Principles of

Digital Audio

Ken C. Pohlmann

Fifth Edition

McGraw-Hill
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 Contents

Preface to the Fifth Edition xix

Chapter 1. Sound and Numbers 1

Physics of Sound 1
Sound pressure level 3
Harmonics 4
Digital Basics 5
Number systems 6
The binary number system 8
Binary Codes 9
Weighted binary codes 10
Unweighted binary codes 11
Two's complement 11
Boolean Algebra . 14
Analog Versus Digital 18

Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Digital Audio 21

Discrete Time Sampling 21
The Sampling Theorem 22
The Nyquist frequency 23
Aliasing 28
Quantization 31
Signal-to-error ratio 32
Quantization distortion 37
Other architectures 39
Dither 40
Types of dither " 45
Conclusion . 50

Chapter 3. Digital Audio Recording 51

Pulse-Code Modulation 51
Dither Generator 54
Input Lowpass Filter 54
Sample-and-Hold Circuit 57
Contents

Analog-to-Digital Converter 61
Successive approximation A/D converter 64
Oversampling A/D converter 66
Record Processing - , 68
Channel Codes 70
Simple codes 74
Group codes 76
Code applications - 80

Chapter 4. Digital Audio Reproduction 83

Reproduction Processing 83
Digital-to-Analog Converter 85
Weighted-resistor digital-to-analog converter 88
R-2R ladder digital-to-analog converter 89
Zero-cross distortion 91
High-bit D/A conversion 92
Output Sample-and-Hold Circuit 93
Output Lowpass Filter 97
Impulse Response 98
Digital Filters 103
FIR oversampling filter 105
Noise Shaping 109
Output Processing 111
Alternate Coding Architectures 111
Floating-point systems 112
Block floating-point systems 114
Nonuniform companding systems 115
,u-Law and A-law companding ' 116
Differential PCM systems 117
Delta modulation 118
Adaptive delta modulation 120
Companded predictive delta modulation 122
Adaptive differential pulse-code modulation 122
Timebase Correction 124
Jitter 124
Eye pattern 125
Interface jitter versus sampling jitter 127
Jitter in storage media 128
Jitter in data transmission 130
Jitter in converters 132

Chapter 5. Error Correction 137

&
Sources of Errors 138
Objectives of Error Correction 141
Error Detection 141
Single-bit parity 142
ISBN 143
Cyclic redundancy check code 145
Error-Correction Codes 151
Block codes 151
Hamming" codes 155
Convolutional codes 157
 Contents xi

Interleaving 160
Cross-interleaving 161
Reed-Solomon Codes 163
Cross-Interleave Reed-Solomon Code 168
Product Codes 173
Error Concealment 175
Interpolation 176
Muting ' 176
Duplication _ 178

Chapter 6. Magnetic Storage Media 179

Recording Bandwidth 179
Digital Magnetic Media 180
Intersymbol interference 182
Longitudinal magnetic recording 182
Vertical magnetic recording 184
Stationary Head Tape Recorders 184
The DASH format 186
Rotary Head Tape Recorders 187
Operation of a videotape recorder 187
Professional digital video formats 191
Consumer digital video formats 194
Modular digital multitrack 194
Hard-Disk Drives 196

Chapter 7. Digital Audio Tape (DAT) 201

DAT Tape Cassette 201
DAT Modes 203
DAT Hardware Design ' 205
Rotary head 206
Track Format 208
Azimuth recording 212
Automatic track following 213
Eight-to-Ten Modulation 214
DAT Error Correction 216
Serial Copy Management System 220
Prerecorded DAT 220
Professional DAT 221
DAT timecode . 221

Chapter 8. Optical Disc Media & 225

Optical Phenomena 225
Diffraction 228
Resolution of optical systems 230
Polarization 232
Design of Optical Media 235
Nonerasable Optical Storage 236
Read-only optical storage 236
Writej-once optical recording 239
Erasable Optical Storage 240
xii Contents

Magneto-optical recording 241

Phase-change optical recording 244
Dye-polymer erasable optical recording 245
Digital Audio for Theatrical Film 245

Chapter 9. The Compact Disc 249

Invention of the Compact Disc . 249
Compact Disc Overview 250
Disc Design 252
Disc specifications 252
Data encoding 256
Player Optical Design 261
Optical pickup 261
Autofocus design 263
Autotracking design 265
One-beam pickup 267
Pickup control 268
Player Electrical Design 269
EFM demodulation 270
Error detection and correction 272
Output processing 273
Subcode 274
Disc Manufacturing 278
Premastering 278
Disc mastering 279
Electroforming 282
Disc replication 282
Alternative CD Formats - 285
CD-ROM 286
CD-R - 291
CD-RW 299
CD-MO 301
Other erasable formats 301
CD-i 302
Photo CD 302
CD+G and CD+MIDI 304
CD-3 304
Video CD 305
Super Audio CD 306
Disc design 306
DSD modulation 309
DST lossless coding 313
Player design 313

Chapter 10. Perceptual Coding 315

Psychoacoustics 315
Physiology of the Human Ear and Critical Bands 319
Threshold of hearing, and masking 323
Temporal masking 328
Rationale for Perceptual Coding 329
PerceptualfCoding in Time and Frequency 332
Subband coding 334
Transform coding 338
 Contents xiii

Filter Banks 341

Quadrature mirror filters 342
Polyphase filters 343
MDCT 345
Multichannel Coding 346
Tandem Codecs 347
Spectral Band Replication 349
MPEG-1 Audio Standard , 350
Psychoacoustic Models 354
MPEG-1 model 1 356
MPEG-1 model 2 358
Spreading Function 361
Tonality 364
MPEG-1 Layer I 365
Example of MPEG-1 Layer I algorithm 367
MPEG-1 Layer II 370
MPEG-1 Layer III (MP3) 374
MP3 transform coding 374
MP3 bit allocation and Huffman coding 376
MP3 stereo coding 378
MPEG-2 Audio Standard 378
MPEG-2AAC 381
AAC main profile 382
AAC allocation loops 383
AAC temporal noise shaping 385
AC-3 (Dolby Digital) Codec 387
AC-3 overview 388
AC-3 theory of operation 390
AC-3 exponent strategies and bit allocation 391
AC-3 multichannel coding 395
AC-3 bitstream and decoder 397
DTS Codec 401
Perceptual Coding Performance Evaluation 403
Critical listening 407
Listening test evaluation 412
Conclusion 413

Chapter 11. DVD 415

Introduction 415
Disc Design 418
Disc specification 419
Disc manufacturing and playback 422
Optical playback & 424
Data Coding 427
Reed-Solomon product code 429
EFMPIus modulation 430
Universal Disc Format (UDF) Bridge 430
DVD-Video 433
DVD-Video video coding 433
DVD-Video audio coding 435
DVD-Video playback features 438
DVD-Video authoring 440
DVD-Video developer's summary 441
xiv Contents

DVD-Audio 446
DVD-Audio coding and channel options 447
DVD-Audio disc contents 452
DVD-Audio developer's summary 455
Data Compression 460
Entropy coding 461
Audio data compression 463
Meridian Lossless Packing . 468
Other DVD Disc Formats 472
DVD-ROM - 473
DVD-R and DVD+R 474
DVD-RW and DVD+RW 476
DVD-RAM 477
DVD Content Protection 478
DVD-Video copy protection 479
DVD-Audio copy protection 481
Content protection for recordable media 482
Secure digital transmission 483
DVD watermarking 483
HD-DVD and Blu-ray 484

Chapter 12. The MiniDisc 487

System Overview 487
Signal Format 489
Disc Design 490
Optical Pickup 493
MO Recording and Field Modulation 496
ATRAC Data Reduction - 500
Disc Mastering and Manufacture 507

Chapter 13. Audio Interconnection 511

Audio Interfaces 511
SDIF-2 Interconnection . 512
Alesis Multichannel Optical Digital Interface 515
AES3 (AES/EBU) Professional Interface 515
AES3 frame structure 516
AES3 channel status block 518
AES3 implementation 521
AES10 (MADI) Multichannel Interface 523
S/PDIF Consumer Interconnection 524
Serial copy management system 527
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) <? 529
AES11 Digital Audio Reference Signal 531
AES18 User Data Channels 534
AES24 Control of Audio Devices 535
Sample Rate Converters 536
Fiber-Optic Cable Interconnection 537
Fiber-optic systems 538
Fiber-optic cable 540
Interconnection and installation 544
 Contents xv

Chapter 14. Desktop Audio 549

PC Buses and Interfaces 550
IEEE 1394 "FireWIre" 551
Universal Serial Bus (USB) 555
Sound Cards 558
Music synthesis 559
Surround sound processing 561
Audio Codec '97 (AC '97) 562
Windows Multimedia API and DirectX API 563
MMX 565
File Formats 565
WAV and BWF 566
MP3, AIFF, QuickTime, and other file formats 568
Open Media Framework Interchange (OMFI) 571
Advanced Authoring Format (AAF) 572
Material exchange Format (MXF) 573
AES31 574
Digital Audio Extraction 574
Hard-Disk Recording 578
System features 578
Flash Memory 581
Desktop Audio Software Applications 582
Hard-disk editing 584
Audio for video workstations 586

Chapter 15. Internet Audio 589

Networks and File Transfers 589
Telephone services 590
ISDN , 592
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) 594
Computer Networks 595
Ethernet 598
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) 598
MediaNet 599
Wireless networking, WiFi, and Bluetooth 600
The Internet and Internet Audio 602
MP3 605
Music downloading and digital rights management 607
Streaming Audio 609
RealAudio G2 music codec 612
Audio webcasting 614
MPEG-4 615
MPEG-4 interactivity * 615
MPEG-4 audio coding 616
MPEG-7 623
Encryption 623
Watermarking 625

Chapter 16. Digital Radio and Television Broadcasting 629

Satellite Communication 629
Digital transmission 633
Direct broadcast satellites 635
xvi Contents

Digital Audio Radio 636

Transmission methods 636
Spectral space 637
Data reduction 639
Technical considerations 639
Eureka 147/DAB 643
In-Band Digital Radio 648
HD Radio 651
HD Radio FM-IBOC 652
HD Radio AM-IBOC " 656
Direct Satellite Radio 660
XM Satellite Radio 661
Sirius Satellite Radio 662
Perceptual Audio Coding (PAC) algorithm 662
Digital Television (DTV) 664
Video data reduction 665
MPEG video 666
MPEG-1 video standard 674
MPEG-2 video standard 674
ATSC Digital Television 675
ATSC standard 677
DTV implementation 682

Chapter 17. Digital Signal Processing 685

Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing 685
DSP applications 686
Discrete Systems 687
Linearity and time-invariance 687
Impulse response and convolution 688
Complex numbers 692
Mathematical Transforms 693
Unit Circle and Region of Convergence 697
Poles and zeros 698
DSP elements 700
Digital Filters 701
FIR filters 702
MR filters 706
Filter applications 709
Sources of Errors 711
DSP Integrated Circuits 714
Processor architecture 714
Fixed point and floating point 716
DSP Programming 718
Filter programming ** 719
Texas Instruments code 720
Motorola code 721
Analog Devices SHARC code 725
Specialized DSP Applications 726
Digital delay 726
Digital reverberation 728
Digital mixing consoles 730
Loudspeaker correction 733
Noise removal 734
 Contents xvii

Chapter 18. Sigma-Delta Conversion and Noise Shaping 739

Sigma-Delta Conversion 739
Delta modulation 742
Sigma-delta modulation 744
Analysis of first-order sigma-delta modulator 745
Higher-order noise shaping 747
Idle Tones and Limit Cycles 749
One-Bit D/A Conversion with Second-Order Noise Shaping 750
Multi-bit D/A Conversion with Third-Order Noise Shaping 754
Multi-bit D/A Conversion with Quasi Fourth-Order Noise Shaping 757
Sigma-Delta A/D Conversion 758
Sigma-delta A/D modulator 761
Digital filtering and decimation 763
Sigma-Delta A/D Converter Chip 768
Sigma-Delta D/A Converter Chip 770
Sigma-Delta A/D-D/A Converter Chip 771
Noise Shaping of Nonoversampling Quantization Error 772
Psychoacoustically optimized noise shaping 774
Buried data technique 779

Appendix. The Sampling Theorem 783

Bibliography 789
Index 817