General Biology I: A Memoir (II)

The Digestive System

Definition
What: A Tubular tract that is concerned with the processing of food
Functions:
Physical Processing: Change in surface area and consistency (ex: chewing,
rolling into a ball or bolus, churning, peristalsis; creates smaller
surface area for maximum intake)
Peristalsis: Waves of contraction
Chemical Processing: Release of enzymes to break down food into a
molecular level
Absorption: Nutrients, vitamins via small intestine
Evacuation of waste: Metabolic (urine) vs bulk (poop [fiber])
Fiber: Stimulates gut contractions (peristalsis)

Mouth:
What: Organ of digestion
Contains:
Teeth: Adapted to diet; canines and molars
Tongue: Surface to mix food with salivia; creates bolus of food; speech
and taste
Papillae: Taste buds on tongue; large in back, small in front/tip
Salivary Glands: Three pairs release enzymes, which acts as a wetting
agent, mucin, and contains amylase
Mucin: Sticks food together, creates a lump
Amylase: Enzyme; digests/breaks down starch

Pharynx:
What: Commonly referred to as the throat; contains lymphatic tissue (tonsils) for
defense (monitors bacteria)
Tonsils: Contain crypts that trap bacteria, allowing White Blood Cells to
attack it)
Functions:
Moves food via swallowing reflex
Contains skeletal muscle
Common passage for food and air (epiglottis)
Epiglottis: Ring of cartilage protecting trachea and separating
trachea from esophagus

Esophagus
What: Long, straight tube lined with stratified squamous (non-keratinized)
 Keratin: Structural protein
Functions:
Waves of contraction move food along to stomach (peristalsis)
Muscle changes to voluntary skeletal muscle to involuntary smooth
muscle (visceral)
Visceral: Refers to the internal organs of the body, specifically the
chest or abdomen

Stomach
What: Sac-like J-shaped organ;
Divided into Three regional areas:
Cardiac: Entrance
Fundic: Produces mucous cells, pepsin, HCl
Pyloric: Exit; coats bolus
**Areas restricted through the use of muscular sphincters**
Sphincters: Regulates food passage
Functions:
Temporary hold site for food
Mixes food and gastric juice (churning) chime
Gastric: Stomach related
Release of pepsin (protein – HCl (pH2)
**Only enzyme in stomach = Pepsin**
Intrinsic factors (B12); Vitamins absorbed
Intrinsic: Built-in
Internal Anatomy:
Lining (Mucosa): Displays longitudinal series of folds called rugae
Epithelium: Simple columnar
Lamina Propria: Rich in gastric glands (cytology)
***Glands = richest elements in the layer**
Muscularis Mucosae: Smooth muscle
Mucosa: Supported by a bedding of loose connective tissue called the
submuscosa
Submucosa: Support mucosa; Contains lymph nodules, blood vessels,
nerve endings, adipose
Internal Layers:
Muscular Wall (Muscularis Externa): Contains layers of smooth muscles which
contract antagonistically to produce a churning-like motion
Inner Oblique
Middle Circular
Outer Longitudinal
Covered with a serosal coat:
Serosal Coat: Simple squamous over fibrous Connective Tissue
Gastric Glands:
What: Open at surface via pits; contains a variety of cells
Mucous Cells: Neck chief cells
Chief cells: Pepsin
Parietal Cells: HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)
Small Intestine
What: Major site of digestion and nutrient absorption; Increased surface area (4.5
meters); Contains plicae, villi, microvilli
Plicae: Internal folds
Villi: “Fingers”
Microvilli: Microtubules
Divided into 3 regions:
Duodenum: Bile and pancreative juice, enzymes
Jejunum: Relies on absorption and defense
Ileum: Relies on absorption and defense
** Mucous glands, plicae, goblets, lymph**
Goblets: Secretes mucous
Lymph: Protects, breaks down bacteria, garbage, toxins
Functions:
Breaks down fats: Bile and Lipase
Breaks down proteins: Pancreatic juice and Proteases
Protease: Any enzyme that breaks down proteins
Pancreatic Juice: Liquid secreted by Pancreas; contains a variety of
enzymes
Breaks down starch: Amylase
*** Duodenum in center of chemical activity***

Liver
What: Largest organ in the abdomen; contains lobes; Consists of Hepatic plates and
Venous Sinuses
Hepatic Plates: Thick plates formed by Hepatocytes
Hepatocyte: Liver Cells
Venous Sinuses: Blood filtration
Functions:
Produces bile
Detoxification
Glycogen Storage
Packages fats
Recycles Red Blood Cells
***Filters Blood ***

Gall Bladder
What: Stores bile; delivers bile to Duodenum
Where: Nestled between lobes of the Liver; adheres to Liver
Properties of bile:
Rich in pigments, salts
Emulsifies fats (Complements lipase)
Emulsifers: Smootheners; cleaves fats into smaller pieces to easily break
down
 Lipase: Enzyme; Aids in digestion, transport and processing of lipids
(Triglycerides, fats, oils

Pancreas
What: Exhibits both Exocrine and Endocrine functions
Endocrine: Produces hormones; no duct
Functions: Release hormones to mediate blood sugar (Insulin and
Glucagon)
Exocrine: Duct that releases enzymes
Secretes: Amylase, Lipase, and Trysin/Chymotrypsin
***Bicarbonate: Neutralizes acidity in small intestine**

Absorption
Absorption: Related to surface area (Villi)
Villi: Finger-like protrusions in intestines; Absorbs nutrients into the body
Vascular networks in the mesenteries absorb:
Simple Sugar
Amino Acid
Peptides
Fatty Acids
Mesentery: Suspends the  jejunum  and  ileum  from the back wall of
the  abdomen

Large Intestine (Colon)

What: Has blind pouch called Caecum (Appendix)
Where: Begins in Ileocecal Sphincter
***Appendix: Has a lot of lymph tissues; not necessary to function; one way
in/out***
Functions:
Absorbs water
Secretes mucous
Contains E. Coli (Vitamin K)
Forms fecal waste (Bacti and bulk)

Rectum and Anus

Rectum: Temporary holding site for fecal waste; rich in thin-walled Blood Vessels
Anus: Physical opening for release of waste
Tissues

What:
Group of cells working together

Histology:
The study of tissues – Relates structure to functions

Four Major Types:

Epithelials: Consists of wall-to-wall cells that cover and line the body; basic tissue found
in glands
Connectives: Contains cells within a matrix of variable chemistry; minerals, organic,
liquid, fibrous
Muscle: Cells concerned with movement as in locomotion or internal motion as in
vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction: Constriction of blood vessels
Nervous: Cells which detect and respond to stimuli

Epithelial
Functions:
Protects: Water, heat, microbes
Absorbs: Linings of GI tract
Secretes: Forms glands (sweat and oils)
Excrete: Filters metabolic waste
Sensory: Detects tactile stimuli
Gamete: Gives rise to egg and sperm
Classification:
Number of layers
Shape of cell
Cell modification
Cytochemistry
Keratin: Fibrous structural proteins; tough; makes up outer layer of human skin
Layers:
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Shapes:
Squamous
Columnar
Cuboidal

Connective
Contains fewer numbers of cells in a matrix
Matrix: May determine properties of tissues (solids, fibrous, liquids)
Functions:
Support
Protection
Insulate
Provide form
Connect
Storage
Defense
Components:
Matrix: Mucopolysaccharide; Calcified
Mucopolysaccharide: Group of polysaccharides that contain amino
sugars and often form complexes with protein
Cells:
Fibroblast: Any cell in fibrous CT; makes fiber
Bone/Cartilage Cells
Wandering Leucocytes: White blood cells
Macrophage: Eats bigger things to recycle
Adipose: Fats
Fibers:
Collagen: Tensile strength
Elastic: Flexibility
Reticular: Lymph organs
Classification:
CT Proper – Fibrous forms
Loose: Areolar
Dense: Wall-to-wall fiber and fibroblast
Regular: Tendon, ligament
Irregular: Dermis
Dermis: Second layer of skin
Special Forms:
Cartilage
Bone
Blood
Reticular
Adipose
Cartilage:
What: Flexible tissue found in many areas (joints, rib cage, ear, nose,
etc.); Exhibits a solid, organic matrix, but lacks calcium salts
Chondrytes: Only cells found in cartilage
Lacunae: Small space containing chondrytes in cartilage
Functions:
Forms model for developing long bones
Allows for growth of long bones (epiphyseal disk)
Epihyseal Disk: Band of cartilage at the end of growing long
bones
Allows for attachment (rib cage)
Gives shape and form (nose and ear)
 Provides for articulation surface
Hyaline: Glassy, transparent; strength and growth of bone
Elastic: Stretchy
Fibrous: Collagen fiber; joints
Bone:
What: Connective tissue with a calcified matrix
Functions:
Protection
Levers for muscles
Affords form and shape
Producing blood cells
Participates in calcium homeostasis
Classified into two microscopic forms:
Compact (Haversian): Microscopic units in compact bones; “canals”
Spongy (Trabecular):  found in the end of long bone
Blood:
What: Connective Tissue with a liquid matrix
Matrix: Plasma
Plasma: Liquid that suspends blood cells; composed of water, proteins,
lipids, ions, etc.
Components:
Red Blood Cells: Carries O2 to the rest of the body (**No Nucleus**)
Hemoglobin: Protein carried by RBCs; Picks up O2 and CO2
White Blood Cells [Leucocytes]: Immune system cells; attack against
foreign bacteria (**Has Nucleus**)
Leucopenia: Too few WBCs
Leukemia: Too many WBCs
Platelets: Clots when body sustains injury; reacts in presence of O2
Functions:
Transport
Thermoregulation
Defense

Muscle
What: Contains proteins for contraction; Tissues exist in fibers = Cells (organelles)
Function: Participates in many forms of motion (Locomotion, volume changes,
vasoconstriction, shivering, peristalsis, secretion, etc.)
Myosin/Actin: Proteins that inhibit muscle contraction when they react with each other
Classified:
Two forms based on microscopic observation
Three forms based on locomotion and function
Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary
Striations (layers of actin and myosin); Multinucleated
Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary
Striations; Intercalated disks
Smooth Muscle: Involuntary
Non-striated; Fusiform shape
Nervous
What: Able to evoke and transmit electrical impulses
Sensory: Detects and relays to spinal cord/brain
Motor: Responds to problems
Components:
Cells = Neurons
Nerves = Bundles of nerve cell processes
Cytology:
Neurons classified by processes
Each neuron has a cell body and processes
Dendrite:
Shorter
Typically not covered
Conducts impulses to the cell body
Axon:
Longer
Typically covered with myelin
Conducts impulses away from the body