + c or − cos −1 x + c
1− x 2
∫
1
14. dx = sinh−1 x + c
1+ x 2
∫
1
15. dx = cosh −1 x + c
x −12
∫x
1
16. dx = sec −1 x + c or − cosec −1 x + c
x −12
∫x
1
17. dx = −sech −1 x + c
1− x 2
∫x
1
18. dx = −cosech −1 x + c
1+ x 2
Methods of Integration
There are two methods (1) Integration by substitution & (2) Integration by parts.
1. Integration by substitution
∫ f ( x) dx
dx
Consider put x = φ (t ) then = φ ′(t ) ie dx = φ ′(t ) dt
dt
∴ ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f [φ (t )]φ ′(t ) dt
now for the new integrand, we can use the standard forms, ie. we have to make a proper substitution so that the given
integrand reduced to a standard one.
Examples
sin x
1. ∫ tan x dx = ∫ cos x dx
dt
put cos x = t , then − sin x = ie sin x dx = −dt
dx
∫ tan x dx = ∫ − t
dt
∴ = − log t = − log cos x = log sec x + c
tan x sec x
or ∫ tan x dx = ∫ sec x
dx
dt
sec x tan x = ∴ sec x tan x dx = dt
dx
98 KSOU Integral Calculus
∫ tan x dx = ∫ t
dt
∴ = log t = log sec x + c
cos x
2. ∫ cot x dx = ∫ sin x dx
dt
put sin x = t , differentiating w.r.t. x cos x = ie cos x dx = dt
dx
∫ cot x dx = ∫ t
dt
∴ = log t = log sin x + c
2. Integration by parts
d dv du
If u & v are functions of x, we know that, (uv) = u +v
dx dx dx
∴ By definition of Integration
dv du
∫ ∫ ∫
dv du
uv = u + v dx = u dx + v dx using property (1)
dx dx dx dx
∫ u dx dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx
dv du
∴
The result can be used as the standard result. Out of the two functions of the product, one has to be taken as u & another
dv
then the RHS after evaluation gives the integral or if both functions have taken as u & v then the result is as follows
dx
du
∫ ∫ ∫
uv dx = u v dx − ⋅ v dx dx
dx ∫
any one form can be used depending on convenience. The first one can also be written as ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ u′v dx
Examples
1. ∫ xe dx put u = v, v′ = e x , u ′ = 1, v = e x
x
∴ ∫ xe ∫ ∫
dx = uv − u ′v dx = xe x − 1 ⋅ e x dx = xe x − e x + c
x
∴ ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ u′v dx
∫ log x dx = x log x − ∫ x ⋅ x dx = x log x − ∫1 ⋅ dx = x log x − x + c
1
ie
∫ sin
−1 1
4. x dx put u = sin −1 x, v′ = 1, u ′ = , v=x
1 − x2
∫ sin ∫
−1 1
∴ x dx = x sin −1 x − x dx
1 − x2
−x
to evaluate ∫ 1− x 2
dx put 1 − x 2 = t 2 differentiating w.r.t. x
− 2 x dx = 2t dt ⇒ − x dx = t dt
− x dx
∫ ∫ ∫
t dt
∴ = = 1 ⋅ dt = t = 1 − x 2
1− x 2
t 2
∫ sin
−1
∴ x dx = x sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 + c
∫a ∫x ∫a ∫ Ax
dx dx dx dx
(1) , ( 2) , (3) & ( 4)
2
+ x2 2
− a2 2
− x2 2
+ Bx + C
to evaluate (1) put x = at , dx = a dt
∫a ∫a ∫
dx a dt 1 dt 1 1 x
∴ = = = tan−1 t = tan−1 + c
2
+ x2 2
+a t2 2
a 1+ t 2
a a a
to evaluate (2) & (3) use partial fractions
1 1 A B
= = + (Say)
x −a
2 2
( x + a )( x − a ) x + a x − a
multiply throughout by x 2 − a 2
1 = A( x − a) + B( x + a)
1
put x = a, 1 = 0 + B ⋅ 2a ∴ B =
2a
−1
put x = −a, 1 = A(−2a) + 0 ∴ A =
2a
−1 1
1 2 a
∴ 2 = + a
2
x − a2 x + a x − a
x−a
∫x
1 1
∫ x + a + 2a ∫ x − a = − 2a log( x + a) + 2a log( x − a) = 2a log x + a
dx 1 dx 1 1 1
∴ dx = −
2
−a 2
2a
x−a
∫x
dx 1
∴ = log +c
2
− a2 2a x+a
100 KSOU Integral Calculus
1 1 A B
next, = = + (Say)
x −a
2 2
( a + x)(a − x) a + x a − x
a+x
∫a
1 1
∫ a + x dx + 2a ∫ a − x dx = 2a log(a + x) − 2a log(a − x) = 2a log a − x
1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx =
2
−x 2
2a
a+x
∫a
1 1
∴ dx = log +c
−x a−x
2 2
2a
∫ Ax
dx
to evaluate (4) 2
+ Bx + c
∫x ∫ ∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
G.I. = = 2
= 2
A B C A B 2 A B B 2 − 4 AC
2
+ x+ x + −
B
+
C
x + −
A A 2A 4 A2 A 2A 4 A2
This integral will take any one of (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫ 3x
dx
(1) Evaluate 2
− 2x + 4
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : ∫ 3x 2
− 2x + 4
=
3 ∫x 2 2
− x+
=
4 3 1
2 ∫ =
4 4 3 1
2
− 4 + 12
∫
3 3 x− − + x − +
3 9 3 3 9
1
x−
3 = 1 tan−1 3 x − 1 + c
∫ ∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 1
= 2
= 2
= × tan−1
3 8 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ x − 1 + x − 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
∫x
dx
( 2) Evaluate 2
− 10 x + 21
x −5−2 1 x−7
∫x ∫ ( x − 5) ∫ ( x − 5)
dx dx dx 1
Solution : = = = log = log +c
2
− 10 x + 21 2
− 25 + 21 2
−2 2
2× 2 x −5+ 2 4 x −3
dx
(3) Evaluate ∫ 6 − 4x − 2x 2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 101
∫ 6 − 4x − 2x ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : = = =
2
2 3 − ( x 2 + 2 x) 2 3 − ( x + 1) 2 + 1 2 2 2 − ( x + 1) 2
1 1 2 + ( x + 1) 1 3 + x
= × log = log +c
2 2× 2 2 − ( x + 1) 8 1 − x
Type II
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx dx dx dx
(1) , ( 2) , (3) , (4)
a2 − x2 a2 + x2 x2 − a2 Ax 2 + Bx + C
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a sinθ , dx = a cosθ dθ
a − x2
2
dx a cosθ dθ a cosθ dθ x
∴ ∫ a2 − x2
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ
= ∫ a cosθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = sin−1
a
∫
dx x
∴ = sin −1 +c
a2 − x2 a
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a sinhθ , dx = a coshθ dθ
a + x2
2
dx a coshθ dθ a coshθ dθ x
∴ ∫ a +x2 2
= ∫ a + a sinh θ
2 2 2
= ∫ a coshθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = sinh−1
a
∫
dx x
∴ = sinh−1 +c
a2 + x2 a
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a coshθ , dx = a sinhθ dθ
x − a2
2
∫
dx x
∴ = cosh−1 +c
x −a2 2 a
dx a sinhθ dθ a sinhθ dθ x
∴ ∫ x2 − a2
= ∫ a 2 cosh2 θ − a 2
= ∫ a sinhθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = cosh−1
a
∫
dx
to evaluate
Ax + Bx + C
2
A∫ A∫ A∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
G.I. = = =
B C 2 2
x2 + x+ B B2 C B B 2 − 4 AC
A A x+ − + x + −
2 A 4A 2
A 2A 4 A2
This will reduce to any one of (1), (2) & (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫
dx
(1) Evaluate
2x − 5x2
102 KSOU Integral Calculus
1
x−
∫ ∫ ∫
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 5 = 1 × sin −1 (5 x − 1) + c
Solution : = = = sin −1
1 2 5 2 5 2 2 5 1 5
x − x2 − x2 − x 1 1
−x − 5
5 5 5
5 5
∫
dx
(2) Evaluate
x − 2x + 5
2
x −1
∫
dx
∫
dx
∫
dx
Solution : = = = sinh−1 +c
x2 − 2x + 5 ( x − 1) 2 + 2 2 2 2 + ( x − 1) 2 2
∫
dx
(3) Evaluate
4 x 2 − 12 x + 8
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : G.I. =
4 ∫ x − 3x + 2
2
=
2 ∫ 3 9
2
=
2 ∫
2
3 9−8
x − − +2 x− −
2 4 2 4
3
x−
∫
1 dx 1 2 = 1 cosh −1 ( 2 x − 3) + c
= = cosh −1
2 2 2 2 1 2
3 1
x − − 2
2 2
Type III
px + q px + q
∫ Ax 2
+ Bx + C
dx and ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C
to evaluate put px + q = l (derivative of Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m = l (2 Ax + B) + m
where l & m are the constants to be found out by equating the co-efficients of corresponding terms on both sides. ie. to
solve for m & n from the equations
2 Al = p and lB + m = q
px + q 2 Ax + B
∫ Ax ∫ Ax ∫ ∫
dx dx
then dx = l dx + m = l ⋅ log( Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m
2
+ Bx + c 2
+ Bx + C Ax 2 + Bx + C Ax 2 + Bx + C
the second integral in RHS is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
px + q px + q
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx dl
dx = l dx + m = 2l Ax 2 + Bx + C + m
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
Examples
2x + 3
(1) Evaluate ∫ 3x 2
− 4x + 5
dx
2x + 3 1 6x − 4 13 dx 1 13 dx
∴ ∫ 3x 2
− 4x + 5
dx = ∫
3 3x 2 − 4 x + 5
dx + ∫ = log(3x 2 − 4 x + 5) +
3 3x 2 − 4 x + 5 3 9 ∫x 2 4
− x+
5
3 3
∫ ∫
1 13 dx 1 13 dx
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 2
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 2
3 9 2 4 5 3 9 2 11
2
x− − +
x− +
3 9 3 3 3
x− 2
1 13
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + ×
3
tan−1 3 = 1 log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 13 tan−1 3 x − 2 + c
3 9 11 11 3 3 11 11
3
5x − 7
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 3x − x 2 − 2
dx
5x − 7 3 − 2x
∫ ∫ ∫
5 1 dx
∴ dx = − dx +
3x − x − 2 2 2 3x − x − 2
2 2 − 2 − ( x 2 − 3x)
1
∫ ∫
5 1 dx dx
= − ⋅ 2 3x − x 2 − 2 + = −5 3 x − x 2 − 2 +
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 9 1 3
−2−x− + −x−
2 4 2 2
3
1 x−
= −5 3 x − x 2 − 2 + × sin−1 2 = −5 3x − x 2 − 2 + 1 sin −1 (2 x − 3) + c
2 1 2
2
Type IV
∫ a cos x + b sin x + c
dx
x 1 x dt
to evalute put tan = t then differentiating w.r.t. x sec 2 =
2 2 2 dx
x x t 1 2t
& sin x = 2 sin cos = 2 × =
2 2 1+ t 2
1+ t 2 +
1 t2
x 2dt 1− t2 2t
∴ when tan = t , dx = , cos x = & sin x =
2 1+ t2 1+ t2 1+ t2
104 KSOU Integral Calculus
2dt
(1 + t 2 )
∫ a cos x + b sin x + c = ∫ ∫ a(1 − t ∫
dx 2dt 2dt
∴ = =
(1 − t 2 ) 2t 2
) + 2bt + c(1 + t 2 ) (c − a )t 2 + 2bt + a + c
a +b +c
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
which is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫ 2 cos x − 3 sin x + 5
dx
(1) Evaluate
x 2dt 1− t2 2t
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = , cos x = & sin x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
2dt
1+ t2 2
∫ ∫ 2(1 − t ∫ 3t ∫
2dt 2dt dt
G.I. = = = =
2(1 − t 2 ) 3 × 2t 2
) − 6t + 5(1 + t 2 ) 2
− 6t + 7 3 t − 2t +
2 7
− +5
1+ t2 1+ t2 3
−1 − = 1 tan−1 3 (t − 1)
∫ ∫
2 dt 2 dt 2 1 t 1
= = = × tan
3 (t − 1) 2 − 1 + 7 3 2
2
3 2 2 3 2
(t − 1) 2 +
3
3
3 3
3 x
∫ 2 cos x − 3 sin x + 5 =
dx 1
∴ tan−1 tan − 1 + c
3 2 2
∫ 3 − 5 cos x
dx
(2) Evaluate
x 2dt 1− t2
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = & cos x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t2
2dt
(1 + t 2 )
∫ 3 − 5 cos x = ∫ ∫ 3(1 + t ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2dt 2 dt 1 dt
∴ = = = =
5(1 − t 2 ) 2
) − 5(1 − t 2 ) 8t 2
− 2 8 t −
2 2 4 2 1
2
3− t −
1+ t2 8 2
1 x 1
t− tan −
1 1 1
2 = log 2 2
= × log
4 2× 1 t+
1 4 x 1
tan +
2 2 2 2
x
2 tan − 1
∫
dx 1 2
∴ = log +c
3 − 5 cos x 4 x
2 tan + 1
2
∫ 3 + 2 sin x
dx
(3) Evaluate
x 2dt 2t
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = and sin x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 105
2dt
1+ t2 =
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2 dt 2 dt
∴ = = =
3 + 2 sin x 3+
4t 3(1 + t ) + 4t
2
3 4
1+ t2 + t 3 2
2
4
t + − +1
1+ t 2
3 3 9
2
t+
3 = 2 tan−1 3t + 2
∫
2 dt 2 1
= 2
= × tan−1
3 2 5 3
2 5 5 5 5
t + +
3 3 3 3
x
3 tan + 2
∫
dx 2 −1 2 +c
∴ = tan
3 + 2 sin x 5 5
Type V
a cos x + b sin x
∫ c sin x + e cos x dx
Solution : to evaluate put a cos x + b sin x = l (Denominator) + m(derivative of denominator)
where l & m are constants to be foundout by equating the co - efficients of sin x & cos x separately.
ie from the equations lc − me = b & le + mc = a
a cos x + b sin x c sin x + e cos x c cos x − e sin x
then ∫ c sin x + e cos x dx = l ∫ c sin x + e cos x dx + m∫ c sin x + e cos x dx = lx + m log(c sin x + e cos x) + c
Examples
3 cos x − 2 sin x
Evaluate ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx
Solution : Put 3 cos x − 2 sin x = l (4 sin x + cos x) + m(4 cos x − sin x)
∴ 4l − m = −2 (1)
l + 4m = 3 (2)
(1) × 4 16l − 4m = −8
(2) × 1 l + 4m = 3
5
adding 17l = −5 ⇒ l = −
17
20 − 20 + 34 14
from (1), m = 4l + 2 = − +2= =
17 17 17
3 cos x − 2 sin x 5 4 sin x + cos x 14 4 cos x − sin x 5 14
∴ ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx = − 17 ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx + 17 ∫ 4 sin x + cos x = − 17 ∫1⋅ dx + 17 log(4 sin x + cos x)
5 14
=− x + log(4 sin x + cos x) + c
17 17
106 KSOU Integral Calculus
Type VI
∫ f ( x) e dx where f ( x) = φ ( x) + φ ′( x)
x
∫ f ( x) e ∫
dx = φ ( x) e x dx + φ ′( x) e x dx ∫
x
Solution : (1)
∫ φ ( x) e
x
Consider dx
∫
∴ φ ( x) e x dx = φ ( x) e x − φ ′( x) e x dx ∫
substituting this in (1), we have
∫ f ( x) e ∫ ∫
dx = φ ( x) e x − φ ′( x) e x dx + φ ′( x) e x dx = φ ( x) e x + c
x
Examples
xe x
(1) Evaluate ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx
xe x (1 + x − 1) e x (1 + x) e x ex ex ex
Solution : ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx − ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ 1+ x
dx −∫(1 + x) 2
dx (1)
ex
Consider ∫ (1 + x)
dx
1 −1
put u = , v′ = e x , u ′ = , v = ex
1+ x (1 + x) 2
ex ex − ex ex ex
∴ ∫ (1 + x)
dx =
(1 + x)
−
(1 + x) 2
dx =
(1 + x)∫+
(1 + x) 2
dx ∫
substituting in (1)
xe 2 ex ex ex ex
∫ (1 + x) 2
dx =
(1 + x)
+
(1 + x) 2 ∫
dx −
(1 + x) 2
dx = ∫
1+ x
+c
x − sin x
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 1 − cos x dx
x x
2 sin cos
x − sin x sin x
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
x x 2 2 dx
Solution : dx = dx − dx = dx −
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 − cos x 2 sin 2 x
2 sin 2 x
2 2
∫ 2 x cosec ∫
1 x x
= 2
dx − cot dx (1)
2 2
∫ 2 x cosec x dx
1 2
Consider
1 x x
put u = x, v′ = cosec 2 , u ′ = 1, v = − cot
2 2 2
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 107
∫ 2 x cosec ∫
1 x x x
2
dx = − x cot + cot dx
2 2 2
substituting in (1)
x − sin x x x x x
∫ 1 − cos x dx = − x cot 2 + ∫ cot 2 dx − ∫ cot 2 dx = − x cot 2 + c
Other examples
sin x cos x
(1) Evaluate ∫ 1 + sin 4
x
dx
1
dt
sin x cos x
∫ ∫
1 1
∴ dx = 2 = tan−1 t = tan−1 (sin 2 x) + c
1 + sin 4 x 1+ t2 2 2
x2 + 1
(2) Evaluate ∫ ( x + 1)( x 2 + 2)
dx
x2 + 1 A Bx + C
Solution : Let = + 2
( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
2
then x 2 + 1 = A( x 2 + 2) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
2
put x = −1, 2 = A(1 + 2) + 0 ⇒ A =
3
4 1
put x = 0, 1 = 2 A + C ⇒ C = 1 − =−
3 3
Equating co - efficient of x 2 on both sides
2 1
A + B = 1⇒ B =1− A = 1− =
3 3
2 1 1
x−
x2 + 1
∴ = 3 +3 3
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2) x + 1 x 2 + 2
x2 + 1 x −1
∫ ∫ x +1 + 3 ∫ x ∫ x +1 + 6 ∫ x ∫
2 dx 1 2 dx 1 2x 1 dx
∴ dx = dx = dx −
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2) 3 2
+2 3 2
+2 3 x2 + 2
2 1 1 x
= log( x + 1) + log( x 2 + 2) − tan−1 +c
3 6 3 2 2
Type VII
(1) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx ( 2) ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx (3) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx ( 4) ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
(5) ∫ ( px + q) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
108 KSOU Integral Calculus
a2
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = ∫ ∫ ∫
a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ ⋅ a cosθ dθ = a cosθ ⋅ a cosθ dθ = a 2 cos 2 θ dθ =
2 ∫
(1 + cos 2θ ) dθ
a2 a 2 sin 2θ a 2 a2 a2 a2
= θ+ × = θ+ sinθ cosθ = θ + ⋅ sinθ ⋅ 1 − sin 2 θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a2 x a2 x x2 a2 x a2 x
= sin −1 + ⋅ 1− 2 = sin −1 + ⋅ a2 − x2
2 a 2 a a 2 a 2 a2
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ a 2 − x 2 dx = a − x2 + sin −1 + c
2 2 a
a2
∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = ∫ ∫
a 2 + a 2 sinh2 θ ⋅ a coshθ dθ = a 2 cosh2 θ dθ =
2 ∫ (1 + cosh 2θ ) dθ
a2 a2 a2 a 2 sinh 2θ a 2 a2
=
2 ∫
1 ⋅ dθ +
2 ∫ cosh 2θ dθ =
2
θ+
2
⋅
2
= θ+
2 2
× sinhθ coshθ
a2 a2 a2 x a2 x x2 a2 x x
= θ+ sinhθ 1 + sinh2 θ = sinh−1 + ⋅ 1+ 2 = sinh−1 + a2 + x2
2 2 2 a 2 a a 2 a 2
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ a 2 + x 2 dx = a + x2 + sinh−1 + c
2 2 a
a2
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = ∫ ∫ ∫
a 2 cosh2 θ − a 2 ⋅ a sinhθ dθ = a sinhθ ⋅ a sinhθ dθ = a 2 sinh2 θ dθ =
2 ∫ (cosh 2θ − 1) dθ
a2 a2 a 2 sinh 2θ a 2 a2 a2
∫ ∫
x
= cosh 2θ dθ − 1 ⋅ dθ = ⋅ − θ= sinhθ coshθ − cosh−1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 a
a2 a2 x a2 x2 x a2 −1 x x a2 x
= cosh 2 θ − 1 coshθ − cosh −1 = 2
− 1 ⋅ − cosh = x 2
− a 2
− cosh −1
2 2 a 2 a a 2 2 2 2 a
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ x 2 − a 2 dx = x − a2 − cosh−1 + c
2 2 a
∫ ∫
B C
( 4) To evaluate Ax 2 + Bx + C dx = A x2 + x + dx. This will take the form (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be
A A
evaluated.
(5) To evaluate ∫ ( px + q) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
put px + q = l (derivativeof Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m = l (2 Ax + B) + m
where l & m are constants to be found out,
then, ∫ ( px + q) ∫
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx = l ( 2 Ax + B) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx + m ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 109
Β
∫
2l 3 C
= ( Ax 2 + Bx + C ) 2 + m A x2 + x + dx
3 A A
the second integral reduces to (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Type VIII
∫ ( px + q)
dx
Ax 2 + Bx + C
1 −1 1 1
put px + q = then p dx = 2 dt & x = − q
t t pt
dt
−
− dt
∫ ( px + q) ∫1 t2
∫
dx
∴ = =
Ax 2 + Bx + C A 1 Β 1
2
A B
(1 − tq ) 2 + (t − qt 2 ) + Ct 2
2
− q + − q + C p 2
p
t p t pt
This integral reduces to any one of Type II and hence can be solved.
Type IX
∫
Let C = e ax cos(bx + c) dx & S = e ax sin(bx + c) dx∫
∫
Consider C = e ax cos(bx + c) dx
sin(bx + c )
put u = e ax , u ′ = ae ax , v′ = cos(bx + c), v =
b
e ax sin(bx + c) a ax
C=
b
−
b ∫
e sin(bx + c) dx
bC = e ax sin(bx + c) − aS
∴ aS + bC = e ax sin(bx + c) (1)
∫
Consider S = e ax sin(bx + c) dx
− cos(bx + c)
put u = e ax , u ′ = ae ax , v′ = sin(bx + c), v =
b
− e ax cos(bx + c) a ax
∴S=
b
+
b ∫
e cos(bx + c) dx
bS = −ea ax cos(bx + c) + aC
ie bS − aC = −e ax cos(bx + c) (2)
Examples
∫e ∫ ∫ ∫
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
(1) 2x
sin 3x cos 2 x dx = e [sin 5 x + sin x] dx = e sin 5 x dx + e sin dx
2 2 2
1 2 x (2 sin 5 x − 5 cos 5 x) 1 2 x (2 sin x − cos x)
= e + e +c
2 29 2 5
1 e 3x 1 3 x (3 cos 2 x + 2 sin 2 x)
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
1 3x 1 3x 1 3x
(2) e 3x cos 2 x dx = e (1 + cos 2 x) dx = e dx + e cos 2 x dx = × + e
2 2 2 2 3 2 9+4
e3x e3x
= + (3 cos 2 x + 2 sin 2 x) + c
6 26
Exercise
Integrate the following w.r.t. x
−1
sin −1 x 1 esin x
(1) ( 2) (3)
1 − x2 x cos (log x)
2
1 − x2
sec 2 x 3x − 2 x
( 4) (5) (6)
tan x(2 + tan x) ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 3) ( x − 1)( x 2 + 4)
x3 − x − 2 4x + 5 4x + 1
(7) (8) (9)
x2 −1 x + 22 x + 2
2
x 2 − 6 x + 18
(1 + x) x 1 1
(10) e (11) (12)
( 2 + x) 2 2 + cos x − sin x 3 + 4 cos x
1 1
(19) (20) (21) e 2 x sin 4 x sin 2 x
( x + 1) 2 x + 3x + 4
2
( x + 1) x − 1 2
Definite Integrals
b
ie If ∫ f ( x) dx = g ( x) then ∫ f ( x) dx = g (b) − g (a)
a
Examples
2
∫ (x − 2 x 2 + 3) dx
3
(1) Evaluate
1
2
2 x4 x3 24 23 1 2
1
∫
16 1 2
Solution : ( x − 2 x + 3) dx = − 2 ×
3 2
+ 3 x = − 2× + 3 ⋅ 2 − − + 3 = 4 = +6− + −3
1
4 3 1 4 3 4 3 3 4 3
16 1 2 84 − 64 − 3 + 8 25
=7− − + = =
3 4 3 12 12
1 (sin −1 x) 2
( 2) Evaluate ∫0
1 − x2
dx
1
Solution : Put sin −1 x = t then dx = dt
1 − x2
π
when x = 0, t = sin −1 0 = 0 when x = 1, t = sin −1 1 =
2
π
1 (sin −1 π
t3 2 1 π
3
x) 2 π3
∴ ∫ dx = ∫
2 2
t dt = = =
0
1 − x2 0 3 0 3 2 24
1
∫
dx
(3) Evaluate dx
−1 x 2 + 2x + 5
1
1 1 x + 1 −1 1 + 1 1 −1 − 1 + 1
∫ ∫
dx dx 1 1
Solution : dx = = tan−1 = tan − tan
− x + 2x + 5
1 2 − ( x + 1) + 2
1 2 2
2 2 −1 2 2 2 2
1 1 1π π
= tan−1 1 − tan−1 0 = −0=
2 2 24 8
π
∫
dx
( 4) Evaluate
0 4 + 3 cos x
x 2dt 1− t2
Solution : Put tan = t then dx = , cos x =
2 1+ t2 1+ t2
π
when x = 0, t = tan0 = 0 when x = π , t = tan = ∞
2
112 KSOU Integral Calculus
2dt
∞
π ∞
1+ t2
∞ ∞ t
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2dt 1 −1
= = = = tan
0 +
4 3 cos x 0
4+
3(1 − t 2 ) 0 4(1 + t ) + 3(1 − t 2 )
2 0
t2 + ( 7) 2
7
7 0
(1 + t 2 )
1 1 1 π π
= tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 0 = × =
7 7 7 2 2 7
b a
2. ∫a
f ( x) dx = − ∫ b
f ( x) dx
b c b
3. ∫a
f ( x) dx = ∫ a
f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx
c
where a < c < b
a a b b
4. ∫0
f ( x) dx = ∫ 0
f (a − x) dx also ∫a
f ( x) dx = ∫a
f ( a + b − x ) dx
2 ∫ af ( x ) dx
a 0
5. ∫−a
f ( x) dx =
0
if f ( x) is an even function
if f ( x) is an odd function
2 ∫ af ( x ) dx
2a 0 if f ( 2a − x) = f ( x )
6. ∫0
f ( x) dx =
0
if f (2a − x) = − f ( x)
Examples
π
sin n x
∫
2
(1) Evaluate dx
0 cos n x + sin n x
π
π π sin n − x
sin x n
2
∫ ∫ ∫
a
∫
a
Solution : Let I = dx = f ( x) dx = f ( a − x) dx
2 2
dx using
cos x + sin n x n π nπ
0 n 0 0 0
cos − x + sin − x
2 2
π
cos n x
= ∫
2
dx
0 sin n x + cos n x
π π π π π
sin n x cos n x (sin n x + cos n x) π
∴ 2I = ∫ 0
2
cos n x + sin n x
dx + ∫ 0
2
sin n x + cos n x
dx = ∫ 0
2
(cos n x + sin n x)
dx = ∫ 0
2
1 ⋅ dx = x ] 0
2
=
2
π
∴ I=
4
π x sin x
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 0 1 + sin x
dx
π x sin x π (π − x) sin(π − x) a a
Solution : Let I = ∫ 0 1 + sin x
dx = ∫ 0 1 + sin(π − x)
dx using ∫ 0
f ( x) dx = ∫0
f (a − x) dx
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 113
π (π − x) sin x
ie I = ∫0 1 + sin x
dx
π π π
∫ ∫ ∫ 1 dx = π [sec x − tan x + x] = π [sec π − tanπ + π ] − π [sec 0 − tan0 + 0]
π
= π sec x tan x − sec 2 x dx + 0
0 0 0
= π [− 1 + π ] − π [1] = π [− 2 + π ]
π
∴ I= (π − 2)
2
π
∫
3 dx
(3) Evaluate
π
6 1 + tan x
π
π π
cos − x dx
cos x dx 2 b b
Solution : Let I = ∫ = ∫ ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f (a − x) dx
3 3
using
π
cos x + sin x π π π a a
6 6 cos − x + sin − x
2 2
π
sin x dx
∴ I= ∫
3
dx
π
6 sin x + cos x
π
π cos x dx sin x dx π cos x + sin x π 3
∴ 2I = ∫ + dx = ∫ dx =
∫ 1 ⋅ dx = x
3 3 3
π
π cos x + sin x π
6 cos x + sin x sin x + cos x 6 6 π
6
π π π
= − =
3 6 6
π
∴ I=
12
Exercise
Evaluate the following
π
sin x e π
e tan x
∫ ∫ ∫
2 4
(1) dx ( 2) log x dx (3) dx
0 1 + cos 2 x 1 0 cos 2 x
1 1 1
∫ ∫ ∫
dx
x tan−1 x dx xe − x dx
2
( 4) (5) (6)
− 12 9 − x2 0 −1
π ∞ π
∫ ∫ ∫
dx x dx
log(1 + tanθ ) dθ
2 4
( 7) (8) (9)
0 a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2 2 0 ( x + 1)( x 2 + 1) 0
2a f ( x) π 1 log(1 + x)
∫ ∫ ∫
2 x dx
(10) dx (11) (12) dx
0 f ( x ) + f ( 2a − x ) 0 sin x + cos x 0 (1 + x 2 )
π 1 7 π 1 2 π π
Answers : (1) , (2) 1, (3) e − 1, (4) log , (5) − , (6) − , (7) , (8) ,
4 3 5 4 2 e 2ab 4
(9)
π
8
log 2 (10) a (11)
π
2 2
log 2 + 1 ( ) (12)
π
8
log 2
114 KSOU Integral Calculus
Reduction formulae
π
∫ ∫
2
I. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = sin n x dx and hence to evaluate sin n x dx
0
∫
Solution : I n = sin n−1 x ⋅ sin x dx
put u = sin n−1 x & v′ = sin x, u ′ = (n − 1) sin n−2 x cos x & v = − cos x
∫
∴ I n = − sin n−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x cos 2 x dx = − sin n−1 cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x(1 − sin 2 x) dx ∫
∫ ∫
= − sin n−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x dx − (n − 1) sin n x dx = − sin n−1 cos x + (n − 1) I n−2 − (n − 1) I n
If n is even I 0 = 1dx = x ∫ ∫
If n is odd I1 = sin x dx = − cos x
∫
2
If I n = sin n x dx then
0
π
− sin n −1 x cos x 2
n −1 n −1
In = + I n−2 = 0 + I n−2
n 0
n n
n −1 n −1 n − 3 n −1 n − 3 n − 5
∴ In = In−2 = × In−4 = × × I n−6
n n n−2 n n−2 n−4
in general
n −1 n − 3 1 π
n × n − 2 × LL × 2 × 2 if n is even.
In =
n −1 n − 3 2
× × LL × × 1 if n is odd.
n n−2 3
π
5 3 1 π 5π
∫
2
Eg. (1) I 6 = sin 6 x dx = × × × =
0 6 4 2 2 32
π
∫
2 4 2 8
( 2) I 5 = sin5 x dx = × ×1 =
0 5 3 15
∫ ∫
2
II. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = cos n dx and to evaluate cos n x dx
0
cos n −1 x sin x n − 1
In = + In
n n
π π
π a a
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
and further if I n = cos n x dx = cos n − x dx using f ( x) dx = f (a − x) dx
0 0 2 0 0
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 115
∫
2
= sin n x dx which is I
0
∫
2 6 4 2 16
∴ Eg. (1) cos 7 x dx = × × ×1 =
0 7 5 3 35
π
7 5 3 1 π 35π
∫
2
( 2) cos 8 x dx = × × × × =
0 8 6 4 2 2 256
tann −1 x
In = − I n − 2 which is the required formula.
n −1
− cotn −1 x
In = − I n−2
n −1
∫ ∫
∴ I n = sec n− 2 tan x − (n − 2) sec n − 2 x ⋅ tan 2 x dx = sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) sec n − 2 (sec 2 x − 1) dx
∫ ∫
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) sec n x dx + (n − 2) sec n − 2 x dx
∴ I n + (n − 2) I n = sec n − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
(1 + n − 2) I n = secn − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
sec n − 2 x tan x n − 2
∴ In = + I n − 2 which is the required reduction formula.
n −1 n −1
put u = cosecn − 2 x & v′ = cosec2 x, u′ = −(n − 2)cosecn − 3 x ⋅ cosec x cot x & v = − cot x
∫ ∫
∴ I n = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2)cosec n − 2 x ⋅ cot2 x dx = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) cosec n − 2 x(cosec 2 x − 1) dx
∫ ∫
= −cosecn − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) cosecn x dx + (n − 2) cosec n − 2 x dx = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) I n + (n − 2) I n − 2
116 KSOU Integral Calculus
ie I n + (n − 2) I n = −cosecn − 2 x cot x + (n − 2) I n − 2
ie (n − 1) I n = −cosecn − 2 x cot x + (n − 2) I n − 2
− cosec n − 2 x cot x (n − 2)
ie I n = + I n − 2 which is the required reduction formula.
(n − 1) (n − 1)
∫ ∫
2
VII. To obtain the reduction formula of I m, n = sin m x cos n x dx and hence to evaluate sin m x cos n x dx
0
∫
Solution : I m, n = sin m x cos n −1 x ⋅ cos x dx
put u = sinm x cos n −1 x & v′ = cos x, u′ = m sinm −1 x ⋅ cos n x − (n − 1) sinm +1 x ⋅ cos n − 2 x & v = sin x
∫ ∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − m sin m x cos n x dx + (n − 1) sin m + 2 x ⋅ cos n − 2 x dx
∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m, n + (n − 1) sin m x(1 − cos 2 x) cos n − 2 x dx
∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m, n + (n − 1) (sinm x cos n − 2 x − sin m x cos n x) dx
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m , n + (n − 1) I m, m − 2 − (n − 1) I m , n
ie I m , n + mI m, n + ( n − 1) I m , n = sin m +1 x cos x n −1 x + (n − 1) I m , n − 2
sin m +1 x cos n −1 x (n − 1)
ie I m, n = + I m, n − 2
( m + n) m+n
π
∫
2
which is the required reduction formula, if I m, n = sin m x cos n x dx
0
π
sin m +1 x cos n −1 x 2
n −1 n −1 n −1
then I m, n = + I m, n − 2 = 0 + I m , n − 2 ∴ I m, n = I m, n − 2
(m + n) m+n m+n m+n
0
n −1 n −3 2 1
m + n × m + n − 2 × LL × m + 3 × m + 1 if n is odd & m odd or even
n −1 n −3 1 m −1 m − 3 2
I m, n = × × LL × × × × LL × × 1 if n is even & m is odd
m + n m + n − 2 m+2 m m−2 3
n −1 n −3 1 m −1 m − 3 1 π
m + n × m + n − 2 × LL × m + 2 × m × m − 2 × LL × 2 × 2 if n is even & m is even
Examples
π
∫
2 4 2 1 1
(1) I 5, 5 = sin 5 x cos 5 x dx = × × =
0 10 8 6 60
π
∫
2 4 2 1 8
( 2) I 6, 5 = sin 6 x cos 5 x dx = × × =
0 11 9 7 693
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 117
∫
2 3 1 6 4 2 48
(3) I 7, 4 = sin 7 x cos 4 x dx = × × × × ×1 =
0 11 9 7 5 3 3465
π
5 3 1 5 3 1 π 5π
∫
2
( 4) I 6, 6 = sin 6 x cos 6 x dx = × × × × × × =
0 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 2048
1 x9
(5) Evaluate ∫
0
1 − x2
dx
π
Solution : put x = sinθ , dx = cosθ dθ when x = 0, θ = 0 when x = 1, θ =
2
1 x9 π
sin 9 θ ⋅ cosθ dθ π
sin 9 θ ⋅ cosθ dθ π
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
8 6 4 2 128
dx = = = sin 9 θ dθ = × × × ×1 =
2 2 2
0
1− x 2 0
1 − sin θ 2 0 cosθ 0 9 7 5 3 315
2a x 3 dx
(6) Evaluate ∫
0
2ax − x 2
2a x 3 dx 2a x 3 dx
Solution : ∫0
2ax − x 2
= ∫
0
a 2 − ( x − a) 2
put x − a = a sinθ , dx = a cosθ dθ
π π
when x = 0, sinθ = −1 ⇒ θ = − when x = 2a, sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ =
2 2
π
( a + a sinθ ) 3 ⋅ a cosθ dθ π
a 3 (1 + sinθ ) 3 a cosθ dθ π
−π 2
a − a sin θ
2 2 2 −π 2 a cosθ −π 2
π π π π
π π
= a3 ∫ 1 dθ + ∫ sin 3 θ dθ + 3 ∫ sinθ dθ + 3 ∫ sin 2 θ dθ = a 3 θ ∫ +0+0+6 ∫ sin 2 θ dθ
2 2 2 2 2 2
−π 2 −π 2 −π 2 −π 2 −π 2 0
π π 1 π 3π 5π 3
= a 3 − + 6 × × = a 3 π + = a
2
2 2 2 2 2
Exercise
Evaluate the following
∫ ( )
π π 1
∫ ∫
3
sin5 3θ dθ
6
(1) ( 2) x sin 7 x dx (3) x4 1 − x2
2
dx
0 0 0
∞ 1 2
∫ (1 + x ) ∫ ∫
dx 5
( 4) 7
(5) x 6 1 − x 2 dx ( 6) x 2
2 − x dx
0 2 2 0 0
π π π 1 − cosθ
∫ ∫ ∫ sin 2 θ dθ
2 2
(7) cot 4 x dx (8) cosec 5 x dx (9)
π
4
π
6 0 1 + cosθ
1 x7 1 x3 a x 7 dx
(10) ∫
0
1 − x4
dx (11) ∫ (1 + x )
0 2 4
dx (12) ∫0
a2 − x2
Answers : (1)
8
45
, ( 2)
16π
35
, (3)
3π
256
, ( 4)
8
15
, (5)
5π
256
, (6)
5π
8
, ( 7)
3π − 8
12
, (8)
11 3 3
4
+ log 2 + 3 , (9)
8
8 2
3
, ( )
1 1 16a 7
(10) , (11) , (12)
3 24 35
122 KSOU Matrix Theory
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An equation which consists of one dependent variable and its derivatives with respect to one or more independent variables is
called a 'Differential Equation'. A differential equation of one dependent and one independent variable is called 'Ordinary
Differential Equation'. A differential equation having one dependent and more than one independent variable is called
'Partial Differential Equation'.
d2y
3. ax dx + by dy = 0 4. =0
dx 2
dy 2 x + 3 y − 7 dy 2 x − 3 y + 4
5. = 6. =
dx 3 x − y + 4 dx 4 x − 6 y + 1
3
d 2 y dy
2 2
7. a 2 = 1 + 8. y dx + x dy = 0
dx dx
2
d2y dy d2y dy
9. − 4 + 3 y = 0 10. x2 − 2x + 3y = 0
dx
2 2
dx dx dx
Degree
The highest degree of the highest order derivative occurring in a differential equation (after removing the radicals if any) is
called 'Degree' of the differential equation.
In the examples given above (1), (2), (3), (5), (6) & (8) are of order one and degree one, (4), (9) & (10) are of order two
and degree one where as (7) is of order two and degree two after removing the radicals.
Examples
Solution : x 2 + y 2 = a 2
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
dy
2x + 2 y = 0 ⇒ x dx + y dy = 0 which is the differential equation.
dx
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 119
(2) Form the differential equation by eliminating ' m ' & 'c ' from y = mx + c
Solution : y = mx + c
dy
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have =m
dx
again differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
d2y
= 0 is the required differential equation.
dx 2
(3) Obtain the differential equation by eliminating ' a ' & 'b ' from y = a cos 3 x + b sin 3 x
Solution : y = a cos 3 x + b sin 3 x
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
dy
= −3a sin 3x + 3b cos 3x
dx
again differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
d2y
= −9a cos 3 x − 9b sin 3 x = −9 y
dx 2
d2y
ie + 9y = 0 which is the required differential equation.
dx 2
Note :- It can be seen from the above examples that the order of the differential equation depends on the number of
arbitrary constants in the equation. ie. if arbitrary constant is one then order is one and if the arbitrary constants are
two then the order is two.
ie ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ g ( y) dy = Constant
Eg. 1. Solve y 1 − x 2 dy + x 1 − y 2 dx = 0
y dy x dx
equation becomes + =0
1− y 2
1 − x2
∫ ∫
y dy x dx
integrating + = Constant
1− y 2
1 − x2
ie − 1 − y 2 − 1 − x 2 = −C
ie 1 − y 2 + 1 − x 2 = C is the solution.
3e x sec 2 y
dx + dy = 0
1− ex tan y
3e x sec2 y
integrating, ∫ 1− e x
dx + ∫ tan y
dy = Constant
1 + y −1 1+ x
ie dy = dx
1+ y x
1 1
ie 1 − dy = + 1 dx
1+ y x
integrating, y − log(1 + y ) = log x + x + c is the soluton
dy
Eg. 4. Solve ( x − y ) 2 = a2
dx
Solution : put x − y = u
dy du du dy
then 1 − = ie 1 − =
dx dx dx dx
du
given equation becomes u 2 1 − = a2
dx
du
ie − u 2 = a2 − u2
dx
u 2 du
ie = dx
u2 − a2
u2 − a2 + a2
ie du = dx
u2 − a2
a 2
ie 1 + 2 du = dx
u − a2
a2 u−a
integrating u + log = x+c
2a u+a
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 121
a x− y−a
ie x − y + log = x+c
2 x− y+a
a x− y−a
ie log = y + c is the solution.
2 x− y+a
dy
= xe y − x given y = 0 when x = 0
2
Eg. 5. Solve
dx
dy
= xe y ⋅ e − x
2
Solution : given equation is
dx
ie e − y dy = xe − x dx
2
1
integrating, − e − y = − e − x + c
2
2
1 1
when x = 0, y = 0 ∴ −1 = − +c ⇒ c = −
2 2
1 1
∴ solution is − e − y = − e − x − ie 2e − y = e − x + 1
2 2
2 2
dy f ( x, y )
Equation of the type = or f ( x, y ) dx + g ( x, y ) dy = 0 where f ( x, y ) & g ( x, y ) are homogeneous expressions
dx f ( x, y )
in x & y of same degree is called a ' Homogeneous Equation'.
To solve put y = vx
dy dv
then = v+ x or dy = v dx + x dv
dx dx
by substituti ng this, the given equation reduces to variable separable form and hence can be solved.
dy
Eg. (1) Solve 2 xy = 3y 2 + x2
dx
dy dv
Solution : put y = vx then =v+x
dx dx
dv
given equation becomes 2 x 2 v v + x = 3 x 2 v 2 + x 2
dx
divide throughout by x 2
dv
then 2v v + x = 3v 2 + 1
dx
dv
ie 2v 2 + 2vx = 3v 2 + 1
dx
dv 2v dv dx
ie 2vx = v2 +1 ie =
dx v +1
2
x
integrating, we have log(v 2 +1) = log x + log c
122 KSOU Differential Equations
y2
ie log 2 +1 = log x + log c
x
( y2 + x2 )
ie log = log x + log c
x2
ie log ( y 2 + x 2 ) − log x 2 = log x + log c
∴ solution is y 2 + x 2 = cx3
x x
Eg. (2) Solve 1 + e y dx + e y 1 − dy = 0
x
y
ie (v + vev + ev − ev ) dy + y (1 + ev ) dv = 0
ie (v + ev ) dy + y(1 + ev ) dv = 0
dy (1 + e v ) dv
∴ + =0
y v + ev
integrating, log y + log(v + ev ) = log c
ie log y (v + ev ) = log c
ie y (v + e v ) = c
x x
y + e y = c
y
x
ie x + ye y
= c is the solution
dy a1 x + b1 y + c1
Give = or ( a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) dx + ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) dy = 0
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2
a1 b1
Case (i) If = put a1 x + b1 y = t then it reduces to homogeneous equation and hence can be solved.
a2 b2
a1 b1
Case (ii) If ≠ put x = X + h & y = Y + k
a2 b2
where h & k are constants to be found out such that a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 & a2 h + b2 k + c2 = 0
then given equation reduces to
dY a X + b1Y
= 1 or ( a1 X + b1Y ) dX + ( a2 X + b2Y ) dY = 0 which is homogeneous and hence can be solved.
dX a2 X + b2Y
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 123
dy x + y −1
Eg. (1) Solve =
dx 2 x + 2 y + 3
dy dt
Solution : put x + y = t then 1 + =
dx dx
dt t −1
∴ given equation becomes −1 =
dx 2t + 3
dt t −1 t − 1 + 2t + 3 3t + 2
= +1 = =
dx 2t + 3 2t + 3 2t + 3
2t + 3
ie dt = dx
3t + 2
2t + 3
integrating ∫ 3t + 2 dt = x + c
put 2t + 3 = l (3t + 2) + m = 3lt + 3l + m
2 4 5
∴ 3l = 2 ⇒ l = 2l + m = 3 ⇒ m = 3 − 2l = 3 − =
3 3 3
2 3t + 2 5 2
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
5 dt 2 5 dt 2
∴ x+c = dt + = 1 dt + = t + log t +
3 3t + 2 3 3t + 2 3 9 t + 2 3 9 3
3
2 5 2
∴ x+c = ( x + y ) + log x + y +
3 9 3
1 2 5 2
ie x + c = y + log x + y + is the solution
3 3 9 3
put Y = vX then dY = v dX + X dv
∴ (2 X + vX )(v dX + X dv) = ( X + 2 vX ) dX
divide throughout by X
then (2 + v)v dX + 2(2 + v) X dv = (1 + 2v) dX
∴ (2v + v 2 − 1 − 2v) dX + (2 + v) X dv = 0
ie (v 2 − 1) dX + (v + 2) X dv = 0
dX (v + 2) dv
ie + =0
X v2 −1
124 KSOU Differential Equations
(v + 2) dv
integrating, log X + ∫ v2 −1
= Constant
∫ ∫
1 2v dv dv
ie log X + +2 2 = Constant
2 v2 −1 v −1
1 1 v −1
ie log X + log(v 2 − 1) + 2 × log = log c
2 2 v +1
Y
Y2 −1
ie 2 log X + log 2 − 1 + 2 log X = 2 log c
X Y
+1
X
ie 2 log X + log(Y 2 − X 2 ) − 2 log X + 2 log(Y − X ) − 2 log(Y + X ) = 2 log c
(Y − X ) 3
ie log = log c 2
Y+X
∴ (Y − X )3 = c 2 (Y + X ) but X = x − 1, Y = y − 1
then + Py e ∫ = Qe ∫
dy P dx P dx
dx
dy ∫ P dx
+ yPe ∫ = Qe ∫
P dx P dx
ie e
dx
d ∫ P dx ∫ P dx
ie ye = Qe
dx
∴ ye ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
P dx P dx
dx + c is the required solution.
+ Px = Q where P & Q are function of y is also a linear equation and its solution is xe ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
dx P dy P dy
Note : - dy + c
dy
dy
Eg. (1) Solve the equation + y tan x = cos x
dx
Solution : Comparing with the standard equation
P = tanx & Q = cos x
∴ Solution is ye ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
P dx P dx
dx + c
∫
ie y sec x = cos x ⋅ sec x dx + c = 1 dx + c = x + c ∫
−1
Eg. (2) (1 + y 2 ) dx + ( x − e − tan y
) dy = 0
∫ P dy = tan y ∴ Solution is xe ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
−1 P dy P dy
dy + c
−1
e − tan y
∫ (y
tan −1 y −1
ie xe = e tan y
dy + c
2
+ 1)
∫y
−1 dy
ie xe tan y
= + c = tan −1 y + c
2
+1
−1
∴ Solution is xe tan y
= tan −1 y + c
Bernoulli's Equation
dy
The equation + Py = Qy n where P & Q are functions of x is called Bernoulli' s Equation.
dx
1 dy P
To find the solution divide by y n then n
+ n −1 = Q
y dx y
1
put n −1
= z ie y − n +1 = z
y
differentiating w.r.t. x
dy dz 1 dy 1 dz
( −n + 1) y − n = ie = ( n ≠ −1)
dx dx y dx ( −n + 1) dx
n
1 dz
∴ equation becomes + Pz = Q
(−n + 1) dx
dz
ie + ( −n + 1) Pz = ( −n + 1)Q which is a linear equation and hence can be solved.
dx
dx dz
Note : - + Px = Qx n is also Bernoulli' s equation, whose solution is given by + ( −n + 1) Pz = ( −n + 1)Q
dy dy
where P & Q are functions of y
126 KSOU Differential Equations
dy
Eg. (1) Solve + y tan x = y 2 sec x
dx
1 dy 1
then + tan x = sec x
y 2 dx y
1 1 dy dz
put = z then − 2 =
y y dx dx
dz
∴ equation becomes − + tan x ⋅ z = sec x
dx
dz
ie − tan x ⋅ z = − sec x
dx
which is linear where P = − tanx, Q = − sec x
∫ ∫
∴ Solution is z cos x = − sec x ⋅ cos x dx + c = − 1 dx + c = − x + c
cos x
∴ Solution is = −x + c
y
dy tan y
Eg. (2) Solve − = (1 + x) e x sec y
dx (1 + x)
dy sin y
Solution : the given equation is cos y − = (1 + x) e x
dx (1 + x)
dy dz
put sin y = z , then cos y =
dx dx
dz z
∴ equation becomes − = (1 + x) e x which is a linear equation where
dx 1 + x
1
P=− , Q = (1 + x) e x
1+ x
∫ P dx = ∫ − (1 + x) dx = − log(1 + x)
1
1
log 1
∴ e ∫ P dx = e − log(1+ x ) = e 1+ x =
1+ x
∫ ∫
1 1
∴ Solution is z ⋅ = (1 + x) e x dx = e x dx = e x + c
1+ x (1 + x)
sin y
∴ Solution is = ex + c
1+ x
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 127
Consider ∫ M dx (1)
where the integration is done w.r.t. x treating y as a constant and take ∫ N dy (2)
M = 2 x 3 − xy 2 − 2 y + 3, N = − x 2 y − 2 x
∂M ∂N ∂M ∂N
= −2 xy − 2, = −2 xy − 2 ∴ = hence equation is exact
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
x4 x2 x4 x2 y 2
∫ ∫
M dx = (2 x 3 − xy 2 − 2 y + 3) dx = 2 ⋅
4
− y2 ⋅
2
− 2 xy + 3x =
2
−
2
− 2 xy + 3x (1)
∫ N dy = ∫ (− x ∫
y − 2 x) dy = 0 ⋅ dy (omitting the terms which contain x)
2
= Constant
x4 x2 y2 c
∴ solution is − − 2 xy + 3x =
2 2 2
ie x 4 − x 2 y 2 − 4 xy + 6 x = c
M = x 3 + xy 2 − a 2 x, N = x 2 y − y 3 − b 2 y
∂M ∂N
= 2 xy, = 2 xy
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
= ∴ equation is exact
∂y ∂x
x4 x2 y 2 a2 x2
for solution, consider ∫ ∫
M dx = ( x 3 + xy 2 − a 2 x) dx =
4
+
2
−
2
(treating y as a constant)
∫ N dy =∫ ( x y − y ∫
− b 2 y ) dy = (− y 3 − b 2 y ) dy omitting the terms which contain x
2 3
y 4 b2 y 2
=− −
4 2
x4 x2 − y 2 a 2 x 2 y 4 b2 y 2 c
∴ solution is + − − − =
4 2 2 4 2 4
ie x 4 + 2 x 2 y 2 − 2a 2 x 2 − y 4 − 2b 2 y 2 = c
128 KSOU Differential Equations
Exercise
Solve the following
dy dy
(1) x 2 (1 − y ) + y 2 (1 + x) = 0 ( 2) = e 2 x − 3 y + 4 x 2e − 3 y
dx dx
dy x( 2 log x + 1)
(3) = ( 4) cos( x + y ) dy = dx
dx (sin y + y cos y )
dy dy dy
(5) y−x = a y 2 + (6) ( x + 1) + 1 = e− y
dx dx dx
dy y y
(7) x dy − y dx = x 2 + y 2 dx (8) = + sin
dx x x
(9) x 2 y dx − ( x 3 + y 3 ) dy = 0 (10) (2 x + 5 y + 1) dx − (5x + 2 y − 1) dy = 0
dy 2 y − x − 4
(11) ( 4 x − 6 y − 1) dx + (3 y − 2 x − 2) dy = 0 (12) =
dx y − 3 x + 3
dy dy
(13) x log x + y = (log x ) 2 (14) = x 3 − 2 xy if y = 2 when x = 1
dx dx
dy dy
(15) + y cos x = y 3 sin 2 x (16) x + y = x3 y6
dx dx
(17) (1 + y 2 ) dx = (tan−1 y − x) dy (18) (2 xy + y − tan y ) dx + ( x 2 − x tan2 y + sec2 y) dy = 0
2x y 2 − 3x 2 1
(19) dx + dy = 0 ( 20) y1 + + cos y dy + ( x + log x − x sin y ) dy = 0
x
3 4
y y
Answers
x 1 1 x+ y
(1) log − − = c ( 2) 3e 2 x − 2e 3 y + 8 x 3 = c (3) y sin y = x 2 log x + c ( 4) y = tan + c (5) ( x + 1)(2 − e y ) = c
y x y 2
3 3
−1 x 2
(6) ( x + 1)(1 − e ) = c (7) y + x + y = cx
y 2 2 2
(8) y = 2 x tan (cx) (9) = 3 log cy (10) ( x + y ) 7 = c x − y −
y 3
( )
1
5 2Y + 5 + 21 X 21
(11) ( 2 x − y ) + log(7 − 8 x + 12 y ) = c (12) ( X 2 − XY + Y 2 ) = c
4
2Y − 5 − 21 X ( ) where X = x − 2, Y = y − 3
1 5
(13) y log x = (log x) 3 + c (14) 2 y − x 2 + 1 = 4e1− x (15) y − 2 = ce 2 sin x + 2 sin x + 1 (16) x 3 y 5 + cx 2 = 1
2
3 2
−1
(17) x = tan−1 y − 1 + ce − tan y
(18) x 2 y + xy − x tan y + tan y = c (19) x 2 − y 2 = cy 3 ( 20) y ( x + log x ) + x cos y = c