Metab Brain Dis

DOI 10.1007/s11011-009-9164-3
O R I G I N A L PA P E R

The effect of electromagnetic radiation in the mobile

phone range on the behaviour of the rat

Willie M. U. Daniels & Ianthe L. Pitout &

Thomas J. O. Afullo & Musa V. Mabandla

Received: 2 June 2009 / Accepted: 26 August 2009

# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is emitted from electromagnetic fields

that surround power lines, household appliances and mobile phones. Research has
shown that there are connections between EMR exposure and cancer and also that
exposure to EMR may result in structural damage to neurons. In a study by Salford
et al. (Environ Health Perspect 111:881–883, 2003) the authors demonstrated the
presence of strongly stained areas in the brains of rats that were exposed to mobile
phone EMR. These darker neurons were particularly prevalent in the hippocampal
area of the brain. The aim of our study was to further investigate the effects of EMR.
Since the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory and emotional states, we
hypothesised that EMR will have a negative impact on the subject’s mood and
ability to learn. We subsequently performed behavioural, histological and biochem-
ical tests on exposed and unexposed male and female rats to determine the effects of
EMR on learning and memory, emotional states and corticosterone levels. We found
no significant differences in the spatial memory test, and morphological assessment
of the brain also yielded non-significant differences between the groups. However, in
some exposed animals there were decreased locomotor activity, increased grooming
and a tendency of increased basal corticosterone levels. These findings suggested
that EMR exposure may lead to abnormal brain functioning.

Keywords Electromagnetic radiation . Brain development . Behaviour .

Hippocampus . HPA axis . Mood disorders

W. M. U. Daniels (*) : I. L. Pitout : M. V. Mabandla

Department of Human Physiology, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4000,
South Africa
e-mail: Danielsw@ukzn.ac.za

T. J. O. Afullo
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Westville Campus, Durban 4000, South Africa
 Metab Brain Dis

Introduction

There is a growing interest in today’s society for the potential deleterious effects of
radio frequency electromagnetic fields to the health of the general public. More
specifically, there is great concern for the effects of electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
on the development and function of the brain, especially with the current widespread
use of cellular telephones where Rf exposure is directly to the head. In 2006 WHO
issued a Research Agenda for priority research into the effects of radio frequency
fields. Among the research needs identified were pre- and post-natal animal studies
for radio frequency exposure and its potential effects on cognitive performance.
Therefore the rationale for the present study was that “behavioural studies with
immature animals may provide a useful indicator of possible cognitive effects in
children” (WHO 2006 Research Agenda for Radio Frequency Fields). Despite this
call, a recent search on Pubmed (24 August 2009) for studies relating to mobile
phone exposure yielded only 623 publications since 1992. This statistic further
emphasized the need for additional research.
Salford et al. (2003), found evidence that in rats, exposure to GSM 900 EMR,
caused structural damage to the brain. The hippocampus in particular showed the
presence of darker, shrunken neurons in the pyramidal cell layer. These authors
postulated that the damage was caused by albumin leakage from the blood brain
barrier into the brain. In a previous study with EMR the same authors showed that
radio frequency fields increase the permeability of the blood brain barrier which
allows large plasma proteins like albumin to leak into the brain and cause structural
damage (Eberhardt et al. 2008).
The hippocampus is an integral part of the brain’s limbic system and its
glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors are involved in behaviour regulation
as well as regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis (Sapolsky et
al. 1984; Gewirtz et al. 2000; Gold et al. 2002; Ziegler and Herman 2002; Kellner
and Wiedemann 2008). It is also a site of long-term potentiation (LTP)—the cellular
mechanism believed to underlie learning and memory. Damage to neurons in the
hippocampus may therefore lead to impaired learning and memory, behavioural
disturbances, as well as negatively impact the functioning of the HPA axis.
Another aspect considered in our study was the effect EMR may have on brain
development. Clinical and laboratory animal studies have shown that environmental
conditions during early life can alter brain and behavioural development (Heim et al.
1997; Daniels et al. 2004). For instance children who have had traumatic
experiences show an increase in depressive disorders and anxiety disorders in
adulthood (Nemeroff 2004; Wals and Verhulst 2005). It appears therefore that brain
development, once altered, remains so for life. Basic studies using mostly rodents
have also demonstrated early life trauma to affect behaviour in adulthood (Jezová et
al. 2002; Sullivan et al. 2006). In a previous study (Daniels et al. 2004) we have
subjected rat pups to maternal separation for 3 h between postnatal day 2 and 14.
This mild procedure resulted in significant long term changes in behaviour and brain
chemistry. These findings suggested that the brain is vulnerable to environmental
factors at this age, and that inflicted insults can cause long lasting damage to brain
function. In view of these observations we wondered whether exposure to EMR, as
an environmental factor, would yield similar results.
Metab Brain Dis

In the light of this, we exposed rat pups to EMR from post-natal day 2 to14 for 3 h per
day. We hypothesized that exposure to EMR early in the life of rat pups will lead to
abnormal brain development, impacting negatively on their behaviour during adulthood.

Materials and methods

Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the University of KwaZulu-Natal
(Reference number 047/08/Animal). Male and female Sprague-Dawley rat pups from
post-natal day 1 (P1) were obtained from the Biomedical Resources Unit and housed
under standard laboratory conditions. On P22 the rats were weaned and separated
into 6 males and 6 females per group (control and exposure groups) and housed in
the Biomedical Resources Unit until P58 when the behavioural assessments
commenced. To aid the analysis of the behavioural assessments a video camera
was used to record sessions. On P62 the rats were sacrificed by means of
decapitation for the collection of plasma and brain tissue.

Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exposure

The rat pups and their dames were exposed to EMR for 3 h per day from P2 to P14.
A radio frequency signal generator (Rohde & Schwarz, Germany) was used to emit
an 840 MHz signal via an antenna that directed the signal to the cages. Control
animals underwent the same transportation, habituation and handling procedure
without switching on the signal generator i.e. no EMR exposure.
The antenna was placed 2.5 m above the ground and 0.9 m away from the animal
cage. It was positioned to emit directly towards the side of the cage. The radiation
parameters were calculated as follows:

Power Transmitted; Pt ¼
4:2 dBm ¼ 0:38 mW 

Power Density; Pd ; at r ¼ 0:93 m from Transmit Antenna ¼ 60mW m2


From the Friis transmission formula; Pd ¼ 4pr GPt
2

ð4pr ÞPd ð4p0:93 ÞðP60x10 Þ

2 2
6
) G ¼ Pt ¼ ¼ 1:716  2:345 dB
0:38x10
3

 l2 
6
The received power; Pr ¼ ðPd Þs ¼ 4pr GPt
2 4p ¼ 1:01x10 W

¼ 1:01x10
3 mW 
29:96dBm
For 75
Ω receiver; E ðdBmV =mÞ ¼ 109 þ Pr ¼ 79:04 dBmV =m
Note: the assumption is that the received power gain, G=1.716 dB, while the
transmit antenna gain is cancelled by the cable losses and impedance mismatch. Also
the estimated received field strength is close to the calculated field strength due to a
cellular phone operating in the proximity of the human head. For a typical cell
phone, operating at a frequency of 850 MHz, (wavelength, λ=0.353 m), the
dimension of the typical cell phone, D≈10 cm. The far field for rf radiation of
wavelength λ, is related to the maximum dimensions, D, through the relation:

2D2 2ð0:1Þ2
R> ¼ ¼ 0:0567 m ¼ 5:67 cm  2:23 in
l 0:353
 Metab Brain Dis

Thus, for radiation below 5.67 cm, the operation would be in the near field, while
distances greater than 5.67 cm would yield far-field radiation.
These parameters were frequently checked throughout the experiments. The device
used for measurement is the HF32D, the high-frequency analyzer for frequencies in the
band 800 MHz to 2.5 GHz. Manufacturers are Gigahertz Solutions, of Langenzenn,
Germany. From a biological perspective, this frequency range is relevant because
cellular phones, cordless phones, microwave ovens, Bluetooth and Wireless LAN fall
within this measurement range. This instrument measures the “peak” field strength or
power density at a given location in space. This is important since the field at any given
point in space (especially closed areas, like indoors) is prone to fluctuations depending
on the orientation of the antenna, the polarization of the received signal, and the
reflections in the neighbourhood of the receiver.
Equal exposure to each rat pup cannot be guaranteed by our methodology. We did
however make sure that the radiation was evenly spread throughout the cage by
measuring the field strength at different positions and angles. The usual metal lids
covering the cages were exchanged for plastic ones during exposure. We preferred not to
remove the dam as we did not want to add another confounding factor (maternal
separation) to the study. Since the pups and dams in the various groups were passive
most of the time, we could arrange/position the cage in such a way that the pups were
facing towards the antenna, anticipating direct exposure to the radiation.

The Morris water maze

The Morris water maze (MWM) was used to assess spatial memory and the ability to
learn a specific task (Morris 1984). The MWM was performed in a pool with
dimensions 240 cm (diameter) × 35 cm (height). A clear perspex platform was
placed in the target quadrant 15 cm from the side of the pool and approximately
1 cm below the water surface. The temperature of the water was 22°C. The rats were
towel dried on exiting the pool and then placed in pre-warmed cages with paper
towel, where they were given a recuperation period of at least 30 min between trials.
The MWM was performed as follows:

Trials 1–4: Each rat was placed in the start position, facing the side of the pool
and allowed to swim for 60 s. If the rat had not found the platform in
the given time, it was picked up and placed on the platform for 10 s,
allowing it to orientate itself. The rat was then dried and returned to its
cage. This procedure was repeated 4 times for each rat.
Tests 1 and 2: Each rat was placed in the start position and allowed 60 s in which to
find the platform. The time taken to find the platform was recorded.
The scores of test 1 and 2 were averaged to give an indication of the
average time it took each individual rat to reach the platform. This
recording was used as an indicator of the rat’s learning capability.
Test 3: The platform was removed. The rat was placed in the start position
and allowed to swim for 60 s. The time spent in the target quadrant
was recorded as a test of the rat’s spatial memory i.e. the rat was
expected to spend more time in the target quadrant than the other 3
quadrants.
Metab Brain Dis

While executing the MWM tests, some animals exhibited freezing behaviour. The
animals would simply float in the water with no apparent movement by any limb.
The time spent in this behavioural state was subsequently recorded.

The open field test

The Open field test was used to assess anxiety-like behaviour and mood disturbances
(Prut and Belzung 2003). The Open field used was a 1 m × 1 m square with sides of
50 cm high. It had demarcated inner and outer zones and the floor was divided into
squares of equal size. In this study each rat was placed in the Open field for 5 min
and the following parameters were assessed:
– Locomotor activity—the number of squares the rat crossed was counted and used as
a measure of locomotor activity. In anxious or stressed animals locomotor activity is
abnormal. Some studies report an increase in locomotor activity in stressed animals
whilst others demonstrate it to be decreased (Marmendal et al. 2006).
– Exploratory behaviour—stressed or anxious animals usually show a decrease in
exploratory behaviour when placed in a novel environment such as the Open
field. Two parameters were assessed as an indication of exploratory behaviour:
a) entries into the inner zone and b) rearing.
– Grooming—this activity was recorded as increased grooming may either
indicate relaxed behaviour or self-soothing behaviour exhibited by stressed,
anxious animals. The time spent grooming was subsequently measured.

Corticosterone determination

At the end of the behavioural tests, the rats were decapitated, their plasma was
collected, quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored in a biofreezer at −80°C until
assaying. Blood collection always occurred between 09h00 and 11h00 in the
morning to account for possible variations in circadian secretion of the steroid. Since
this was an age controlled study, we assumed that both controls and exposed female
rats were in a similar stage of their oestrous cycle, therefore these two groups were
considered comparable. Corticosterone levels in the plasma were measured using a
commercially available 96 well Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) kit (Assay Designs,
Ann-Arbor, USA). The standards were run in duplicate and the samples in triplicate.

Histology

Standard histological techniques were performed to evaluate the integrity of the

hippocampal neurons. Rats were decapitated, the brains removed from the skull and
placed into 4% paraformaldehyde. The brains were blocked (~6 mm) and processed
via the following steps:

i) Dehydration: the brain was dehydrated in ascending concentrations of alcohol

and cleared in Xylene.
ii) Infiltration: the brain tissue was infiltrated with melted paraffin (Shandon
Histocenter 2).
 Metab Brain Dis

iii) Sectioning: 5 µm sections were cut using a sledge mictrotome (Microm).

iv) Staining: Sections were stained with cresyl violet (Sigma-Aldrich, Missouri,
USA) and mounted with DPX resin.

Statistical analysis

Graphpad Prism (V4) was used to analyse the data. In general a non-parametric test
(Kruskal Wallis followed by the Man-Whitney test) was used to analyse the data.
However since the majority of rats in the groups other than the exposed male group,
did not display freezing behaviour, i.e. scored 0 s, it was considered more
appropriate to use ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s Multiple Comparison test for
this data. Data is presented as mean ± SEM (n=6). p<0.05 was considered as
significant.

Results

Behaviour

There was no significant difference between any of the groups (male vs females;
exposed vs unexposed controls) with the respect to the time taken to find the hidden
platform in the Morris water maze (Fig. 1a). Neither was there any significant
difference in time spent in the target quadrant (Fig. 1b).
However all the male animals that were exposed to EMR displayed freezing
behaviour in the MWM, whilst fewer animals exhibited this behaviour in the
other groups (Fig. 2a). The mean time spent exhibiting freezing behaviour of this
group was significantly more when compared to control males (Fig. 2b).
Immobilization in water typically reflects a mood disturbance and is used as a
parameter for assessing depression and helplessness in the Porsolt forced swim test
(Porsolt et al. 1977). Since the freezing behaviour in our study was akin to
immobilization, we chose to further investigate the emotional states of the rats in
the Open field test.
Male rats showed significantly less locomotor activity in the open field test when
compared to their unexposed controls (Fig. 3). Male rats that were exposed to EMR
spent significantly more time grooming than any of the other groups (Fig. 4). Overall
males displayed significantly less exploratory behaviour than females as evidenced
by decreased crossings into the inner zone of the open field test and reduced
rearings. However exposure to EMR had no significant effect on these parameters
(Fig. 5a and b).

HPA axis activity

In general male rats had lower corticosterone concentrations than their female
counterparts. The decrease was significant when control unexposed males were
compared control unexposed females, but just missed significance between the
exposed groups (p<0.06). Exposure per se did not have any significant effect on
corticosterone levels in either gender group (Fig. 6).
Metab Brain Dis

Fig. 1 Graphs depicting the A: Time taken to find hidden platform

average time taken for rats to
find the platform (a) and the 50
time spent in the target quadrant
once the platform had been 40
removed (b) in the testing

(seconds)
session in the Morris water
30

Time
maze. Results represent mean ±
SEM (n=6 per group)
20

10

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Control females Control males

Exposed females Exposed males

B: Time spent in target quadrant

40

30
(seconds)
Time

20

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Exposed females Exposed males

Histological assessment

Cresyl violet stained sections were analysed under a light microscope (Nikon DXM
1200C and Nikon AZ100) and the images captured with NIS-Element software
(D 3.0). Morphological analysis of the hippocampal granular and pyramidal cells,
 Metab Brain Dis

Fig. 2 Graph showing (a) the A: Freezing behaviour during

number of animals per group
and (b) the mean time spent Morris water maze
exhibiting freezing behaviour 6
during the test trial in the Morris
water maze. Statistical analysis 5

Number of animals
revealed that exposed male rats
displayed significantly more 4
freezing behaviour than control
males. *p<0.05, Significantly 3
different from control males
(ANOVA followed by 2
Bonferroni’s Multiple
Comparison test) 1

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B: Time spent exhibiting

freezing behaviour
17.5 *
Freezing Behaviour

15.0
(in seconds)

12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
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and the cortical region revealed that the cells were intact and that there were no
significant differences in neuron structure between control and EMR exposed brains.

Discussion

There is a growing concern for the potential deleterious health effects of radio
frequency EMR exposure to the general public. Sources of these radiations in the
environment include microwaves, power lines, telecommunication and broadcasting
antennas and mobile phones. With the worldwide increase in mobile phone use
Metab Brain Dis

Fig. 3 Graph depicting locomo- Locomotor Activity

tor activity of the rats during the 200
open field test. Exposure to

No. of squares crossed

electromagnetic radiation
decreased locomotor activity in 150
males when compared to unex-
posed controls. Results represent
mean ± SEM (n=6). *p<0.05,
100
significantly different from
control male group
(Mann- Whitney test)
50

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Control female Control male

Exposed female Exposed male

where EMR exposure is to the head, there is a need for research into the long term
effects of EMR on the brain. Studies have shown that brain development is
susceptible to mild insults during early life and that these onslaughts may affect
brain function later in life (Sullivan et al. 2006). In the present study, we exposed
Sprague-Dawley rat pups to electromagnetic frequency of 840 MHz equivalent to
EMR exposure from mobile phones and obtained a number of interesting findings.

Fig. 4 Graph depicting the time Grooming

30
spent grooming by various
groups of animals. Exposure *
Time spent grooming

to electromagnetic radiation
increased grooming behaviour in
males when compared to 20
(seconds)

unexposed controls. Results

represent mean ± SEM (n=6).
*p<0.05, significantly different
from control male group 10
(Mann- Whitney test)

0
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Control female Control male

Exposed female Exposed male
 Metab Brain Dis

Fig. 5 Graphs depicting A: Exploratory behaviour

exploratory behaviour of the
various groups of rats during the 6 crosses into innerzone
open field test. Exposure to
electromagnetic radiation did not

Number of crosses
affect inner zone crossings (a) or
rearing (b) between any of the 4
gender groups. Results represent
mean ± SEM (N=6)

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Control female Control male

Exposed female Exposed male

B: Exploratory behaviour
30 rearing
Number of rears

20

10

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Control female Control male

Exposed female Exposed male

Exposure to EMR did not affect learning ability significantly, as measured in the
Morris water maze (MWM), in both gender groups. Whilst this result was
considered unexpectedly, it may be possible that the time period of exposure was
inadequate to impact this parameter significantly. We chose a time period of 3 h in
Metab Brain Dis

Fig. 6 Graph depicting the Plasma corticosterone concentration

plasma corticosterone concentra-
tion of the various groups. 10000

Corticosterone levels
Whilst control males had
significantly lower levels than 8000
control females, exposure to
electromagnetic radiation

(pg/ml)
6000
did not affect the corticosterone
levels within the gender groups.
4000
Results represent the mean ±
SEM (n=6). *p>0.01, signifi- *
cantly lower than control female 2000
group (Mann- Whitney test)
0

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Control female Control male

Exposed female Exposed male

order to compare our observations with previous data on maternal separation

(Daniels et al. 2004). The present result therefore indicated that these two paradigms
cannot be equated and hence a different exposure time ought to be considered in
future experiments. Also it may be that the MWM is perhaps not sensitive enough to
identify subtle changes in learning and memory especially in stressed animals
(D’Hooge and De Deyn 2001). We found in our study that the exposed animals
exhibited more freezing behaviour in the water than the unexposed counterparts and
this became a confounding factor when analysing the parameters of time taken to
find the platform and time spent in the target quadrant. Therefore whilst there were
no significant differences in the MWM parameters, we remain cautious to conclude
that EMR exposure did not affect learning and memory at all.
The marked increase in number of exposed animals that displayed freezing
behaviour in the water and the amount of time spent doing so, prompted us to further
investigate the behaviour of the rats. Immobilization is a parameter often used in the
Forced swim test to assess depression and helplessness (Porsolt et al. 1977), thus the
freezing behaviour we observed suggested that there may be mood disturbances in
our exposed animals. We performed an Open field test and assessed locomotor
activity, exploratory behaviour and grooming. There was a significant decrease in
the locomotor activity of the exposed male rats when compared to their unexposed
controls. Whilst there were no differences in exploratory behaviour between the
groups, exposed males spent more time grooming than their control counterparts.
Decreased locomotor activity is usually indicative of disturbances in emotional states
which may have been triggered by the stress of being placed in a novel environment
(Prut and Belzung 2003). Increased grooming is considered a feature of mood
disturbances and relates to self-soothing behaviour when faced with a stressful
situation. The decrease in locomotor activity together with the increase in grooming
therefore suggested that EMR exposure may lead to behavioural abnormalities at
 Metab Brain Dis

least in males. This result is in agreement with a similar finding in a previous study
where exposure to direct and indirect stress also caused a reduction in locomotor
activity and increased grooming behaviour (Daniels et al. 2008).
Basal corticosterone concentrations were determined on the plasma of the animals
to ascertain whether the activity of the HPA axis was altered. In contrast to what the
behavioural assessment reflected, there were no significant differences in cortico-
sterone levels between the groups, although a trend was noted for exposed female
rats to have higher corticosterone levels than the unexposed female controls (p<
0.06). Notwithstanding, the higher basal levels of corticosterone in the exposed
females may partially indicate hyperactivity of the HPA axis or impaired negative
feedback inhibition of corticosterone release. Such HPA axis abnormalities have
been reported for animals that are chronically and perinatally stressed (Jezová et al.
2002). Interestingly it was noted that there were significant differences in basal
corticosterone levels between genders. Female rats showed higher corticosterone
levels than the male rats which may be due to the hormonal differences in males and
females. These findings are in keeping with Jezová et al. (2002) that there is
increased HPA axis function in females when compared with males. Due to these
gender differences interpretation of the results requires caution as it cannot be
inferred that male rats experienced similar responses to stress levels or that the
differences in stress levels is reflected by the behaviour of the male versus female
rats. It is known that corticosterone levels in females may be influenced by the stage
of their oestrous cycle. In view of this we specifically collected the blood in the
morning at a time period during which the corticosterone concentration usually
reaches its nadir and hence the impact of the oestrous cycle is minimal.
It has been proposed that EMR exposure of mobile phone frequency and intensity
causes damage to the hippocampus (Salford et al. 2003). Following cresyl violet
staining, Salford et al. (2003) reported the presence of shrunken, dark neurons
especially in the pyramidal cell layer. Our histological analysis of the hippocampal
cell layers and the cortical layer showed, in contrast to the above mentioned study,
that the cells had retained their integrity and there was no significant difference
between the control and exposed brains. Unlike the study of Salford et al. (2003) we
did not sacrifice the animals and collect their brain tissue immediately after
exposure. In our experiments the animals were exposed during early childhood and
only studied much later in adulthood. The extended time lapse between the period of
exposure and the behavioural and histological assessments may therefore have
allowed for compensation or repair in areas affected by the EMR exposure resulting
in no obvious structural abnormalities under light microscopy.

Conclusion

Our study shows that EMR may cause behavioural changes as evidenced by a
reduction in locomotor activity, increased grooming and freezing behaviour. These
alterations in behaviour have been associated with animal models of stress-related
disorders and therefore suggest that EMR exposure may be an environmental risk
factor in the development of behavioural abnormalities. The present study recognises
that the obtained evidence is limited, and that further investigation is required.
Metab Brain Dis

However it does alert us to the possibility that EMR exposure may have long term
deleterious effects.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the staff of the Biomedical Resource Unit of the
University of Kwazulu-Natal for technical assistance.

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