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Part I ‐ Smell and Taste
The Senses
General senses of touch
Temperature
Pressure
Pain
Special senses
Smell
Taste
Sight
Hearing
Equilibrium
Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell
Both senses use chemoreceptors
Stimulated by chemicals in solution
Taste has four types of receptors
Smell can differentiate a large range of chemicals
Both senses complement each other and respond to many of the same stimuli
Olfaction—The Sense of Smell
Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity
Neurons with long cilia
Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection
Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex
The Sense of Taste
Taste buds house the receptor organs
Location of taste buds
Most are on the tongue
Soft palate
Cheeks
The tongue is covered with
projections called papillae
Filiform papillae—sharp with no
taste buds
Fungifiorm papillae—rounded
with taste buds
Circumvallate papillae—large
papillae with taste buds
Taste buds are found on the sides of
papillae
Gustatory cells are the receptors
Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
Hairs are stimulated by chemicals
dissolved in saliva
Taste Buds
Taste Sensations
Sweet receptors (sugars)
Saccharine
Some amino acids
Sour receptors
Acids
Bitter receptors
Alkaloids
Salty receptors
Metal ions
Umami
Elicited by the amino acid glutamate and related compounds
Special Senses – Part II ‐ Eye and Vision
The Eye and Vision
70% of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
Protection for the eye
Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids and eyelashes
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal apparatus
Extrinsic eye muscles
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids and eyelashes
Tarsal glands lubricate the eye
Ciliary glands are located between
the eyelashes
Conjunctiva
Membrane that lines the eyelids
Connects to the surface of the eye
Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
Lacrimal apparatus
Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid
Lacrimal canals—drain lacrimal fluid from eyes
Lacrimal sac—provides passage of lacrimal fluid
towards nasal cavity
Nasolacrimal duct—empties lacrimal fluid into the
nasal cavity
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Function of the lacrimal apparatus
Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
Empties into the nasal cavity
Properties of lacrimal fluid
Dilute salt solution (tears)
Contains antibodies and lysozyme
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Extrinsic eye muscles
Six muscles attach to the outer
surface of the eye
Produce eye movements
Structure of the Eye
Layers forming the wall of the eyeball
Fibrous layer
Outside layer
Vascular layer
Middle layer
Sensory layer
Inside layer
Structure of the Eye: The Fibrous Layer
Sclera
White connective tissue layer
Seen anteriorly as the “white of the
eye”
Cornea
Transparent, central anterior
portion
Allows for light to pass through
Repairs itself easily
The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of
rejection
Structure of the Eye: Vascular Layer
Choroid is a blood‐rich nutritive layer in the posterior of the eye
Pigment prevents light from scattering
Modified anteriorly into two structures
Ciliary body—smooth muscle attached to lens
Iris—regulates amount of light entering eye
Pigmented layer that gives eye color
Pupil—rounded opening in the iris
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Retina
Fovea centralis – highest concentration
of photoreceptors
Optic disc (blind spot) is where the
optic nerve leaves the eyeball
Cannot see images focused on the
optic disc
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Retina contains two layers
Outer pigmented layer
Inner neural layer
Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two‐neuron chain
Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve
Sensory Layer
Rods
Most are found towards the edges of the retina
Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
All perception is in gray tones
Cones
Allow for detailed color vision
Densest in the center of the retina
Fovea centralis—area of the retina with only cones
Cone sensitivity
Three types of cones
Different cones are sensitive to different wavelengths
Color blindness is the result of the lack of one cone type
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Discs contain rhodopsin
A purple pigment consisting of the protein opsin covalently bound
to a yellow photosensitive pigment called retinal (derived from
Vit. A)
Exposure to light activates rhodopsin
Rhodopsin is split by light into retinal and opsin, eventually
resulting in an action potential
Light adaptation is caused by a reduction of rhodopsin
Dark adaptation is caused by rhodopsin production
Lens
Biconvex crystal‐like structure
Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary
body
Cataracts result when the lens becomes hard and opaque with
age
Vision becomes hazy and distorted
Eventually causes blindness in affected eye
Lens
Aqueous and Vitreous Humor
Aqueous humor
Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
Similar to blood plasma
Helps maintain intraocular pressure
Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral venous
sinus, or canal of Schlemm
Vitreous humor
Gel‐like substance posterior to the lens
Prevents the eye from collapsing
Helps maintain intraocular pressure
Pathway of Light Through the Eye
Light must be focused to a point on the retina for optimal vision
The eye is set for distance vision
(over 20 feet away)
Accommodation—the lens must change shape to focus on closer objects
(less than 20 feet away)
Pathway of Light Through the Eye
Image formed on the retina is a real image
Real images are
Reversed from left to right
Upside down
Smaller than the object
A Closer Look
Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the retina
Myopia (nearsighted)
Distant objects appear blurry
Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and are
focused in front of it
Results from an eyeball that is too long
Hyperopia (farsighted)
Near objects are blurry while distant objects are clear
Distant objects are focused behind the retina
Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy lens”
Astigmatism
Images are blurry
Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the retina due to unequal curvatures of the cornea or lens
Visual Disorders
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Eyes
Night blindness—inhibited rod function that hinders the ability to see at night
Color blindness—genetic conditions that result in the inability to see certain colors
Due to the lack of one type of cone (partial color blindness)
Cataracts—when lens becomes hard and opaque, our vision becomes hazy and distorted
Glaucoma—can cause blindness due to increasing pressure within the eye
Special Senses – Part III ‐ Hearing and Balance
The Ear
Houses two senses
Hearing
Equilibrium (balance)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Different organs house receptors for
each sense
Anatomy of the Ear
The ear is divided into three areas
External (outer) ear
Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
Inner ear (bony labyrinth)
The External Ear
Involved in hearing only
Structures of the external ear
Auricle
External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands
Ends at the tympanic membrane
The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
Air‐filled cavity within the temporal bone
Oval window and round window connect to the inner ear
Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrip)
Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
Mastoid air cells
The auditory tube connecting the
middle ear with the throat
Allows for equalizing pressure
during yawning or swallowing
This tube is otherwise
collapsed
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
Filled with perilymph
A maze of bony chambers within the temporal bone
Cochlea
Vestibule
Semicircular canals
Anatomy of the Ear
Organs of Equilibrium
Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the vestibular
apparatus
Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
Static equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
Report on the position of the head
Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells
Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells
Dynamic Equilibrium
Crista ampullaris—receptors in the semicircular canals
Tuft of hair cells
Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair cells
Action of angular head movements
The cupula stimulates the hair cells
An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
Action of angular head movements
The cupula stimulates the hair cells
An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
Organs of Hearing
Organ of Corti
Located within the cochlea
Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
Gel‐like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cells
Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve
impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe
Mechanism of Hearing
Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane
Hair cells are bent by the membrane
An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation