MOTIVATION

Motivation is a six phased process beginning from the inner state of need deficiency
and ending with need fulfillment.

Motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to the individual, that arouse
enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action.

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or

need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION-

The need for motivation in an organization may be summed up as follows-

1. Helps in realizing organizational goals- Motivated employees cooperate

voluntarily with the management and thus contribute their maximum towards the
organizational goals.
2. Helps in increasing productivity- Since motivation brings about satisfaction to
employees, they work whole-heartedly. This results in increased productivity.
3. Helps in reducing employees turnover and absenteeism- The rate of turnover
and absenteeism comes down on account of the attractive motivational schemes.
4. Helps in maintaining good industrial relations- A proper system of motivation
reduces friction among the employees and between the employees and the
management. This results in good industrial relations between the management
and the employees.
5. Helps in getting right personnel- Attractive motivational schemes help in
attracting highly talented and competent persons from external sources.
6. Helps in reducing employees grievances- Good motivational schemes also help
in reducing the number of complaints and grievances.

 FORCES DETERMINING MOTIVATION

Three types of forces generally influence human behavior as under-
 1. Forces operating within the individual- Human needs vary among individuals
and cannot be identified. People hide due to social behavior. These needs
depend on individual interest and attitudes.

2. Forces operating within the organization- Organisation climate plays an

important part in determining worker’s motivation. The organization climate is
determined by a number of variables such as its leadership style, autonomy
enjoyed by members, growth prospects, emotional support from members,
reward structure,etc.

3. Forces operating in the environment- Culture, norms, customs, images and

attributes accorded by society to particular jobs, professions and occupations
and the worker’s home life- all play a strong motivational role. An individual may
prefer to do the job of an officer ( because it has social status and gives lot of
powers ) rather than serve as a college teacher ( powerless position ).

 PRINCIPLES OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

Following are the important principles of motivation-

1. Principle of participation- It is one of the most important principle of motivation

that people in the organization should be induced to participate in decision-
making process in matters concerning them. Participation makes people more
interested and increase their enthusiasm in the job.

2. Principle of communication- Communication helps make work purposeful,

gives meaning to the job and makes people feel important in the organization.
Two-way communication- upward and downward is more meaningful in
motivating the workers.

3. Principle of recognition- People will be motivated to work hard if they get

continuing recognition for their efforts. If superiors have a praise for outstanding
performance, a credit for efficient service and an appreciation of good work for
 their subordinates, they will feel satisfied from their work and, they will have a
feeling of being approved for their work.

4. Principle of delegation of authority- Giving people authority to make their own

decision, gives them a vested interest in the result they accomplish and they feel
that they are a part of the organization.

5. Principle of individuality- The management should ascertain first the needs,

craving satisfaction in the particular individual’s mind and then motivating
situation should be created. Everyone should be treated differently in a way that
they all feel important for the organization.

6. Principle of guidance- The job of the management is to guide his sub-ordinates

towards the attainment of goals. The managers should give suggestions instead
of orders.

7. Principle of confidence- The management should show confidence in its

subordinates. This will instill confidence in themselves. This will motivate them to
do their best.

Infact the management must create a feeling of belonging, team spirit and group
cohesiveness among them by following the above principles.

 ELEMENTS OF SOUND MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEM

While adopting a motivational system, the following important considerations should be
kept in mind-

1. Adequateness- The motivational system should be adequate covering the entire

workforce in an organization. Further it should cover all the activities of the
employees.
 2. Flexibility- The motivational system should be flexible enough to enable
changes to be incorporated.

3. Related to efforts- The motivational system should be directly related to efforts.

There should be positive interconnection between efforts and rewards.

4. Analysis of motives- A sound motivational system also analyses the factor

which motivate the employees in the prevailing organizational environment. The
study of various needs of the employees, their degree of intensity and the
prospective consequence of satisfying them or maintaining the status should be
made.

5. Simplicity- The motivational system should be simple to be well understood by

the employees as it is designed for them.

6. Blending- A sound motivational system should be a fine blending of the

requirements of the employees, the objectives and the philosophy of the
organization.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1-CONTENT THEORIES-
Content theories offer insight into the needs of people in organizations and help
managers understand how needs can be satisfied in the workplace.

➢ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory-

One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs
theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the
form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that
when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.
The needs hierarchy- Five basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order
of importance are-

Physiological needs- These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such
as food, water, warmth, shelter and sleep. Maslow took the position that until these
needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life, other needs will not
motivate people.

Security, or safety needs- These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of
the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter.

Affiliation, or acceptance needs- Since people are social beings, they need to belong,
to be accepted by others.

Esteem needs- According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong,
they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of
need produces such satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self-confidence.

Need for self-actualization- Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy.
It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming- to maximize one’s potential
and to accomplish something.

➢ Herzberg’s two factor theory-

Herzberg stated that when people talked about feeling good or satisfied they mentioned
features intrinsic to the job and when people talked about feeling dissatisfied with the
job they talked about factors extrinsic to the job.

Hygiene (Maintenance) Motivators

Company Policy and Administration Achievement
Relationship with Supervisor Recognition
Work Conditions Work Itself
Salary Responsibility
Relationship with Peers Advancement
Personal Life Growth
Relationship with Subordinates
Status
Security
Supervision

Hygiene factors ( maintainance factors)-

Hygiene factors are to viewed as preventive measures that remove sources of

dissatisfaction from the environment. Maintaining a hygienic work environment will not
improve motivation. Hygiene factors produce no growth in worker’s output, but they
prevent loss in performance caused by work restriction.

Motivators-

Motivators are associated with positive feelings of employees about the job. They are
related to the content of the job. Motivators are necessary to keep the job satisfaction
and job performance high.

Contribution-

Herzberg’s two factor theory has made a significant contribution toward improving
manager’s basic understanding of human behaviour. He advanced a theory that was
simple to grasp, and significantly offered specific action recommendation for managers
to improve employee motivation levels. He drew the attention of managers to the
importance of job content factors in work motivation which had been neglected
previously.

➢ Alderfer’s ERG theory-

Clayton Alderfer modified Maslow’s five levels of needs to three levels and called them-
‘E’ for existence; ‘R’ for relatedness and ‘G’ for growth (ERG).

‘Existence’ needs comprise Maslow’s physiological as well as safety and security.

‘Relatedness’- Maslow’s affection need. It refers meaningful social and interpersonal

relationships.

‘Growth’ needs- Desire for personal development, i.e. self-actualisation and intrinsic
component of Maslow’s esteem needs. Desire to engage in jobs that require full
utilization of abilities.

Difference from Maslow’s theory. Same needs as Maslow but Alderfer differs in
following manners:

ERG needs are not rigidly hierarchical.

Maslow believes that once need is satisfied, it no longer motivates individuals. Alderfer
suggests that satisfaction of a need may increase its intensity, e.g. if a job affords a
great deal challenge, autonomy, creativity, the growth needs instead of being fulfilled,
might become stronger, necessitating additional autonomy and challenge for
satisfaction.

Alderfer suggests that more than one need may be activated at the same time and may
be operating simultaneously.

Alderfer’s theory is appealing and is seen as directly applicable to motivation of people

at work.

Achievement motivation theory-

Some people have an intense desire to accomplish and show excellence, others are not
concerned about achieving things. According to McCLelland, achievement, power and
affiliation are three important needs that help to understand human motivation in
organizational settings.
Power needs-

This is the need to dominate, influence and control people. Power speaks about the
ability to manipulate or control the activities of others to suit one’s own purposes.
People with a high need for power look for positions of leadership. They like to set the
goals, make decisions and direct activities.

Affiliation need-

The need for affiliation is a social need, for companionship and support, for developing
meaningful relationships with people. Persons who have a high need for affiliation view
the organization as a chance to form new and satisfying relationships. They are
motivated by jobs that demand frequent interaction with co-workers. Such people are
not likely to succeed well at tasks that force them to work in isolation.

Achievement need-

This is the need for challenge, for personal accomplishments and success in
competitive situations. A person with a high need for achievement has three distinct
characteristics:

Achiever’s prefer jobs that provide these characteristics:

Personal responsibility-
Doing most things himself rather than getting them done by others. He wants to take
personal responsibility for his success or failure. He does not want to hold others or
chance responsible for his actions.

Feedback-

He wants to know how well he is doing. He would seek situations where concrete
feedback is possible.

Moderate risks-

He tends to set moderately difficult goals for himself and takes calculated risks to
achieve these goals.

High achiever’s, thus, flourish in competitive situations. They prefer challenging

assignments. They are willing to work hard and want jobs that stretch their abilities fully.

McClelland’s theory has significant implications for managers. If the needs of

employees can be measured accurately, organisations can improve the selection and
placement processes. People with a high need for achievement may be placed on
challenging, difficult jobs. People with a high need for power may be trained for
leadership positions. If the organization is able to achieve a ‘fit’ between need intensities
and job characteristics, improved performance is guaranteed. According to McClelland,
in addition to pumping achievement characteristics into jobs, people should be taught,
and offered training in achievement motivation.

PROCESS THOERIES- Process theories explain how the needs interact and
influence one another to produce certain kinds of behaviour. Process theories
developed to explain, predict and influence behaviour are the equity theory, the
expectancy theory and goal setting theory.

➢ Adam’s equity theory-

Adam’s theory of equity is one of the popular social exchange theories and is, perhaps,
the most rigorously developed statement of how individuals evaluate social exchange
relationships. Basically, the theory points out that people are motivated to maintain fair
relationships with others and will try to rectify unfair relationships by making them fair.
This theory is based on two assumptions about human behaviour.

Individuals make contributuions (inputs) for which they expect certain outcomes
(rewards). Inputs include such things as the person’s past training and experience,
special knowledge, personal characteristics, etc. Outcomes include pay, recognition,
promotion, prestige, fringe benefits, etc.

Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory, by comparing

their inputs and outcomes to those of others in the form of a ratio. Equity exists when an
individual concludes that his own outcome/input ratio is equal to that of other people.

In brief, the presence of inequity motivates the individual to change the situation through
various means to return to a condition of equity. Equity theory generally argues that it is
the perceived equity of the situation that stimulates behaviour and satisfaction.
Employee perception of the situation is more important here than objective ‘reality’.

The limitation of equity theory is that it overemphasizes conscious process. It is difficult

to assess the perceptions of employees. The process by which individual compares with
others cannot be understood. The theory has a direct relevance for compensation
practice.
 ➢ Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation ( Process theory )-
Expectancy theory (1964) argues that strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation, that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Theory focuses on
3 relationships as under:

Individual effort Individual performance Organisation rewards Personal goals

Or

Force (effort) = Valence ( Individual desire for outcome ) x Expectancy of performance

Effort- Performance Relationship

Performance- Reward Relationship

Reward- Personal Goals Relationship

Effort-Performance relationship

An employee is motivated to exert a high level of effort when he perceives that effort will
lead to a good performance and its appraisal.

Performance-Reward relationship

A good performance and its appraisal will lead to organizational rewards like bonus,
salary increase, or promotion.

Reward-Personal goals relationship

The rewards will satisfy the employee’s personal goals or needs. Rewarded in
accordance with his level of performance (instrumentality). Thus, if employee’s
motivation is to be maximised, then employer’s need to answer in affirmative to three
relationships. Further, a key to expectancy theory is the understanding of individual’s
goals and the linkage between effort and performance; between performance and
rewards and, finally, between rewards and individual goal satisfaction. The willingness
to expend effort depends on the negative or positive valence attached to an outcome.
The theory is based on self-interest, where in each individual seeks to maximize his
expected satisfaction. It is one of the most complete and popular theory for detailing not
only how people feel and behave, but also why they react as they do.

➢ The Porter and Lawler motivation model-

Porter and Lawler model has made significant contribution to better understanding of
work motivation and the relationship between performance and satisfaction. Motivation,
performance and satisfaction are separate variables and have complex relationship.
Both promoted the thesis that performance causes satisfaction.

Porter and Lawler point out that effort (force and motivation) does not lead directly to
performance. It is mediated by abilities, traits and by role perceptions.

More important in the Porter-Lawler model is what happens after performance. The
rewards that follow and how these are perceived will determine satisfaction.

Thus, Porter and Lawler model suggests a change from earlier thinking- that
performance leads to satisfaction.

They concluded performance and satisfaction will be closely related when rewards are
made contingent upon performance.

Porter and Lawler also recommend that organisation’s critically re-evaluate their current
reward policies. They stress that management should make a concerted effort to
measure how closely levels of satisfaction are related to levels of performance.

Following guidelines have been suggested by Porter Lawler:

Determine what rewards each employee values.

Define desired performance.

Make desired performance attainable.

Link valued rewards to performance.

Link rewards to individual unit performance rather than overall company performance
results.

 REINFORCEMENT THEORY

➢ Reinforcement theory-
Reinforcement theory states that behaviour that results in rewarding consequences is
likely to be repeated, whereas behaviour that results in punishing consequences is less
likely to be repeated. Various types of reinforcement strategies are generally used by
managers to influence the behaviour of employees:

Positive reinforcement

It is the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a desired

behaviour. A good example of this is immediate praise for an employee who arrives on
time and completes the assigned work.

Infact, for positive reinforcement to have the desired impact, feedback must be
consistent and frequent.

Negative reinforcement

Sometimes, termed as avoidance learning, negative reinforcement occurs when an

unpleasant or undesirable situation is removed or withdrawn following some behaviour.
A supervisor, for example, may continually reprimand until the employee begins
performing a job correctly. If the employee continues to perform the job correctly in the
future, then the removal of the unpleasant situation is said to have negatively reinforced
effective job performance.
Extinction

Extinction is an effective method of controlling undesirable behaviour. It refers to non-

reinforcement. It is based on the principle that if a response is not reinforced, it will
eventually disappear. If a teacher ignores a noisy student, the student may drop the
attention-getting behaviour. Extinction is less painful than punishment because it does
not involve direct application of an aversive consequence.

Punishment

Punishment is a control device employed in organisations to discourage and reduce

annoying behaviours of others. It can take either of two forms: there can be withdrawal
or termination of a desirable or rewarding consequence or there can be an unpleasant
consequence after a behaviour is performed. Punishment reduces the response
frequency; it weakens behaviour. The use of aversive control is the most controversial
method of modifying behaviour because it produces undesirable by-products.

Types of reinforcement

Essentially, there are two types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and intermittent.
Under continuous reinforcement, the individual receives a reward every time he
performs a desired behaviour. With this schedule, behaviour increases very rapidly but
when the reinforcer is removed, performance declines rapidly. Another difficulty here is
that it is not possible for a manager to reward the employee continuously for emitting
desired behaviour. It is administratively impractical because employees cannot be
rewarded, each time they produce something. Under intermittent reinforcement, the
rewards (pay, praise, recognition, promotion, etc.) are administered on a random basis
because it is not possible to reinforce desirable behaviours each time they occur.
Intermittent reinforcement leads to slower learning but stronger retention of a response
than continuous reinforcement.