WBDG Hospitals & Care Homes

1
W BDG
Whole Building Design Guide

2
Health Care Facilities

by Robert F. Carr
Last updated: 03-14-2007
Overview
We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us... Winston Churchill (May
10, 1941)
Health care facilities encompass a wide range of types, from small and relatively simple
medical clinics to large, complex, and costly, teaching and research hospitals. Large
hospitals centers may include all the various subsidiary health care types that are often
independent facilities. The old expression, "You never get a second chance to make a
good first impression" applies to health care facilities. The facility conveys a message to
patients, visitors, volunteers, vendors, and staff. The facility also communicates a torrent
of clues about the organization and the medical care being provided there. The clues start
at the approach to the facility, the drop-off area, the parking lots, and the street signs.
Ideally, that message is one that conveys welcoming, caring, comfort, and compassion,
commitment to patient well-being and safety, where stress is relieved, refuge is provided,
respect is reciprocated, competence is symbolized, way-finding is facilitated, and families
are accommodated. The facility also influences employee service attitudes and behaviors.
Finishes, signage, and artwork must be carefully selected, well coordinated, and
integrated. Security can be balanced with some features apparent to patients/visitors,
while conveying a message of safety. Thoughtful design can help ensure the proper first
impression is created and sustained.
The design of health care facilities is governed by many regulations and technical
requirements. It is also affected by many less defined needs and pressures. The most
pressing of these are workforce shortages, reimbursements, malpractice insurance,
physician-hospital relations, capacity, care for the uninsured, patient safety, advances in
technology, and patient satisfaction per a recent American College of Healthcare
Executives survey of hospital CEOs.
3
VAMC Dallas, TX
The entire health care system is under great pressure to reduce costs, and at the same
time, be more responsive to "customers". The aging are the heaviest users of health care
services, and the percentage of the aging in our population is increasing significantly. At
the same time, rapid technological advances, often involving very sophisticated
techniques and equipment, make more diagnostic and treatment procedures available.
The consequent increase in health care costs is not easily accommodated. Designers find
increasing focus on limiting both construction costs and the costs of their design services,
while compressing construction schedules and still meeting the highest quality standards.
As cost pressures increase, health care facilities find themselves in increasing competition
for both patients and staff. Architecture is often recognized as an important tool in
attracting and retaining the best doctors and nurses, the most successful HMOs and
insurance plans, and the most patients. Consumer decisions are based on cost,
accessibility, quality of service, and quality of medical care. An aesthetically pleasing
facility is a key aspect of the perceived quality of care.
Health care is a labor-intensive industry, and much of that labor is highly skilled and
highly paid. Since 60 to 75% of hospital expenses are labor costs, a design that increases
operational productivity or efficiency and reduces staffing needs can have a major impact
on the bottom line. (Don Blair, then at Perkins + Will, estimated that the cost of one full-
time staff person is equivalent to the debt service on $1 million of borrowing per
Architectural Record of May 1997.) Likewise, operations and maintenance costs over the
typical 50-year life cycle of a hospital contribute up to 80% to the equation, so anything
designers can do to facilitate maintenance and reduce total life-cycle cost will have
tremendous returns on a relatively small up-front investment. (Source: Federal Facilities
Council.)
Flexibility must be a basic feature of any new health care facility to keep it from rapid
obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies. Health care facility needs
are evolving rapidly, and the direction of that evolution is difficult to forecast with any
certainty. New equipment technologies, new treatment methodologies, changes in
diseases, and changes in the patient population base all impact the facilities that house
them. Inpatient care is steadily being reduced while outpatient services are growing.
There is increasing emphasis on special-care units and smaller satellite facilities rather
than large, centralized facilities.
In the past, communicable diseases were the major health problem, and sanitation or
cleanliness was the main characteristic of a healing or therapeutic environment.
Cleanliness remains extremely important, but there is increasing recognition of the value
of a pleasant, easily-understood, and non-threatening environment for patient recovery.
For example, the Planetree Hospital philosophy of "demystifying medicine" emphasizes
such a physical environment as part of its approach. Good design in the health care
setting starts by recognizing the basic functional needs, but does not end there—it must
4
also meet the emotional needs of those who use such facilities at times of uncertainty,
dependency, and stress.
Emerging Issues
• The movement from hospital-based acute care to outpatient care, and toward a
more holistic, preventative, and continuous care of health and wellness.
• The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act) regulations
addressing security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These
regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient
information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.
• Increasing emphasis on security, especially in large public facilities, and the need
to balance this with the desired openness to patients and visitors.
Classification
A trend towards specialization has resulted in a growing number of health care types.
Among them are hospitals, nursing homes, outpatient facilities, psychiatric facilities,
rehabilitation facilities, hospices, assisted living facilities, congregate housing, adult day
care facilities, and various specialized outpatient facilities. The WBDG currently includes
sections on the following four specific building types:
• Hospital
• Nursing Home, including Alzheimer's Related Dementia (ARD) units
• Outpatient Clinic, including the specialized diagnostic and treatment areas which
may be stand-alone facilities
• Psychiatric Facility, including psychiatric hospitals
Major Resources
Websites
• AIA Academy of Architecture for Health (AAH)—Contains AAH newsletters,

reports, and other documents related to health care design.
• American Hospital Association—Information generally focused on financial and
organizational issues, but includes good data on health care statistics and other
resources.
• American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE)—An advocate for
continuous improvement in the health care engineering and facilities management
professions. Contains a Therapeutic Environments Forum with excellent
information and sponsors an annual conference on planning, design, and
construction.
5
• American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota—The

first centralized clearinghouse for design and human behavior research on the
Web.
• Green Guide for Health Care™—A best practices guide for healthy and
sustainable building design, construction, and operations for the healthcare
industry.
• Hospitals for a Healthy Environment—A four-member partnership between the
Environmental Protection Agency, American Hospital Association, American
Nurses Association, and Healthcare Without Harm to educate health care
professionals about pollution prevention.
• Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO)—
Has some facility related information, though it is largely concerned with
operational issues.
• Society for the Arts in Healthcare (SAH)—National and international advocacy
group for the integration of the arts into the healing health care environment.
• The Center for Health Design—An extensive site focusing on health care facility
design.
• VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM) Technical Information
Library—Includes manuals, guides, and other standards covering all aspects of
health care facility design.
Publications
• Architectural Record—Monthly journal with a building types study section

focusing on health care design every year or so. Online archives include many
more projects than those that appear in the printed magazine.
• Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities . ed. Stephen A. Kliment. New
York: John Wily & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd ed. by
Janet R. Carpman, Myron A. Grant and Deborah A. Simmons. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
• Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care
Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health, Washington, DC: The
American Institute of Architects, 2001.
• Healthcare Architecture in an Era of Radical Transformations by Stephen
Verderber and David Fine. Yale University Press, 2000.
• Healthcare Design—A quarterly magazine with design articles and presentations
of recent projects
• Health Facilities Review, 1992-1993 and subsequent issues by AIA Academy of
Architecture for Health. Washington DC: AIA Press.
• Hospitals and Health Networks—A monthly journal of the American Hospital
Association. Includes occasional articles on construction.
• Innovations in Healthcare Design: Selected Presentations from the First Five
Symposia on Healthcare Design ed. Sara Marberry. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1995.
6
• Journal of Healthcare Design—Published from 1988-1998, contains presentations

at the annual symposium on Health Care Design.
• Modern Healthcare—A weekly journal for health care executives with frequent
articles on design and construction and an annual design awards program. Online
articles from 1994.
• Performance Failures in Health Care Facilities. Preliminary Report by Earle
Kennett. Washington, DC: AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research, 1988.
• Sustainable Federal Facilities: A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life-
cycle Costing, and Sustainable Development by the Federal Facilities Council.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
7
Hospital
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)
Overview
"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-
functional design can impede activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise
costs to intolerable levels." ... Hardy and Lammers
Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide
range of services and functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions,
such as clinical laboratories, imaging, emergency rooms, and surgery; hospitality
functions, such as food service and housekeeping; and the fundamental inpatient care or
bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and specificity of
regulations, codes, and oversight that govern hospital construction and operations. Each
of the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a hospital, including highly
complicated mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized
knowledge and expertise. No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge,
which is why specialized consultants play an important role in hospital planning and
design. The functional units within the hospital can have competing needs and priorities.
Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be balanced against
mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to other
departments), and the financial status of the organization.
VAMC Bay Pines, FL
In addition to the wide range of services that must be accommodated, hospitals must
serve and support many different users and stakeholders. Ideally, the design process
incorporates direct input from the owner and from key hospital staff early on in the
process. The designer also has to be an advocate for the patients, visitors, support staff,
8
volunteers, and suppliers who do not generally have direct input into the design. Good
hospital design integrates functional requirements with the human needs of its varied
users.
The basic form of a hospital is, ideally, based on its functions:
• bed-related inpatient functions

• outpatient-related functions
• diagnostic and treatment functions
• administrative functions
• service functions (food, supply)
• research and teaching functions
Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the

hospital. Certain relationships between the various functions are required—as in the
following flow diagrams.
These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and
waste. Thus the physical configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic
systems are inextricably intertwined. The transportation systems are influenced by the
building configuration, and the configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation
systems. The hospital configuration is also influenced by site restraints and opportunities,
9
climate, surrounding facilities, budget, and available technology. New alternatives are
generated by new medical needs and new technology.
In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many
times, is a principal element of the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be
more compact shapes than the elongated rectangles of the past. Compact rectangles,
modified triangles, or even circles have been used in an attempt to shorten the distance
between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution is heavily dependent
on program issues such as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a
nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The trend, recently reinforced by
HIPAA, is to all private rooms.)
Building Attributes
Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common
attributes.
Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness
An efficient hospital layout should:
• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between

frequently used spaces
• Allow easy visual supervision of patients by limited staff
• Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful pre-design
programming.
• Provide an efficient logistics system, which might include elevators, pneumatic
tubes, box conveyors, manual or automated carts, and gravity or pneumatic
chutes, for the efficient handling of food and clean supplies and the removal of
waste, recyclables, and soiled material
• Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may be shared
by adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi-purpose spaces
• Consolidate outpatient functions for more efficient operation—on first floor, if
possible—for direct access by outpatients
• Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements
• Provide optimal functional adjacencies, such as locating the surgical intensive
care unit adjacent to the operating suite. These adjacencies should be based on a
detailed functional program which describes the hospital's intended operations
from the standpoint of patients, staff, and supplies.
10
VAMC Albuquerque, NM
Flexibility and Expandability
Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:
• Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout

• Use generic room sizes and plans as much as possible, rather than highly specific
ones
• Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical and
electrical systems
• Where size and program allow, be designed on a modular system basis, such as
the VA Hospital Building System. This system also uses walk-through interstitial
space between occupied floors for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
distribution. For large projects, this provides continuing adaptability to changing
programs and needs, with no first-cost premium, if properly planned, designed,
and bid. The VA Hospital Building System also allows vertical expansion without
disruptions to floors below.
• Be open-ended, with well planned directions for future expansion; for instance
positioning "soft spaces" such as administrative departments, adjacent to "hard
spaces" such as clinical laboratories.
11
Cross-section showing interstitial space with deck above an occupied floor
Therapeutic Environment
Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery.
Every effort should be made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and
stress-free as possible. The interior designer plays a major role in this effort to create a
therapeutic environment. A hospital's interior design should be based on a comprehensive
understanding of the facility's mission and its patient profile. The characteristics of the
patient profile will determine the degree to which the interior design should address
aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and mental disabilities, and abusiveness. (See
VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a therapeutic interior
are:
• Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with

sanitation and other functional needs
• Using cheerful and varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that some colors
are inappropriate and can interfere with provider assessments of patients' pallor
and skin tones, disorient older or impaired patients, or agitate patients and staff,
particularly some psychiatric patients (for in depth survey of research related to
Color in Healthcare Environments, see CHER).
• Admitting ample natural light wherever feasible and using color-corrected
lighting in interior spaces which closely approximates natural daylight
12
• Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed, and elsewhere wherever
possible; photo murals of nature scenes are helpful where outdoor views are not
available
• Designing a "way-finding" process into every project. Patients, visitors, and staff
all need to know where they are, what their destination is, and how to get there
and return. A patient's sense of competence is encouraged by making spaces easy
to find, identify, and use without asking for help. Building elements, color,
texture, and pattern should all give cues, as well as artwork and signage. (As an
example, see VA Signage Design Guide.)
For an in-depth view see WBDG—Therapeutic Environments.
Cleanliness and Sanitation
Hospitals must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:
• Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space

• Careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions
to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints
• Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces
• Special materials, finishes, and details for spaces which are to be kept sterile, such
as integral cove base. The new antimicrobial surfaces might be considered for
appropriate locations.
Accessibility
All areas, both inside and out, should:
• Comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disability Act
(ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, the Uniform Federal Accessibility
Standards (UFAS)
• In addition to meeting minimum requirements of ADA and/or UFAS, be designed
so as to be easy to use by the many patients with temporary or permanent
handicaps
• Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalks and
corridors are wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily
• Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with slower
adaptation rates to dark and light; marking glass walls and doors to make their
presence obvious
Controlled Circulation
A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of

people and goods. Much of this circulation should be controlled.
13
• Outpatients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel through
inpatient functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients
• Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined
• Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit without
penetrating other functional areas
• Separate patients and visitors from industrial/logistical areas or floors
• Outflow of trash, recyclables, and soiled materials should be separated from
movement of food and clean supplies, and both should be separated from routes
of patients and visitors
• Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients
and visitors
• Dedicated service elevators for deliveries, food and building maintenance services
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.)

It is important in enhancing the hospital's public image and is thus an important
marketing tool. A better environment also contributes to better staff morale and patient
care. Aesthetic considerations include:
• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures

• Use of artwork
• Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail
• Bright, open, generously-scaled public spaces
• Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day rooms, consultation rooms, and
offices
• Compatibility of exterior design with its physical surroundings
Security and Safety
In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several
particular security concerns:
• Protection of hospital property and assets, including drugs

• Protection of patients, including incapacitated patients, and staff
• Safe control of violent or unstable patients
• Vulnerability to damage from terrorism because of proximity to high-
vulnerability targets, or because they may be highly visible public buildings with
an important role in the public health system.
Sustainability
Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and
economy of the surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and
produce large amounts of waste. Because hospitals place such demands on community
resources they are natural candidates for sustainable design.
14
Section 1.9 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of hospital energy
conservation standards that meet DOE requirements. Also see LEED's (Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System for sustainability
standards for construction projects.
Emerging Issues
Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:
• The decreasing numbers of general practitioners along with the increased use of
emergency facilities for primary care
• The increasing introduction of highly sophisticated diagnostic and treatment
technology
• Requirements to remain operational during and after disasters—see, for example,
VA's Design and Construction Procedure: Natural Disaster Non-Structural
Resistive Design
• State laws requiring earthquake resistance, both in designing new buildings and
retrofitting existing structures
• New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations
address security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These
regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient
information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.
• Preventative care versus sickness care; designing hospitals as all-inclusive
"wellness centers"
• Use of hand-held computers and portable diagnostic equipment to allow more
mobile, decentralized patient care, and a general shift to computerized patient
information of all kinds. This might require computer alcoves and data ports in
corridors outside patient bedrooms.
• Need to balance increasing attention to building security with openness to patients
and visitors
• Emergence of palliative care as a specialty in many major medical centers
• A growing interest in more holistic, patient-centered treatment and environments
such as promoted by Planetree. This might include providing mini-medical
libraries and computer terminals so patients can research their conditions and
treatments, and locating kitchens and dining areas on inpatient units so family
members can prepare food for patients and families to eat together.
Relevant Codes and Standards

Hospitals are among the most regulated of all building types. Like other buildings, they
must follow the local and/or state general building codes. However, federal facilities on
federal property generally need not comply with state and local codes, but follow federal
regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must comply with the individual state
licensing regulations. Many states adopt the AIA Guidelines for Design and Construction
15
of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume
often has regulatory status.
State and local codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional
model codes, are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).
Since hospitals treat patients who are reimbursed under Medicare, they must also meet
federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint
Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the
federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life
Safety Code (NFPA 101).
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly
affects the design of hospitals with its general and specific accessibility requirements.
The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally-
funded facilities. They are not greatly different from ADA requirements.
Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also affect
the design of hospitals, particularly in laboratory areas.
Federal agencies that build and operate hospitals have developed detailed standards for
the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are
applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among them are:
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical

Information Library contains many guides and standards, including:
o Design Guides for planning many different departments and clinics,
design manuals of technical requirements, equipment lists, master
specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and standard details.
Major Resources
Websites
• American Hospital Association—Information generally focused on financial and

organizational issues, but includes good information on health care statistics and
other resources.
• American Society of Interior Designers and The University of Minnesota—The
first centralized clearinghouse for design and human behavior research on the
Web.
industry.
• Hospitals for a Healthy Environment—A four-member partnership between the
Environmental Protection Agency, American Hospital Association, American
16
Nurses Association, and Healthcare without Harm to educate healthcare

professionals about pollution prevention.
• Society for the Arts in Healthcare (SAH)—National and international advocacy
group for the integration of the arts into the healing healthcare environment.
• U.S. Green Building Council
Publications
• Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities , ed. Stephen Kliment. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Interior Design's Healing Potential
by Cynthia A. Leibrock. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.—Innovative
design solutions in key areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes
• Design Guide for Improving Hospital Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and High
Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings. FEMA, 2007.
• Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd
Edition , by Janet Carpman, Myron Grant, and Deborah Simmons. New York:
• Development Study—VA Hospital Building System by Building Systems
Development and Stone, Marraccini & Patterson. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, rev. 1977.
• Emergency Department Design: A Practical Guide to Planning for the Future by
John Huddy and Michael T. Rapp. Irving, Texas: ACEP (American College of
Emergency Physicians) 2000.
• Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by
AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American
Institute of Architects, 2001.
• Healthcare Design , ed. Sarah O. Marberry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1997.
• Health Facilities Management—A monthly journal of the American Hospital
Association's Health Forum. It serves the health facility operations, maintenance,
construction, and environmental services community.
• Healthcare Facility Plannning: Thinking Strategically by Cynthia Hayward, AIA,
FAAHC, ACHA. Health Admnistration Press and the American College of
Healthcare Executives, 2005.
• Health Facilities Review 1992-1993 and subsequent by AIA Committee on
Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: AIA Press.
• Hospitals and Health Networks—A monthly journal of the American Hospital
Association covering general health care news, with occasional articles on design
and construction
• Hospitals, The Planning and Design Process, 2nd ed. by Owen B. Hardy and
Lawrence P. Lammers. Rockville, Md.: Aspen Publishers, 1996.
• Hospital Interior Architecture: Creating Healing Environments for Special Patient
Populations by Jain Malkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.
• Healthcare Design—A quarterly magazine with design articles and presentations
of recent projects
17
• Medical and Dental Space Planning: A Comprehensive Guide to Design,

Equipment, and Clinical Procedures, 3rd Edition , by Jain Malkin. New York:
• Modern Healthcare—A weekly journal for healthcare executives with frequent
articles on design and construction and an annual design awards program. Online
archives of articles back to 1994.
• Time Saver Standards for Building Types, 2nd ed. by Joseph De Chiara and John
Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.
Tools
• SpaceMedGuide-A Space Planning Guide for Healthcare Facilities—a popular

planning tool providing state-of-the-art planning methodologies, industry
benchmarks, and planning tips.
18
Nursing Home
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)
Overview
Nursing homes serve patients requiring preventive, therapeutic, and rehabilitative nursing
care services for non-acute, long-term conditions. Specialized clinical and diagnostic
services are obtained outside the nursing home. Most residents are frail and aged, but not
bedridden, although often using canes, walkers, or wheelchairs. Stays are relatively long,
the majority for life. Nursing homes also care for a smaller percentage of convalescent
patients of all ages. These patients are in long-term recovery from acute illnesses, but no
longer require hospitalization.
Nursing homes, or sections of them, are often classified into intermediate and skilled
nursing units, definitions related to Medicare/Medicaid standards. Intermediate-care
facilities have just enough nursing to qualify for Medicaid; skilled nursing facilities meet
the more demanding medical standards to qualify for Medicare as well as Medicaid
support. The cognitively impaired are frequently housed separately in Alzheimer Related
Dementia (ASD) units.
Nursing homes present special design challenges in that for most residents the nursing
home is not just a facility, but indeed their home. The reality is that in most cases the
residents will live there for the rest of their lives and, moreover, rarely leave the premises
at all. The nursing home becomes their entire world in a sense. The challenge is to design
a nursing home that is sensitive and responsive to long-term human needs and well-being,
both physical and emotional.
19
Floor Plan of Missouri Veterans Home—St. James, Missouri

Architect: Kennedy Association Inc.
View enlarged plan
Building Attributes
A nursing home operates primarily in a patient-care mode rather than a medical mode.
Consequently, its more important attributes are those focusing on the general well-being
of its residents rather than high-tech considerations. The principal attributes of a well
designed nursing home are:
Homelike and Therapeutic Environment
Inherent in any institutional stay is the impact of environment on recovery, and the long-
term stays typical of nursing home residents greatly increase this impact. The architect
and interior designer must have a thorough understanding of the nursing home's mission
and its patient profile. It is especially important that the design address aging and its
accompanying physical and mental disabilities, including loss of visual acuity. To
achieve the appropriate nursing home environment every effort should be made to:
20
• Give spaces a homelike, rather than institutional, size and scale with natural light
and views of the outdoors
• Create a warm reassuring environment by using a variety of familiar, non-
reflective finishes and cheerful, varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that
some colors are inappropriate and can disorient or agitate impaired residents
• Provide each resident a variety of spatial experiences, including access to a
garden and the outdoors in general
• Promote traditional residential qualities of privacy, choice, control, and
personalization of one's immediate surroundings
• Alleviate possible disorientation of residents by providing differences between
"residential neighborhoods" of the nursing home, and by use of clocks, calendars,
and other "reminders"
• Encourage resident autonomy by making their spaces easy to find, identify, and
use
• Provide higher lighting levels than typical for residential occupancies
Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness
The nursing home design should:
• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between

frequently used spaces
• Allow easy visual supervision of patients by minimal staff
• Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so they may be shared by
adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi- purpose spaces
Western New York State Veterans Home Batavia, NY, Kideny Architects
Cleanliness and Sanitation
An odor-free environment is a very high priority in nursing homes, since many residents
are occasionally incontinent, and the pervasive odors can give an impression of
uncleanliness and poor operation to family and visitors. In addition to operational
practices and careful choice of furniture, facility design can help odor control by:
21
• Adequate and highly visible toilet rooms in key locations near spaces where
residents congregate
• The use of appropriate, durable finishes for each space used by residents
• Proper detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions
to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints
• Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces
• Effective ventilation, which may need to exceed nominal design levels
Attention to Way-finding
A consistent and well thought out system of way-finding helps to maintain the residents'
dignity and avoid their disorientation. It should:
• Use multiple cues from building elements, colors, texture, pattern, and artwork, as
well as signage, to help residents understand where they are, what their
destination is, and how to get there and back.
• Identify frequently used destination spaces by architectural features and
landmarks which can be seen from a distance, as well as symbols, signage, art,
and elements such as fish tanks, birdcages, or greenery
• Avoid prominent locations and high visibility of doors to spaces which patients
should not enter
• Use simple lettering and clear contrasts in signage (See VA Signage Manual)
• Clearly identify only those rooms that residents frequent
Accessibility
Many residents may be ambulatory to varying degrees, but will require the assistance of
canes, crutches, walkers, or wheelchairs. To accommodate these residents, all spaces used
by them, both inside and out, should:
• Comply with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities (ADA) and, if
federally funded or owned, with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards
(UFAS)
• Be designed so that all spaces, furnishings, and equipment, including storage units
and operable windows, are easily usable by residents in wheelchairs
• Be equipped with grab bars in all appropriate locations
• Be free of tripping hazards
• Be located on one floor if feasible, preferably at grade. If residents' bedrooms
must be located on more than one floor, then dining space must be apportioned
among those floors, not centralized
Security and Safety
Design to address security and safety concerns of nursing homes includes:
• Use of non-reflective and non-slip floors to avoid falls

22
• Control of access to hazardous spaces

• Control of exits to avoid residents leaving and becoming lost or injured
• Provision of secure spaces to safeguard facility supplies and personal property of
residents and staff
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic homelike environment. It is also a

major factor in a nursing home's public image and is thus an important marketing tool for
both residents' families and staff. Aesthetic considerations include:
• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures

• Use of artwork
• Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail
• Bright, open, generously scaled public and congregate spaces
• Homelike and intimate scale in resident rooms and offices
• Appropriate residential exterior appearance, not hospital-like
• Exterior compatibility with surroundings
Emerging Issues
There is a growing recognition of the need for dementia day care. This can often be
effectively provided within or adjoining an inpatient nursing facility.
There is a need for better non-medical residential facilities for the frail but independent
elderly.
Managed care programs for the aged are being developed to prevent, or at least postpone,
institutionalization.
New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations address
security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new
emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect location and layout of
workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, both paper and
electronic, as well as patient accommodations.

Like other buildings, nursing homes must follow the local and/or state general building
codes. However, federal facilities on federal land generally need not comply with state
and local codes, but follow federal regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must
comply with the individual state licensing regulations. Many states adopt the AIA
Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities, listed
below as a resource, and thus that volume often has regulatory status. State and local
23
codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional model codes,
are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).
Library, Missouri Veterans Home, St. James, MO, Kennedy Assoc., Inc.
To care for residents who are reimbursed under Medicare or Medicaid, facilities must
also meet federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint
Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the
federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life
Safety Code (NFPA 101).
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly
affects the design of nursing homes with its general and specific accessibility
requirements. The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and
federally funded facilities. They do not greatly differ from ADA requirements.
Federal agencies that build and operate, or fund, nursing homes have developed detailed
standards for the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these
standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among
them are:
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical

Information Library contains many guides and standards, including:
o Design Manuals of technical requirements, equipment lists, master
specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and standard details.
Major Resources
Websites
• American Health Care Association—This organization represents the long-term

case community. The website is not focused on design issues, but includes much
background information and statistics.
24
• American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota—The

first centralized clearinghouse on the web for design and human behavior
research.
industry.
Publications
• Contemporary Environments for People with Dementia by Cohen and Day.

Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993.
• Design for Dementia by Margaret Calkins. Owings Mills, MD: National Health
Publishing, 1988.
• Design of Long-Term Care Facilities by Aranyi and Goldman. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.
• Designing for Alzheimer's Disease: Strategies for Creating Better Care
Environments by Elizabeth Brawley. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.
• Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Interior Design's Healing Potential
by Cynthia A. Leibrock. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.—Innovative
design solutions in key areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes
• Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd
Edition by Janet Carpman, Myron Grant, and Deborah Simmons. New York:
• Designing the Open Nursing Home by J.A. Koncelik. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden,
Hutchinson, and Ross, 1976.
• Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by
AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American
Institute of Architects, 2001.
• Hospital Related Facilities for the Elderly by Alicen Hall. Lubbock, Tex.: Texas
A&M University, 1997.
• Nursing Home Design by Benjamin Schwarz. New York: Garland Publishing,
1996.
• Nursing Home Renovation Designed for Reform by Lorraine Hiatt. Boston:
Butterworth Architecture, 1991.
• Time Saver Standards for Building Types, 2nd ed. by Joseph De Chiara and John
Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.
25
Project Planning, Management and

Delivery
Introduction
Successful project management requires team leadership and coordination, diligent
project planning, and effective oversight of the delivery process. Recognizing the
importance of these qualities in satisfying clients' expectations, the Project Management
section offers guidance for the entire delivery team to successfully and effectively carry
out a high performance building project.
While this section is still under development, click on one of the following areas to begin
your exploration:
• Project Delivery Teams—Contains guidance on assembling and effectively

managing the project team.
• Project Planning and Development—Contains guidance on how to plan and
deliver a project, from inception to turnover.
• Building Commissioning—Provides an overview of commissioning drivers,
benefits, goals, and principles.
• Project Delivery and Controls—Contains descriptions of procedures and practices
used to manage project scope, budget, and schedule.
Note: Terminology and processes described within this section of the WBDG typically
refer to federal projects, but may be applicable to other public sector institutions with
adaptation for local standards of professional practice.
Major Resources
Federal Agency Links
• DOE Project Management Process (PDF 28 KB)

• NASA NPG 8820.2F-Facility Project Requirements
• Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications—On December 11, 2003,
Standard Form 330 (SF330) was released by the federal government. The new
form, which architects and engineers use to present their qualifications and
experience when seeking federal projects, replaces SF 254/255 and emphasizes
qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services.
• USACE Project Managers Guide
• USAF Project Management Online Handbook
26
• VA Project Managers Handbook
Publications
• Construction Project Administration by Edward R. Fisk. New York, NY: John

• Managing the Construction Project, A Practical Guide for the Project Manager by
Theodore J. Trauner, Jr. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993.
• Program Management Procedures by Construction Management Association of
America. McLean, VA: 2003.
• Project Management in Construction by Sidney M. Levy. McGraw-Hill, 2002.
• Project Management, Principles and Practices by Pete M. Spinner. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1997.
Organizations
• Construction Industry Institute (CII)—A consortium of public and private facility

owners, construction contractors, material manufacturers.
• Construction Management Institute (CMAA)—An association representing the
construction management profession.
• Federal Facilities Council (FFC)—A cooperative association of 24 federal
agencies responsible for facility design, acquisition, management, maintenance,
and evaluation.
• Project Management Institute (PMI)—The largest association of project
management professionals from across all business and industry sectors.
Tools
• Project Planning Tools (PPT)—A web-based resource that produces automated,

project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management,
and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services
Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private
organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.
Others
• Architectural Practices—A free resource for architects, engineers, contractors,

and other members of the building community. It provides tools and advice to
help architects manage projects effectively.
• FedBizOpps—The single government point-of-entry (GPE) for federal
government procurement opportunities over $25,000. Government buyers are able
to publicize their business opportunities by posting information directly to
FedBizOpps via the Internet. Through one portal—FedBizOpps (FBO)—
commercial vendors seeking federal markets for their products and services can
search, monitor and retrieve opportunities solicited by the entire federal
contracting community.
27
• University of Maryland Project Management Program—Provides project

management education and research
Project Delivery Teams

by the WBDG Project Management Committee
Overview
Every capital project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that
demand assembling a specialized mix of core team members and other stakeholders (a
stakeholder is a party with a vested interest in a project). Successful project management
involves continuous leadership of the team through successful project planning and
development and through project delivery and control.
This branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist stakeholders in capital design and
construction programs in understanding how project teams are selected,
procured/contracted, and coordinated for successful project delivery.
Assembling a Project Delivery Team
Except for minor repair and maintenance projects that are carried out by professional
services staff internal to an agency or institution, delivery teams in federal projects will
typically consist of government delivery team members (federal government employees)
and contract delivery team members (private sector firms and their employees).
The extent of professional disciplines and technical specialists (often called Program
Advocates) represented on the government delivery team will vary depending on the
extent of the managing agency's annual capital design and construction program and
associated management/professional, support staff. Delivery team members should be
identified in the Project Management Plan (PMP) and typically will include a project
manager, contracting officer, owner/client representative, A-E designer, specialty
consultants, construction contractor, construction manager, and peer reviewer(s).
28
Contracting and Acquisition
Project Managers work closely with agency contracting officers in assembling the project
delivery team. Project Managers need to have familiarity with acquisition and contracting
regulations and procedures applicable to the managing agency, but only contracting
officers (often referred to as the "CO") are permitted to contract for professional and
construction services on behalf of the government. The selection and procurement of
contracted delivery team members on federal projects are regulated by the Office of
Management and Budget (OMB), and both professional and construction services are
advertised in FedBizOpps.
There are several types of acquisition regulations that apply to design and construction
contracts for Federal projects:
• FAR - Federal Acquisition Regulations—applies to projects delivered through

most "civilian" agencies.
• DFARS - Defense Acquisition Regulations Supplement—applies to Department
of Defense (DOD) projects. (NAVFAC manages U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine
Corps projects; AFCESA manages the planning and design phases of USAF
projects; and USACE manages U.S. Army projects and the construction phase of
USAF projects.)
• NMCARS - Navy Marine Corps Acquisition Regulation Supplement
• VAAR - Veterans Affairs Acquisition Regulations—applies to projects managed
by the Veterans Affairs Administration.
Acquisition Regulations specify procedures for advertising work, selection stages of

submissions, and contractor evaluation and selection criteria. The "Brooks Bill" is a
procurement method that allows award to the best qualified, rather than lowest priced,
offer. Advertisement, evaluation, and selection are followed by contract negotiation and
award. Many agencies have developed and adopted standard forms for professional
services and construction contracts.
Federal budget cycle considerations will also impact the project planning process.
Depending on the scale of a project, funds for site purchase, design fees, and construction
costs may be spread over several budget cycles. Contracting for each phase of work may
only occur after funds are requested in agency budgets and appropriated/authorized.
29
Defining Roles/Responsibilities and Team Management
Project Managers develop and define roles and responsibilities of each delivery team
member through the use of Project Management Plans, agency handbooks/guidelines,
Commissioning Plans, RFPs, Scopes of Work, and Contracts. Because project
requirements and solutions evolve during the design phase (and even into the
construction phase) a high degree of continual coordination among delivery team
members is needed for an integrated team effort that will result in projects that are on
time, in budget, function properly, and meet the project owner's expectations.
Project Management Practices and Standards
Successful project management of a major, complex design and construction program

requires mastery of a body of knowledge (BOK) including skills and abilities in project
planning, development, design, scheduling, cost management, codes and regulations,
contract law, and exceptional communication and interpersonal skills. These professional
skills are necessary for effective and successful project leadership and delivery team
management.
Careers in Government
Federal agencies advertise all job announcements for architecture, engineering, and
construction/project management positions in USAJobs. Each agency offers programs in
professional development, internships and mentoring, promoting career advancement
opportunities. For more information on a particular agency's programs contact a
representative directly through the Participating Agencies section of the WBDG Home
Page.
Information on annual salaries (by grade and step) for federal positions can be found at
the Office of Personnel Management.
For additional information on careers in Project Management, visit Project Management

Institute—Career Headquarters.
Major Resources
30
• Federal Acquisition Regulation

• FARSite Contracting Laboratory—Information of DOD acquisition procedures.
• FedBizOpps—FedBizOpps.gov is the single government point-of-entry (GPE) for
Federal government procurement opportunities over $25,000. Government buyers
are able to publicize their business opportunities by posting information directly
to FedBizOpps via the Internet. Through one portal—FedBizOpps (FBO)—
commercial vendors seeking Federal markets for their products and services can
search, monitor and retrieve opportunities solicited by the entire Federal
contracting community.
Federal Agency Links
• Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications—On December 11, 2003,

Standard Form 330 (SF330) was released by the federal government. The new
form, which architects and engineers use to present their qualifications and
experience when seeking federal projects, replaces SF 254/255 and emphasizes
qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services.
• USACE Project Managers Guide
• USAF Project Management Online Handbook
• VA Project Managers Handbook
Publications
• Building Construction Handbook Virginia: Reston Publishing Co., 1993.

• CM: The Construction Management Process by James J. Adrian. Virginia: Reston
Publishing Co., 1981.
• CM: Developing, Marketing, and Delivering Construction Management Services
by Charles B. Thomsen. McGraw-Hill, 1981.
• The CM Contracting System - Fundamentals and Practices by C. Edwin
Haltenhoff. Prentice-Hall, 1998.
• Capstone: The History of CM Practice and Procedures by Construction
Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2003.
• Construction Bidding: Strategic Pricing for Profit, 2nd Edition by Park and
Chapin. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.
• Construction Contracting: A Practical Guide to Company Management, 7th
Edition by Richard H. Clough, Glenn A. Sears, and S. Keoki Sears. New York:
31
• Construction Dictionary by National Association of Women in Construction.

Arizona: 1989.
• Construction Management, a Professional Approach by Kavanagh, Muller,
O'Brien. McGraw-Hill, 1978.
• Construction Management: Law and Practice by Michael C. Loulakis, Jon M.
Wickwire, and Thomas J. Driscoll. Wiley Law Publications, 1995.
• Construction Management Standards of Practice (Fourth Edition) by Construction
Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2002.
• Contract Administration Procedures by Construction Management Association of
America. McLean, VA: 2001.
• Contractor's Guide to Change Orders, Second Edition by Andrew M. Civitello Jr.
Prentice Hall, 2002.
• Guide to Federal Procurement by the American Institute of Architects. 2005.
• National Construction Law Manual by James Acret, Esq. BNI Publications, 1996.
• Outsourcing Management Functions for the Management of Federal Facilities
Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. 2000.
• Professional Construction Management (Third Edition) by Donald S. Barrie and
Boyd C. Paulson. McGraw-Hill, 1992.
• Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer, 4th Edition by William
M. Pena and Steven A. Parshall. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
Project Team Communication Technologies
• ExtranetNews—A comprehensive listing of electronic Project Team coordination

tools
Tools

32
Project Planning & Development

Overview
Excellence in Project Management is achieved through effective management of a

complex range of issues unique to each project. Contemporary institutions and
organizations are increasingly realizing that traditional forms of management—based on
the same approach to every project—cannot accommodate the ever-changing landscape
of today's economic, social, and business environment.
This section of the WBDG Project Management Branch provides guidance on integrated
planning and development processes to establish an owner's expectations for project
scope, budget, and schedule. It also provides guidance on managing the delivery team
during the planning, design, construction, and initial occupancy phases of a project.
Project Requirements
Project inception and preliminary planning require thoughtful definition of goals and
needs (Project Scope); master planning to accommodate anticipated future needs;
evaluation of project alternatives; identification of site requirements; funding
requirements; budget authorization cycles and/or financial impacts; and project phasing.
Delivery Methods
There are many approaches to achieve successful project design and construction. These
"Delivery Methods", which are driven by the project's scope, budget, and schedule,
include Traditional (Design/Bid/Build), CM (also called CMc, or Construction Manager
as Constructor), Design-Build, Bridging, and Lease/Build. The selection of a delivery
33
method will in turn influence the Delivery Team composition, schedule, budget, and
management plan.
Project Management Plans
A Project Management Plan (PMP) is commonly used to document key management

parameters in a central location and is updated throughout the project focusing on
recognition of changes in program planning and management of those changes. It
includes definition of an owner's program goals, technical requirements, schedules,
resources, budgets, and management programs.
Design Stage Management
Once a design team has been assembled (procured), a high level of owner coordination is
needed to manage the entire delivery team through the project's design phases. Design
management requires oversight of schedules and budgets; review of key submissions and
deliverables for compliance with program goals and design objectives; verification of
incorporation of stakeholder review input; verification of incorporation of construction
phase functional testing requirements; and appropriate application of the owner's design
standards and criteria.
Construction Stage Management
• Project coordination/communication
o RFIs
o Change order management
o Conflict resolution
• Inspections
• Submittal reviews
• Schedules
• Payments
Building Commissioning
34
Commissioning (Cx) is a systematic process of ensuring that building systems perform

interactively according to the design intent and the owner's operational needs. This is
achieved by documenting the owner's requirements and assuring those requirements are
met throughout the entire delivery process. This involves actual verification of systems
performance and integration; comprehensive operation and maintenance (O&M)
documentation; and training of the operating personnel. Building Commissioning
procedures may include: Commissioning Plans, Total Building Commissioning, Systems
Commissioning, Pre-installation Performance Testing/Commissioning, Re-
Commissioning, Retro-Commissioning, and LEED Certification.
Major Resources
Publications
• AIA Handbook on Project Delivery

• Capstone: The History of CM Practice and Procedures by the Construction
Management Association of America. McLean, VA, 2003.
• Project Planning Guide by the U.S. General Services Administration.
Organizations
• Building Commissioning Association

• Construction Management Association of America
• Design Build Institute of America
• Project Management Institute
Scheduling Software
• Method123 Project Planning Kit

• Microsoft Project
• Pacific Edge
• Primavera Systems
Tools
• Construction Waste Management Database

35

Sample Construction Related Forms
Construction Phase Forms

o Change Request Log
o Contractor's Daily Report
o Request for Information (RFI)
o RFI Log—Sample
o Points of Contact
o Preconstruction Conference—Sign In List
Construction Documents Checklists
o Preconstruction Conference—Checklist and Minutes
o Construction Inspection—Checklist
o Design Requirements/Provisions/Considerations—Checklist
36
Introduction
Building Commissioning is a rapidly emerging A-E-C project management practice that
is being embraced by public and private organizations because of its benefits in improved
project delivery results.
This section of WBDG organizes commissioning information, guidance, and resources

under three broad principles, including Determine Project Performance Requirements,
Plan the Commissioning Process, and Document Compliance and Acceptance. It is
important to note that all three principles are applied over the life-span of a capital design
and construction project, and that it takes a multi-disciplined effort involving owners,
design professionals, constructors, and commissioning providers to achieve optimal
results from the commissioning process.
This WBDG page provides an overview of commissioning drivers, benefits, goals, and
principles and general commissioning guides, standards, and resources.
Definition
ASHRAE Guideline 0, The Commissioning Process, defines commissioning as "a

quality-oriented process for achieving, verifying, and documenting that the performance
of facilities, systems, and assemblies meets defined objectives and criteria".
Commissioning is therefore an "umbrella" process for all the planning, delivery,
verification, and managing risks to critical functions performed in, or by, facilities.
Commissioning uncovers deficiencies in design or installation using peer review and
field verification. Commissioning also accomplishes higher energy efficiency,
environmental health, and occupant safety and improves indoor air quality.
Commissioning is a quality assurance-based process that delivers preventive and
predictive maintenance plans, tailored operating manuals, and training procedures.
Essentially, the commissioning process formalizes review and integration of all project
expectations during planning, design, construction, and occupancy phases by inspection
and functional performance testing, and oversight of operator training and record
documentation.
Commissioning Definitions (PDF 26 KB, 3 pgs)
Benefits
37
Commissioning assists in the delivery of a project that provides a safe and healthful
facility; improves energy performance; optimize energy use; reduces operating costs;
ensures adequate O&M staff orientation and training; and improves installed building
systems documentation.
Commissioning benefits owners' through improved energy efficiency, improved

workplace performance due to higher quality environments, reduced risk from threats,
and prevention of business losses. Organizations that have researched commissioning
claim that owners can achieve savings in operations of $4 over the first five years of
occupancy as a direct result of every $1 invested in commissioning—an excellent return
on investment. Meanwhile, the cost of not commissioning is equal to the costs of
correcting deficiencies plus the costs of inefficient operations. For mission-critical
facilities, the cost of not commissioning can be measured by the cost of downtime, which
reaches an average of $26 thousand per hour for the package shipping industry, $89.5
thousand per hour for airline reservation operations, and $6.45 million per hour for
brokerage operations, according to the research firm Dataquest.
Drivers
Governmental projects commonly employ commissioning because mission critical

facilities support essential public infrastructures. Corporations use commissioning on
projects to prevent "down-time" that can adversely impact bottom lines and business
continuity. Manufacturers use commissioning because of high levels of environmental
controls needed in process manufacturing and to ensure occupational safety in hazardous
settings. While projects with special performance needs require commissioning, all
projects can potentially need some level of commissioning.
In addition to the performance needs of mission-critical facilities, another factor driving

demand for commissioning is the desire to obtain certification through the U.S. Green
Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
program. USGBC adopted the LEED standard to improve energy efficiency and
environmental performance in buildings—and commissioning is a prerequisite for LEED
certification. A LEED certified building might include highly efficient power and lighting
systems, photovoltaic and active/passive solar technologies. From an owner's perspective,
investment in such sophisticated building technologies must be accompanied by rigorous
construction quality assurance and performance verification measurement, which are best
provided by the commissioning process. Commissioning beyond the basic prerequisite
requirement can earn an additional LEED point.
Green design helps reduce building costs while providing for a more comfortable indoor
environment, research indicates. Investing in green construction pays for itself 10 times
over, according to an October 2003 study prepared for a group of more than 40 California
government agencies. The study, conducted by the Capital E Group at Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory with input from a number of state agencies, reflects the
most definitive cost-benefit analysis of green building to date.
38
Commissioning Goals
Commissioning is often misinterpreted to focus solely on testing during the end of the
construction phase. But commissioning is actually a collaborative process for planning,
delivering, and operating buildings that work as intended. ASHRAE (The American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers) defines
commissioning as "…the process of ensuring that systems are designed, installed,
functionally tested, and capable of being operated and maintained to perform in
conformity with the design intent… Commissioning begins with planning and includes
design, construction, start-up, acceptance and training, and can be applied throughout the
life of the building." This definition accurately depicts commissioning as a holistic
process that spans from pre-design planning to post-construction operation and can be
thought of as a checks-and-balances system. Accordingly, the goals of commissioning are
to:
1. Define and document requirements clearly at the outset of each phase and update
through the process
2. Verify and document compliance at each completion level
3. Establish and document commissioning process tasks for subsequent phase
delivery team members
4. Deliver buildings and construction projects that meet the owner's needs, at the
time of completion
5. Verify that operation and maintenance personnel and occupants are properly
trained
6. Maintain facility performance across its life cycle
Commissioning Principles
Regardless of the extent of commissioning that is determined as appropriate for a project

(Number or complexity of systems commissioned) and the approach utilized
(Independent CA, A-E/CA, CM/CA or Owner/CA), there are three overarching principles
in the Commissioning Process that begin at project inception and continue through
Occupancy and Operations.
Determine Project Performance Requirements
Every project goes through Pre-Design and Design Stages that establish an owner's
needs, goals, scope, and design solutions for a proposed project. Proposed designs and
constructed work can only be evaluated against objective criteria and measures that are
embodied in well-documented project requirements. Project development is an "iterative"
process where building performance decisions are refined to successive levels of detail
over the course of project delivery. Key commissioning activities supporting this
principle include:
• Understand Needs of Special Building Types

• Define Threats, Risks, and Consequences
39
• Determine Key Program Goals and Objectives

• Recognize Systems Criticality to Achieving Goals
• Conduct Key Commissioning Programming Activities
Plan the Commissioning Process
Commissioning involves the systematic process of planning delivery team member roles
and responsibilities and tasks for all project phases and activities, including review and
acceptance procedures, documentation requirements, development and approval of
Commissioning Plans, Commissioning Schedules, and Testing and Inspection plans.
Planning the Commissioning Process includes identification of special testing needs for
unique or innovative assemblies and measures that will assure adequate O&M Training.
Key commissioning activities supporting this principle include:
• Establish Goals for Quality, Efficiency, and Functionality

• Establish a Commissioning Approach and Scope
• Establish Commissioning Budgets
• Establish Commissioning Plans
• Establish Commissioning Schedules
• Establish Testing and Inspection Plans
• Develop Commissioning Specifications
• Determine Special Testing Needs
• Establish Re-Commissioning Plans
Document Compliance and Acceptance
Commissioning serves as the historical record of an owner's expectations for project

performance throughout the project delivery process. The purpose of commissioning
documenting is to record the "Why, How, and What" of key delivery team decisions
throughout the planning and delivery process. Commissioning documents the
establishment of standards of performance for building systems, and verifies that
designed and constructed work meets those standards. Key commissioning activities
supporting Document Compliance and Acceptance include:
• Document all Levels of Project Development and Acceptance

• Emphasize Inspection, Testing, and Training on Commissioned Systems
• Compile Key Commissioning Documentation
Application
Currently, no building code requirements exist at a national level for Building
Commissioning. However, all new or renovation building programs can benefit from
some level of commissioning, depending on mission and systems criticality. Recent case
studies conducted in private sector facilities have shown that the Building
Commissioning Process can improve new building energy performance by 8% to 30%.
Similar results can be expected in other facilities. For complex building types with highly
40
integrated building systems, formal Building Commissioning Processes will prove most
valuable. Mission Critical Facilities have special needs for protecting their mission
continuity and occupants.
Some governmental agencies, including GSA, NAVFAC, and USACE have adopted
formal requirements, standards or criteria for commissioning of their capital construction
projects. However, the extent of commissioning utilized will depend on project funds
available.
Industry Guidelines
This section of the Whole Building Design Guide is based primarily on the
Commissioning Process recommended in ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005. It is highly
recommended that project teams who employ the Building Commissioning Process
should follow the process outlined in ASHRAE Guideline 0. Guideline 0 has been
adopted by both ASHRAE and NIBS and does not focus upon specific systems or
assemblies, but presents a standard process that can be followed to commission any
building system that may be critical to the function of a project. The NIBS Total Building
Commissioning Program is currently working with industry organizations to develop
commissioning guidelines for various systems and assemblies.
NIBS Guideline 3 (Draft Version)—Total Building Commissioning (TBC) Process
Conclusion
The commissioning process can be applied in a variety of approaches focusing on

building systems/assemblies and can be customized to suit project needs. But regardless
of commissioning approach and system focus, it always requires clear definition of
performance expectations, rigor in planning and execution, and thorough project testing,
operational training, and documentation.
41

• ASHRAE Guideline 0-2005: The Commissioning Process—the industry-accepted
Commissioning Guideline.
• NIBS Guideline 3-2006: Exterior Enclosure Technical Requirements for the
Commissioning Process, National Institute of Building Sciences, 2006.
• The Building Commissioning Guide, U.S. General Services Administration, 2005.
Additional Resources
Agencies
• California Commissioning Collaborative—a group of government, utility, and

building-services professionals committed to developing and promoting
commissioning practices in California
• Commissioning For Better Buildings in Oregon by Oregon Office of Energy /
PECI, 1997. New construction overview, benefits, process and case studies. 44
pp.
• Energy Design Resources—Sponsored by Pacific Gas and Electric Company, San
Diego Gas & Electric, Southern California Edison, and Southern California Gas.
• Federal Energy Management Program—Offers programs and resources for energy
efficiency in operation of federal facilities.
• Oregon Office of Energy—Benefits of Commissioning, case study, tool kit of
new and existing commissioning application materials, and the full text of
Commissioning for Better Buildings in Oregon
• Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.
Organizations
• ASHRAE—A leading organization in the development of standardized

commissioning guidelines
• Building Commissioning Association—A leading professional association for
membership and certification of building commissioning practitioners
• Commissioning Specialist's Association (UK)
• U.S. Green Building Council
Publications
• Building Commissioning: The Key to Quality Assurance (PDF 1 MB) U.S.

Department of Energy Rebuild America Guide Series, 1998. Commissioning
retrofits and existing buildings: overview, process, and case studies. 77 pp, PECI.
• The Building Commissioning Handbook 2nd Edition, by John A. Heinz, PE and
Richard B. Casault, PE. Alexandria, VA: APPA: The Association of Higher
Education Facilities Officers, Phone: (703) 684-1446, ISBN: 1-890956-28-7.
42
• Commissioning Four New Science Laboratory Buildings (U. of WA) by

Bonneville Power Admin. / Phoebe Caner, Portland Energy Conservation Inc.,
1997. Commissioning case studies with detailed "lessons learned" information.
~70 pp. Phone: (503) 230-7334.
• Commissioning Guide by Public Works Canada, Western Region. 1993. Phone:
(403) 497-3770.
• Commissioning Guidelines, Instructions for Architects and Engineers by State of
Washington, Dept. of General Administration, Division of Engineering &
Architectural Services, 1995. Phone: (360) 902-7272.
• The Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial-Buildings Commissioning: A Meta-
Analysis of Energy and Non-Energy Impacts in Existing Buildings and New
Construction in the United States by Evan Mills, Norman Bourassa and Mary Ann
Piette of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Hannah Friedman and Tudi
Haasl of Portland Energy Conservation Inc., Tehesia Powell and David Claridge
of Energy Systems Laboratory, Texas A&M University. December 2004.
• Guidelines for Incorporating Commissioning into Energy Savings Performance
Contracts PECI, October 2000.
• A Practical Guide for Commissioning Existing Buildings by Tudi Haasl of
Portland Energy Conservation Inc. and Terry Sharp of Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. April 1999.
• What Commissioning Can Do For Your Building? PECI, 1997. Derived from a
database of 175 case studies of commissioning of new construction, equipment
replacements, and upgrades in existing facilities. 12 pp. Phone: (503) 248-4636.
Training and Other Resources
• ASHRAE—offers an ongoing series of commissioning workshops

• NCBC—a national commissioning conference incorporating integrated research,
development, initial deployment, and information on building commissioning
• Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. (PECI)—Provides workshop announcements
and conference information, E-mail: peci@peci.org
Tools

43
Determine Project Performance

Requirements
Introduction
A proposed building's scope, schedule, and budget are developed in Pre-Design Stage
programming documents. In this stage, the level of project and/or systems criticality must
also be determined, based on an owner's requirements and risk management strategy for
the activities and mission housed in a building. It is essential that the Pre-Design Stage
programming documents also include Quality Assurance strategies and budgets to verify
that delivered systems and assemblies meet performance expectations. The
Commissioning Process involves a systematic means of verifying that the critical systems
are installed, functioning, and maintained in optimal condition. In organizations with in-
house planning staffs, the commissioning program is initially scoped at the same time
that the owner's team determines initial project performance requirements. In
organizations without an in-house planning staff, a commissioning provider with
experience in the building type can be instrumental in determining initial requirements
and performance objectives.
This WBDG page provides guidance and resources on determining commissioning needs
and requirements.
Recommendations
Understand Needs of Special Building Types
The focus for commissioning varies based on the purpose of the building. Health care
facilities are highly sensitive to temperature and relative humidity, as are museums.
Laboratories require fume hoods to operate correctly, while data centers demand reliable
power. Governmental facilities have special requirements for access control, internal
security, and communication technology that are essential to their function. Sustainable
buildings with highly energy efficient mechanical systems must be designed, constructed,
and operated properly to achieve their projected energy savings.
44
Virtually any building project will have building systems; assemblies or features that
could benefit from commissioning. To date, commissioning has been used most often on
the following building types:
• Auditoriums
• Call centers
• Classified sites
• Colleges and universities
• Co-location sites
• Command and control centers
• Data centers/computer rooms
• Health care facilities
• High rises
• Laboratories
• Libraries
• Mail processing centers
• Munitions plants and storage
• Museums
• Network operation centers
• Optic transport facilities
• Process manufacturing facilities
• Large retail facilities
• Storage and distribution centers
• Switch facilities
• Telecommunications and Microwave/radio tower facilities
• Trading floors
• Web-hosting telecom sites
• Zero/Low energy building
Determine Key Program Goals and Objectives
Commissioning of mission-critical facilities is often focused on ensuring high levels of

reliability, power quality, maintainability, and flexibility—as well as other design
objectives and building system attributes. Programming for commissioning requires
going beyond the simple allocation of space, enclosure, finish, and equipment to examine
business goals and facility mission as determinants of its programming goals and
objectives. Design objectives and functional characteristics that need commissioning to
verify building performance may include:
• Accessibility
• 24x7 facility reliability
• Adaptability
• Building pressurization control
• Energy efficiency goals
• Flexibility in audio visual systems
• Functionality
45
• Maintainability
• Redundant and resilient HVAC systems for climate control
• Reliability
• Scalability
• Security/Safety
• Serviceability
• Sophisticated detection and fire suppression systems
• Space and organizational process functionality
• Structured raceways for flexible cabling installations
• Sustainability
• Survivability
Define Threats, Risks, and Consequences
In order to determine performance expectations and measures, the project team must have
a clear understanding of overall key business objectives. The project owner must guide
the project team in establishing priorities by which project success will be measured. It is
important for the owner, or qualified experts to define business risks, occupant threats
and risks, hazards, and consequences and impacts that a system failure may have on the
overall mission performance of a facility.
Recognize Systems Criticality to Achieving Goals
System criticality, and the need for its performance verification through commissioning,
is determined by examining how each system, assembly, or building feature supports key
program goals and facility mission. For example, buildings with a high risk of airborne
contamination must be designed for enhanced occupant safety measures. This may
necessitate high-performance HVAC system design that provides constant airflow
direction and pressure differentials between interior spaces—under all operating
conditions. This type of building functionality can only be achieved through systems
based planning, design, construction quality assurance, and testing and verification of the
operating systems under various conditions.
46
The GSA Program Goals Matrix in Facilities Standards for Public Buildings, P-100
indicates critical Program-System relationships that must be addressed within Building
Systems Programming Directives to designers
Another example is the need for Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) equipment in
mission-critical facilities. Requirements for these buildings may be as stringent as 99.999
percent power reliability, which means just five minutes of unscheduled downtime per
year. By comparison, typical utility reliability is 99 percent. Commissioning of mission-
critical power systems, therefore, focuses on ensuring high levels of reliability as well as
power quality. A power interruption of only 8.83 milliseconds can shut down or even
damage computers.
Routine quality assurance is needed for all building components. Usually the decision to
commission specific building systems is made during the Design Development phase of a
project, but may also occur in concept design or Construction Documents as project
performance requirements and Design Intent Documentation evolves.
Conduct Key Commissioning Programming Activities
Many design and construction programs execute careful planning and programming that
is embodied and encompassed in Master Plans, Building Engineering Reports, Special
Studies, Feasibility Studies, and Program Development Studies. Yet, some building
programs execute planning and programming only minimally. For commissioning to be
successful, programming documentation must summarize or include the Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR) that are both general and specific to critical requirements. The OPR
47
is a summary of critical planning and programming requirements and owner expectations

that is updated by the commissioning team as the project evolves. If program or mission
elements change during the span of project delivery, the OPR should be updated to reflect
changes in building performance requirements. ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005 (Annex J)
provides a general format for developing an Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) which
includes:
• Project schedule and budget

• Commissioning scope and budget
• Project documentation requirements (submissions and formats)
• Owner directives
• Restrictions and limitations
• User requirements
• Occupancy requirements and schedules
• Training requirements for owner's personnel
• Warranty requirements
• Benchmarking requirements
• Operations and Maintenance criteria
• Equipment and systems maintainability requirements
• Quality requirements for materials and construction
• Allowable tolerances for facility systems operations
• Energy efficiency goals
• Environmental and sustainability goals
• Community requirements
• Adaptability for future facility changes and expansion
• Systems integration requirements
• Health, hygiene, and indoor environmental requirements
• Acoustical requirements
• Vibration requirements
• Seismic requirements
• Accessibility requirements
• Security requirements
• Aesthetics requirements
• Constructability requirements
• Communications requirements
• Applicable codes and standards
Note: This is a general list of programming documentation that will vary by project
depending on scope, size, complexity, and budget.
The Basis of Design (BOD) is a narrative and analytical documentation prepared by the
design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR) are met by the proposed design. It describes the technical approach
used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of operations, focusing on design
features critical to overall building performance. An OPR is developed for an owner/user
audience while the BOD is typically developed in more technical terms.
48
Commissioning Specifications Requirements are developed to outline commissioned

systems and equipment performance benchmarks, system integration details, submittal
requirements for commissioned systems, initial construction contractor inspection
procedures, tests, start-up, turnover procedures, owner training, and final documentation
requirements.
Systems Manual Requirements—When determining commissioning requirements, it is

also important to define documentation needs that will facilitate and support operation of
commissioned systems. O&M Manuals are typically prepared by the construction
contractor at the turn-over phase of a project, but are often inadequate to fully explain
how a complex facility should be operated. ASHRAE GL-0 recommends that a "Systems
Manual", containing commissioning and commissioning documentation be prepared for
commissioned buildings. Systems Manuals should provide all the information needed to
understand, operate, and maintain the systems and assemblies. The Systems Manual
should be the repository of information on updates and corrections to systems and
assemblies as they occur during the Occupancy and Operations Phase. A best practice is
to develop a Systems Manual Outline simultaneous with selection, design, and
specification of the commissioned systems.
Training Requirements—An important element in the commissioning process is ensuring

that O&M personnel are properly trained in operation, care, adjustment, and required
maintenance of commissioned systems and equipment. O&M personnel must be trained
in the knowledge and skills needed to operate a facility in conformance with its design
intent. Training needs must be addressed in the early planning stage to inform operating
personnel about staffing budgets and hiring, qualifications, O&M contracts planning and
procurement, construction contract training specification development and
commissioning authority contract responsibilities.
Some owner groups are beginning to task commissioning authorities with operating
facilities for up to one year after turn-over to conduct seasonal testing and systems
optimization, allowing for an overlap in O&M contract start-up and training.
Emerging Issues
Increased Emphasis on Occupant Security/Security
In the post 9/11 environment, providing occupant safety to visitors and workers in public
facilities has been a driving force to deliver and commission facilities with enhanced
building safety measures. This trend is not expected to decrease, but will likely increase
the standard of care necessary in the design and operation of all forms of public and
corporate buildings.
Evolving Certification Programs and Standards
Building projects are increasingly requiring performance certifications such as LEED,

SPIRIT (USACE), Energy Star, OSHA, and others. The project team must discuss and
49
decide on certification requirements in planning and design phases so that a

commissioning for certifications can be included in the OPR and Commissioning Plans.
USGBC is developing additional certification standards for Existing Buildings, Interiors,
and Version NC 3.0 for New Buildings.
Continuous Commissioning
The benefits of Retro-Commissioning, Continuous Commissioning, and Systems

Optimization are well documented in annual energy savings in studies conducted by
many institutions, such as Texas A&M Energy Systems Lab. Fewer studies are available
to demonstrate the cost benefits of commissioning new construction. However, threats
and risks to operational/business continuity, occupant safety, and health and systems
degradation and inefficiency often warrant the added expense of utilizing the
Commissioning Process.

• ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005: The Commissioning Process—The industry
accepted model Commissioning Guide
• GSA Building Commissioning Guide
• GSA Project Planning Guide
• Raised Access Floor Design Guide (GSA to publish in summer 2005)
Organizations
• Building Commissioning Association (BCxA)—A leading professional

association for membership and certification of building commissioning
practitioners
• National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)—Certification program and
manuals
Tools

50
Document Compliance and Acceptance

Introduction
It is often said that commissioning is all about good project documentation. The purpose
of commissioning documenting is to record the standards of performance for building
systems, and to verify that what is designed and constructed meets those standards.
Commissioning is a team effort to document the continuity of the project as it moves
from one project phase to the next. In the Planning and Development phase of a project,
planning and programming documents begin to define an owner's requirements for
building performance. When the entire project delivery process is documented in a
consistent manner, an historical perspective is created that explains the iterative process
of determining the agreed-to project requirements at each step of the development
process. Commissioning documentation becomes the road map for the success criteria to
be met by facilities that are put in service.
At post-occupancy, commissioning documentation becomes the benchmark to ensure that

the building can be maintained, retuned, or renovated to meet future needs. It documents
the Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) in the beginning of the project and records
compliance, acceptance, and operations throughout the facility's life.
This WBDG page provides information on common commissioning documentation

practices and resources related to commissioning specific systems and assemblies.
Recommendations
Document all Levels of Project Development and Acceptance
Requiring documentation of results and findings of the commissioning process at all

project delivery stages and phases provides a record of the benefits received from
commissioning. It also provides documentation to be used in the future to troubleshoot
problems and optimize operating strategies. Decision making is an "iterative" process
made over the course of a project through analysis of options, selection of alternatives,
refinement of application, and integration of the design components. As each decision is
made, commissioning documentation provides the basis for evaluation and acceptance to
proceed to the next development level.
Emphasize Inspection, Testing, and Training on Commissioned Systems

51
An essential element of the commissioning process is field verification inspection and

testing of commissioned systems, assemblies, and features. The Commissioning
Authority coordinates and witnesses commissioned systems verification tests to verify
that the systems operate in accordance with the design intent. The Commissioning
Authority may be tasked with conducting special testing of commissioned systems
beyond what is required in specification requirements. Deficiencies discovered during
verification testing are documented and logged by the Commissioning Authority in
corrective-action reports. Retesting specific systems and/or system components takes
place once the respective deficiencies discovered during the first test are resolved.
A draft set of system readiness checklists (SRCs) and verification test procedures (VTPs)
is included in the commissioning specification to communicate to the bidding contractor
the level of rigor that can be expected during the testing phase of the commissioning
process. The SRCs are detailed checklists for documenting that each system is prepared
for testing. The VTPs are a detailed set of instructions and acceptable results for
thoroughly testing each system.
During functional performance testing and operator training, the commissioning team
moves to the forefront. The team verifies the performance of building systems based on
detailed test procedures developed by the commissioning team and determines the most
efficient equipment settings. Testing must be performed not only in normal operating
modes but also under all possible circumstances and sequences of operation, with real-
life conditions simulated as much as possible. Further, integrated systems testing should
examine systems as a whole in order to evaluate overall design and compatibility.
The team also supervises operations staff training on commissioned systems and
equipment, and organizes warranty information. Ultimately, the team prepares extensive
documentation on systems, including benchmarks for energy use and equipment
efficiencies, seasonal operational issues, start-up and shutdown procedures, diagnostic
tools, and guidelines for energy accounting.
Compile Key Commissioning Documentation
Commissioning documentation is generated throughout the project delivery process, and

key documentation such as OPR, BOD, Cx Plans, schedules, and inspections and test
results are included in a Commissioning Report. Commissioning documentation that will
be included in the Commissioning Report is normally shown in a table format with
responsibilities of individual team members who will prepare, review, and accept the
results and documentation. A partial list and descriptions of key commissioning
documentation includes:
• Owner's Project Requirements (OPR)—For commissioning to be successful

programming documentation must summarize the OPR that is both general and
specific to critical requirements. The OPR is a summary of critical planning and
programming requirements and owner expectations that is updated by the
commissioning team as the project evolves. If program or mission elements
52
change during the span of project delivery, the OPR should be updated to reflect
changes in building performance requirements.
• Basis of Design (BOD)—The BOD is a narrative and analytical documentation
prepared by the design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the
Owner's Project Requirements are met by the proposed design. It describes the
technical approach used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of
operations, focusing on design features critical to overall building performance.
An OPR is developed for an owner/user audience while the BOD is typically
developed in more technical terms.
• Design Review Comments—Comprehensive reviews targeted to critical systems
at all design phase submissions are an important aspect of commissioning
documentation. Reviews for code compliance and constructability will pertain all
systems of all projects, while commissioning reviews are focused to
commissioned systems, equipment, and building assemblies and building
components they are interfaced with.
• Certification Documentation—Owners sometimes require their facilities to
achieve certifications such as Energy Star, LEED, USACE Spirit, or
governmental agency testing and inspection. When such performance
certifications are required as part of a design or construction contract, they
become critical to an owner's project expectations and may be included as
commissionionable elements.
• Submittal Review Comments—Concurrent with the design team and owner
review, a designated commissioning team member reviews products and systems
submittals for compliance with the Owner's Project Requirements. Special
attention should be given to substitutions and proposed deviations from the
contract documents and Basis of Design documentation. Submittal review
comments on commissioned systems will often generate issues for coordination
between integrated systems, equipment, and technologies.
• Inspection Reports—Commissioning Inspection Reports should be prepared
regularly to document progress of the work on commissioned building systems.
These reports will normally produce functional issues, integration issues or
operational issues that are then captured in Issues Logs for discussion and
clarification of performance expectations, integration issues, or operational issues.
The construction delivery team (and owner's representative (CM), if applicable)
will also prepare inspection reports pertaining to all building systems and
components.
• Test Data Reports—Test Data reports contain results of the Testing and
Inspection Plans and include Pre-Functional Test (PFT) reports, Functional Test
Reports (FTP), and other test results specified for the commissioned systems.
• Issue Logs and Reports—Issues Logs and Reports are a formal and ongoing
record of problems or concerns-and their resolution- that have been raised by
members of the Commissioning Team during the course of the Commissioning
Process. Issues Logs should be included in Commissioning Reports because,
along with minutes, design review comments, and Inspection Reports, they
explain the thought process and rationale for key decisions in the commissioning
process.
53
• Commissioning Reports—The commissioning requirements, process,

documentation, and findings are incorporated in a Commissioning Report that
accompanies the construction contractor's turn-over documentation. ASHRAE
Guideline-0 recommends that the Commissioning Report be included with O&M
manuals in a Systems Manual. Commissioning Report contents should be clearly
defined in Commissioning Plans and include a narrative of the commissioning
process, the design intent document, design review comments—and resolution,
meeting minutes from all commissioning-related meetings, corrective action
reports, blank verification test reports for future use, completed training forms,
completed system readiness checklists, and tests and inspection reports for
commissioned systems, equipment, assemblies, and building features.
• Systems Manuals—The Commissioning Authority reviews the project operations
and maintenance (O&M) manuals to verify that commissioned systems and
equipment information and documentation are included. The Commissioning
Authority also reviews the as-built drawings, in particular the sequences of
operations documentation for automated systems that are commissioned, to verify
that the documents turned over to the owner are accurate and reflect what was
installed and tested. ASHRAE Guideline-0 recommends that O&M manuals,
submittals, as-built drawings, specifications, certifications, training documents
and commissioning documentation be organized by building systems in a
"Systems Manuals" for ease of access and use by building management staff.
Some owners find it is efficient to have the Commissioning Authority compile
Systems Manuals for all systems—both commissioned and non-commissioned.
• O&M Training Documentation—During the Design Phase, training requirements
for operations and maintenance personnel and occupants must be identified
relative to commissioned systems, building features, and equipment. It is critical
that the operations and maintenance personnel have the knowledge and skills
required to operate a facility in accordance with the owner's functional plan and
the designed intent.
• Post Seasonal Testing—Due to weather conditions, not all systems can be tested
at or near full load during the construction phase. For example, testing a boiler
system might be difficult in the summer and testing a chiller and cooling tower
might be difficult in the winter. The performance and testing of active solar
systems is also dependent on seasonal conditions. Commissioning plans should
therefore provide for off-season testing to allow testing, balancing, and
optimization of integrated systems under the best conditions.
TABLE D-1 Document Input By Provided Reviewed / Used By Notes

Documentation By Approved
Matrix Phase By
Pre-Design O&M, Users,
Design Team
Owner's Project Capital CA or CA, Design
Owner may not be
Requirements Projects, Designer Team
hired yet.
Design Team
Commissioning Owner, CA Owner CA, Owner, Design Team
Plan Design Design Team may not be
Team, CA hired yet.
54
May be
Systems Manual Owner or
O&M, CA Owner Design Team included in
Outline CA
OPR
Training O&M, Users, May be
Owner or
Requirements CA, Design Owner Design Team included in
CA
Outline Team OPR
May be only
CA, Design
Issues Log CA CA N/A format at this
Team
phase
Design Team,
Issues Report CA CA Owner
Owner
Pre-Design Phase
Close of Phase
Commissioning CA CA Owner Owner
report
Process Report
O&M, Users,
Owner's Project
Capital CA or CA, Design
Requirements Owner
Projects, Designer Team
Update
Design Team
Design Design Team,
Basis Of Design Design Team Owner, CA
Team CA
May also be
Construction Design Design Contractors, provided by
Specifications for Team, CA, Team or Owner CA, Design Project
Commissioning Owner CA Team Manager /
Owner's Rep.
Design
Design Contractor may
Systems Manual Team, CA, Design Team,
Team or Owner, CA not be hired
Outline-Expanded O&M, Contractor
Design CA yet.
Contractor
Training O&M, Users, Contractor may
Owner or
Requirements In CA, Design Owner Design Team not be hired
CA
Specifications Team yet.
Design Review
CA CA Owner Design Team
Comments
CA, Design
Issues Log CA CA N/A
Team
Design Team,
Issues Report CA CA Owner
Owner
Design Phase
Close of Phase
Commissioning CA CA Owner Owner
report
Process Report
Construction O&M, Users,
Owner's Project CA, Design
Capital CA or
Requirements Owner Team,
Projects, Designer
Update Contractors
Design Team
Basis of Design Design Team Design CA, Owner Design Team,
Update Team CA
55
Design CA, Owner,

CA, Owner,
Commissioning Team, CA, Design
CA Design Team,
Plan Update Owner, Team,
Contractors
Contractor Contractor
Submittal Review Design
CA Design Team Contractor
Comments Team
ASHRAE GL-0 Table D-1 Documentation Matrix
Emerging Issues
Building Information Models (BIM)
Building Information Models (BIM) based on NIBS International Alliance for

Interoperability (IAI) Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is an emerging technology that
enables accumulation and management of facility life-cycle information. IFC-BIM lets
architects, engineers, construction managers, facility operators, and facility manager's
work with (and store for down-stream users) tangible components such as walls and
furniture, and also concepts such as activities, spaces, and costs. OGC's Geography
Markup Language (GML) facilitates interoperability for users of geospatial technologies
such as geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), aerial
and satellite imaging, location services, and sensor webs. BIM is a simple concept—a
master, intelligent data model, resulting in an as-built database that can be readily handed
over to the building operator upon completion of commissioning. The BIM standard
could someday integrate CAD data with product specifications, submittals, shop
drawings, project records, as-built documentation and operations information, making
printed O&M and Systems manuals virtually obsolete. The technology has moved
forward, but the industry's ability to absorb these IT advances has yet to change. Clearly,
if BIM offers a genuine solution to reduce errors and rework, while improving building
operations, it will eventually change the way all project team members develop and share
information over facility life-cycle phases.
Construction Specification Institute (CSI)
The Construction Specification Institute (CSI) has assigned commissioning to

MasterFormat™ section number 01 91 00. The commissioning specification details
specific responsibilities of the construction contractor and subcontractors for
commissioning procedures, checklists, tests, and documentation. The role of an
independent commissioning authority is to witness, verify, document, and recommend
owner acceptance of the specified inspections and tests. As commissioning becomes a
routine quality assurance process on projects, CSI language for commissioning will
continue to evolve to reflect standard industry practices.

56
• THE only standard is NIBS/ASHRAE Guidelines. The Cx process does not relieve
the contractor and or A/E of record of any obligation, code, or standard that must
be achieved and maintained.
• Model Commissioning Plan and Guide Specifications, Version 2.05, PECI. Feb.
1998.—Available from PECI, 921 SW Washington, Suite 312, Portland, Oregon
97205; Phone (503) 248-4636; Fax (503) 295-0820; E-mail peci@peci.org
• Procedural Standards for Buildings Systems Commissioning—Available from the
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)
Organizationss
• Associated Air Balance Council (Primarily for how the TAB fits into the
commissioning process)—AABC National Headquarters, Phone: (202) 737-0202.
• Building Commissioning Association (BCxA)
• International Alliance for Interoperability North America (IAI-NA)—A Council
of the National Institute of Building Sciences
• National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)—Certification program and
manuals. 8575 Grovemont Circle, Gaithersburg, MD, 20877. Phone: (301) 977-
9589.
• Texas A&M Energy Systems Lab—Retro-commissioning process and software,
for sale.
Publications
• Commissioning Smoke Management Systems, ASHRAE Guideline 5-1994—

ASHRAE Publications Dept., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.
• Continuous Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy Managers, Federal
Energy Management Program (FEMP), October 2002.
• The HVAC Commissioning Process - ASHRAE Guideline 1, 1996. ASHRAE,
1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.
• NASA Reliability Centered Maintenance Guide for Facilities and Collateral
Equipment
• Procedural Standards for Building Systems Commissioning
• Standard HVAC Control Systems Commissioning and Quality Verification User
Guide, Engineering Research Laboratories, 1994. Facilities Engineering
Applications Program, U.S. Army Engineering and Housing Support Center, Ft.
Belvoir, VA 22060-5516. FEAP-UG-GE-94/20.
• Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Commissioning Guidelines, California Institute
for Energy Efficiency, San Diego State University, 1991. San Diego State
University, Energy Engineering Institute, San Diego, CA 92182.
• UFGS 02 62 16 Commissioning and Demonstration for Soil Vapor Extraction
(SVE) Systems
• UFGS 23 08 00.00 10 Commissioning of HVAC Systems
57
Tools

• Comment On This Page

• Email This Page
Related Resource Pages
• Building Information Models (BIM)

• Energy Analysis Tools
• Energy Codes and Standards
• Facility Performance Evaluation (FPE)
• Indoor Air Quality and Mold Prevention of the Building Envelope
• View All Related (8)

58
Plan the Commissioning Process

Introduction
Should an independent Commissioning Authority be retained, and if so, when? How will
the commissioned systems be tested, inspected, and documented? How much should be
budgeted for commissioning and special testing services? Once a project delivery team
has determined critical project goals and requirements, these questions are answered by
planning the commissioning process. This page is about incorporating a project's
performance requirements into a plan that defines the commissioning scope, process,
responsibilities, budget, and documentation requirements.
This WBDG page provides information on common commissioning planning practices

and related resources.
Recommendations
Establish Goals for Quality, Efficiency, and Functionality
The commissioning planning process should be accomplished at the same time that a
project team Determines Project Performance Requirements. The level and focus of
commissioning efforts should be appropriate to a project's size, complexity, its housed
mission, and an owner's risk management strategy. After the project delivery team has
determined the essential project performance requirements, goals for project quality,
efficiency, and functionality can then be established, and a commissioning approach and
scope can be developed.
Establish a Commissioning Approach and Scope
There are numerous ways to assemble and structure a commissioning team. A different
team member, including owner representatives, contracted program managers, or design
professionals may lead the commissioning effort at each stage of project delivery, but the
overall process, principles, and objectives are constant.
The question of who should be responsible for planning and overseeing the Building
Commissioning Process and specific commissioning activities will depend on the needs
of each project and is somewhat driven by budget and expertise available within the
project delivery team. Regardless of where the responsibility for building commissioning
lies, it is important that the commissioning authority maintain a position of impartiality to
59
assure there is no conflict of interest. Common approaches to structuring commissioning

roles and responsibilities include:
• A/E as Commissioning Authority (CA)—while not typical, many architectural

and engineering firms now offer building commissioning as Additional Services
to the basic design contract.
• Construction Manager (CM) as Commissioning Authority)—This commissioning
approach can be cost-effective and work well when the CM is independent of the
contractor's team and has the needed technical experience on board. Many owner
groups use "Not-at-Risk" CMs who act as an owner's agent to manage schedule,
cost, and quality. In some cases, the CM may hire the Commissioning Authority
as a subcontractor, resulting in no additional contract management responsibility
by the Owner.
• Independent Agent as Commissioning Authority—to date, this is the most
common approach to implementing the Building Commissioning Process. Many
professional services engineering firms are beginning to specialize in providing
building commissioning. The criteria for a good CA is a balance of lead
engineering design experience with extensive field experience in installing and
testing mechanical and electrical equipment and systems. The CA will typically
stress flexibility in design so that performance can be verified.
Since many owners' groups typically utilize A-E's and "not-at-risk" CMs for quality
assurance, commissioning responsibilities and benefits of third-party commissioning
services must be determined for each project. NIBS Guideline 3-2006 Exterior Enclosure
Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process provides, "The Commissioning
Process does not impinge upon the competency, authority, or responsibility of licensed
professionals nor upon the obligations between Owners, Design Professionals or
Contractors contained in standardized contract forms or project-specific contracts. The
Commissioning Process structures the design and construction process to increase
quality. It does not require the Owner to employ a specific outside expert as the
Commissioning Authority and nothing would prevent the Owner from selecting the
project design or construction firm to do commissioning, if the CA is properly qualified
and positioned outside the specific project team within the firm. The level of effort of the
Commissioning Process and size of the Commissioning Team for a given building can be
strongly influenced by such factors as the owner's preferred level of building quality, the
level of risk the owner will accept, as well as building size, type, and complexity".
Commissioning requires the active participation of the A/E, the Building Contractor, a
Commissioning Agent, and the Owner. The construction contractor is typically tasked
with executing commissioning tests and inspections, with planning, defining
commissioning procedures, coordination, witnessing, verification tasked to the
Commissioning Agent.
On larger projects, it may be appropriate to employ a Commissioning Authority under

two separate contracts, one for commissioning the Planning (Pre-Design) and Design
stages and another for planning and executing Construction stage commissioning—after
60
the full extent of systems commissioning and on-site technical services is determined.
The GSA Building Commissioning Guide includes a sample Scope of Commissioning
Services suitable for use on public agency projects.
Establish Commissioning Budgets
Commissioning costs can range widely and are dependent upon many factors including a
building's size, complexity, and whether the project consists of building renovation,
modernization, or new construction and the scope of commissioning services provided. In
general, the cost of commissioning new buildings range from 0.5 percent of the total
construction cost for relatively simple projects such as office buildings to 1.5 for complex
laboratories and medical facilities1. Additional information on Building Commissioning
can be found in PECI, New Construction Commissioning Costs, 2/14/2002. For an
existing building, the cost of commissioning can range from 3.0 to 5.0 percent of the total
operating cost. A good rule of thumb for systems-based commissioning budgeting is
between 2 and 4% of the construction cost of each system being commissioned.
Key factors that can have a direct impact in developing a commissioning budget include:
• When the commissioning process starts (during design, construction, or post-

construction)
• The number and complexity of systems to be commissioned
• Complexity of the systems
• The level of detail required during the commissioning process (Does it include
documenting and witnessing all equipment start-up, verification tests, spot
checking the balancing report, etc.?)
• Deliverables (design intent document, number of design reviews, commissioning
plan, O&M manual review, final report, etc.)
• Allocation of costs (Will the budget allow for increased design fee, increased
contractor bids, training time for O&M personnel, the commissioning consultant's
fee, etc.?)
• Type of project (design-build, plan and spec, retrofit, etc.)
Note: Some utilities now have programs offering incentives/rebates for owners that may
offset costs for commission or re-commission of facilities.
Establish Commissioning Plans
A written Commissioning Plan is essential to all commissioned projects and allows all
project participants to anticipate and plan for commissioning requirements and
milestones. The plan is first developed in the Pre-design phase as a Design Phase
Commissioning Plan and is updated at or near design completion and released as a
Construction Phase Commissioning Plan. During the Pre-Design phase, the
commissioning plan focuses on assuring the owner's performance requirements are
incorporated and properly integrated in the prepared and accepted construction
documents. Details of systems teats and procedures, assembly specific checklists, and
61
testing and documentation responsibilities are incorporated in Construction Phase

Commissioning Plans. Commissioning Plans typically include the following sections or
contents:
• General Project Information

• Overview and Scope of the Project Commissioning
• Commissioning Protocols and Communications
• Commissioning Process, including Team Responsibilities
• Commissioning Schedule
• Commissioning Documentation
• Appendices
o Testing and Inspection Plans
o Pre-Functional and Functional Test Procedures
o Construction Checklists
o Issues Logs
Establish Commissioning Schedules
The team works closely with contractors to integrate commissioning activities into the
overall construction schedule, to keep commissioning activities off the critical path, and
to carry out site inspections with a focus on systems operations and maintenance. A
commissioning schedule is developed as a section of (or appendix to) a commissioning
plan and is updated throughout the project. The objective of scheduling commissioning
activities is to integrate and coordinate them with other construction phase activities.
Detailed integration of commissioning activities and tasks with the construction schedule
is critical to maintaining project milestones. The following chart illustrates how
commissioning activities and tasks relate to typically occurring project activities.
62
ASHRAE GL-0-2005 Figure B.1—Commissioning Process Flowchart
Please see NIBS Guideline 3, which shows how the commissioning process relates to
typical planning, design, and construction activities.
Establish Testing and Inspection Plans
A building cannot be expected to operate optimally if the personnel in charge of

operating and maintaining the building systems are unfamiliar with how to service the
equipment and do not fully understand how and why the systems operate the way they
do. This is especially true with highly complex systems and automated controls. The
commissioning planning process includes definition of the O&M training requirements,
63
responsibilities, and documentation. Testing appropriate to a facility should be designed

along four hierarchal levels: 1) Factory device testing; 2) Field component start-up; 3)
System interface testing; and 4) Integrated system testing, which tests the overall facility
resilience, under all probable risk scenarios, including failure mode.
Develop Commissioning Specifications
The Construction Specification Institute (CSI) has assigned commissioning to section

number 01810. The commissioning specification details the roles and responsibilities of
the contractors in the commissioning process throughout the project. A draft set of system
readiness checklists (SRCs) and verification test procedures (VTPs) is included in the
commissioning specification to communicate to the bidding contractor the level of rigor
that can be expected during the testing phase of the commissioning process. Construction
contractor responsibilities for commissioning are defined in the commissioning
specifications which must be coordinated with other commissioning team members when
planning the commissioning process.
Determine Special Testing Needs
As previously noted, the costs of commissioning can be approximately projected based

on a percent range of construction costs. Commissioning services normally include
elements of program review, planning and managing the commissioning process, and
witnessing and documenting commissioning of specified systems and assemblies. When
developing commissioning testing and inspection plans, the commissioning team should
carefully review means and methods for testing and verification to determine special
testing needs that outside of normally provided commissioning services. Examples of
such special testing include thermo graphic (Infrared) scans of existing or new
construction to identify envelope integrity, destructive testing of proposed assemblies to
be commissioned (blast, wind, seismic), water penetration tests, Computational Fluid
Dynamic (CFD) modeling of airflows, building pressurization tests, and the like.
Establish Re-Commissioning Plans
In re-commissioning, the initially commissioned systems are retested on a regular basis,

whether needed or not. Retro-commissioning is the commissioning of facilities that have
never been commissioned. Re-commissioning can only be applied to buildings that have
been commissioned (or retro-commissioned) and requires a "baseline" performance
measurement following the initial commissioning process (i.e., when the systems are fine
tuned and operating as efficiently as possible). Re-commissioning is an essential element
in operating buildings optimally and must be incorporated in initial planning and
budgeting of the commissioning program.
Emerging Issues
Commissioning Authority Certification
64
The Building Commissioning Association (BCxA) has created the Certified

Commissioning Professional (CCP) program to raise professional standards and provide a
vehicle for certification in the building commissioning industry. To earn CCP
certification, participants must complete an application process that is reviewed by the
Building Commissioning Certification Board and pass a two-hour written examination.
The CCP Program is underwritten in part by the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance.
Other organizations, including The American Institute of Architects, are creating

programs, training and contract documents to assist their members in providing
commissioning as additional client services.

• AIA B211™—2004 Standard Form of Architect's Services: Commissioning—
This fixed scope of services requires the architect to develop a commissioning
plan, a design intent document, and commissioning specifications, based on the
owner's identification of systems to be commissioned.
• ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005: The Commissioning Process—the industry
accepted model Commissioning Guide
• The Building Commissioning Guide, U.S. General Services Administration, 2005.
• Model Commissioning Plan and Guide Specifications, Version 2.05, PECI. Feb.
1998.—Available from PECI, 921 SW Washington, Suite 312, Portland, Oregon
97205; Phone (503) 248-4636; Fax (503) 295-0820; E-mail peci@peci.org
• NIH Commissioning Guidelines & Commissioning Plan Oregon.
• TECHINFO—USACE Technical Information website
• University of Washington—University Commissioning guide specifications
Publications
• AFETL 90-10 Commissioning of Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning

Systems Guide Specification
• NIBS Guideline 3-2006 Exterior Enclosure Technical Requirements for the
Commissioning Process
• Commissioning Specifications C-2000 Program, Canada, 1995. C-2000 Program,
Energy Mines & Resources, Energy Efficiency Division, 7th Floor, 580 Booth St.,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0E4.
• Contractor Quality Control and Commissioning Program—Guidelines and
Specification, Montgomery Co. Gov., St of Maryland, 1993. 301-217-6071.
• ER 1110-345-723 Systems Commissioning Procedures
• Establishing Cx Fees, ASHRAE.
65
• HVAC Systems Commissioning Manual, Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning

Contractors' National Association (SMACNA), 1994. SMACNA, 4201 Lafayette
Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 22021.
• Laboratory HVAC Systems: Design, Validation and Commissioning ASHRAE
collection of 11 papers, 1994. ASHRAE Publications Dept., 1791 Tullie Circle,
NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.
• MIL-HDBK-353 Planning and Commissioning Wastewater Treatment Plants
• New Construction Commissioning Costs (PDF 144 KB)
• UFGS 23 08 00.00 10 Commissioning of HVAC Systems, DoD
Tools

Bibliography
1. U.S. Department of Energy. Building Commission ["Citing sources on the internet"].
URL http://www.rebuild.org/attachments/guidebooks/commissioningguide.pdf
66
Project Delivery & Controls

Overview
Effective project management includes strategies, tactics, and tools for managing the
design and construction delivery process and for controlling key factors to ensure the
client receives a facility that matches scope and quality expectations, delivered on time
and within budget. Successful project delivery requires implementation of management
systems that will enable project delivery teams to control changes in the key factors of
scope, costs, schedule, and quality.
Scope Management
Project scope is defined as the work that must be done to meet a client's program goals
for space, function, features, and level of quality. In many ways, scope management is
the foundation on which the other project elements are built. From project inception,
project scope defines the boundaries within which the delivery team and the external
stakeholders work. Effective scope management requires accurate definition of a client's
requirements in the Planning and Development stage and a systematic process for
monitoring and managing all the factors that may impact or change the client's program
requirements throughout the project delivery process.
Cost Management
67
Project costs are measured and analyzed in many ways throughout a project, from
planning and design to bidding, construction, turnover, and beyond. First costs, cost-
benefit, and life-cycle cost are a few examples of how a project's cost-effectiveness can
be evaluated. However, the control of costs requires continual systematic cost
management. These cost management processes start with the establishment of budgets
that align with scope and quality requirements and continue with milestone estimates,
value engineering, procurement strategies, and change order management through to
claims avoidance and negotiation.
Schedule Management
A project schedule defines the process and establishes a timeline to be followed in

delivering the project. Avoiding schedule slippage is a key objective of schedule
management. Comprehensive project schedules will identify all of the project's stages,
phases, and activities assigned to each team member mapping them to a timeline that
measures key milestones (dates) that are used to keep track of work progress. Schedule
management interfaces directly with scope, cost, and quality management when team
member roles and activities are defined, coordinated, and continually monitored.
Quality Control
Quality control starts with matching expectations about quality levels with budget and
scope during planning and design reviews and continues through construction delivery
with a program of inspections, tests, and certifications. It requires a coordinated
performance among the entire project team in order for a completed building program to
fully satisfy a client's expectations.
68
Building commissioning is an emerging quality assurance process that coordinates and

integrates planning development and design decisions and verifies that the delivered
facility operates efficiently and actually meets a client's project requirements.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
o Cost-Effective Branch
o Historic Preservation
o Secure / Safe
Project Management
o Building Commissioning
Organizations
• Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE)

• Construction Industry Institute (CII)
• Construction Management Association of America
• Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS)
• Society for the Advancement of Value Engineering
• Society for Cost Estimating and Analysis
Publications
• AIA Handbook of Practice

• Construction Extension to a Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, 2003. Format:
CD-ROM
• GSA LEED® Applications Guide
• GSA LEED® Cost Study
• ISO 9000 Standard
• ISO 9000 in Construction by Paul A. Nee. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
• Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structure. Project Management Institute,
2001.
• Quality Management Guidelines. McLean, VA: Construction Management
Association of America, 2000.
Scheduling Software
• Microsoft Project
• Pacific Edge
• Primavera Systems
69
• Prolog
Tools

Sample Construction Related Forms
Construction Phase Forms

o Change Request Log
o Contractor's Daily Report
o Request for Information (RFI)
o RFI Log—Sample
o Points of Contact
o Preconstruction Conference—Sign In List
Construction Documents Checklists
o Preconstruction Conference—Checklist and Minutes
o Construction Inspection—Checklist
o Design Requirements/Provisions/Considerations—Checklist
• Comment On This Page

• Email This Page
Related Resource Pages
• Construction Phase Cost Management

• Cost Impact of the ISC Security Criteria
• Earned Value Analysis
• Estimating
• Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
• View All Related (6)
Risk Management
by Scott Cullen
Hanscomb Faithful & Gould

70
Introduction
In design and construction, risk analysis can be described as a systematic methodology
and ongoing process by which occurrences that may substantially affect the end product
can be identified, quantified, modeled, managed, and monitored. This tool is especially
useful as a method of good project management and planning, because the business of
building is inherently risky—the risk mitigation methods can be applied to project cost,
schedule, quality/performance, safety, and business operations, especially as construction
risk increases with the size of the project. Good risk management procedures ultimately
measure the team's confidence level in the project on an ongoing basis, and allow the
introduction of corrective actions, monetary contingency, and schedule float in order to
minimize losses to the project and increase the likelihood of the project being completed
on schedule and within budget.
The application of risk management procedures in construction can give early visibility to
potential "problem areas" and opportunities, where effort and money can be expended
early in the design and construction phases to reduce vulnerability, insurance costs,
business or mission interruption, and claims. Early risk identification ensures that design
and team effort is concentrated in critical areas, focusing the project team's attention on
actions and resources where there is a major risk exposure, or where the greatest
time/cost savings can be made through reengineering and streamlined project
management. The objective is proactive management of projects, where problems are
reduced as they are identified, as differentiated from the traditional approach to
construction, which waits until critical problems develop and then implements an
immediate (and typically expensive) response which may reduce the impact to the project
but likely does not avoid losses as effectively as early risk response. Over time, risk
management allows the project team to build a historical profile of risk based upon
experience and lessons learned, which will allow for better management of future
projects.
Risk management is an organized method of identifying and measuring risk and then
developing, selecting, implementing and managing options for addressing risks. There
are several types of risk that an owner should consider as part of risk management
methodology. These include:
• Schedule risk
• Cost risk
• Technical feasibility
• Risk of technical obsolescence
• Dependencies between a new project and other projects
• Physical events beyond direct control
Risk management seeks to identify and ultimately control possible future events and
should be proactive rather than reactive. To be effective, risk management must rely on
tools and techniques that help predict the likelihood of future events, the effects of these
71
future events and methods to deal with these future events. Risk management is the
responsibility of everyone involved in a project.
Tools and Techniques
Paying attention to detail and implementing appropriate cost and schedule control
systems will assist in risk analysis and management. However, one area that deserves
closer scrutiny is the use of range estimating as a risk analysis tool. Range estimating can
be done in a rather simple fashion by selecting the 20 percent of the line items in an
estimate that represent 80 percent of the cost then developing a range for each of those 20
percent and doing a simple process of adding the low and high ranges. A more advanced
approach could take the same 20 percent items, establish the range and then use any one
of several available software packages to perform a Monte Carlo simulation and produce
a risk profile. This approach would give a more accurate projection of the logical highs
and lows involved with 20 percent drivers. A sensitivity analysis can also be prepared to
vary the key risk parameters.
Finally, it is possible to use a complete risk analysis package that includes range
estimating and prepares a risk profile that estimates confidence ranges and contingency
amounts. This type of an approach can establish contingencies for not only individual
projects but for entire programs.
Monte Carlo or risk analysis is used when establishing a baseline or baseline change
during budget formulation. The contingency developed from the Monte Carlo analyses
should fall within the contingency allowance ranges presented previously. Monte Carlo
analyses and other risk assessment techniques use similar methodology to obtain
contingency estimates. There are a number of software packages both publicly and
commercially available. The estimator must subdivide the estimate into separate phases
or tasks and assess the accuracy of the cost estimate data in each phase. After the project
data have been input and checked, the computer program will calculate various
contingencies for the overall project based on the probability of project underrun. The
random number generator accounts for the known estimate accuracy. Once the program
has completed its iterations (usually 1,000), it produces an overall contingency for the
project with certain accuracy.
The application of this type of quantitative risk analysis allows the construction project
exposure to be modeled, and quantifies the probability of occurrence and potential impact
of identified risks. The results can be used to produce a realistic representation, in graphic
s-curve form, of the project's total uncertainty and risks. Referring to the s-curve figure
below as an example, a contingency amount of approximately $4 million represents 65%
confidence in achieving that project cost. For 80% confidence, contingency should be
increased such that total project cost is $51 million.
72
Sample project cost s-curve
Risk management with probabilistic modeling can be used to reduce project contingency
from a guesstimate of 10-20% to a quantitatively determined amount, typically in the
range of 3-8%. As the project progresses, and the confidence level in project cost
increases, the early release of contingency amounts may be achieved and the money may
be invested elsewhere.
Major Resources
Publications
• Managing Risk in Construction Projects by Nigel Smith. Blackwell Publishers,

January 1998.
• Risk Analysis: A Quantitative Guide by David Vose and Howard A. Doughty.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April 2000.
• Risk Management and Construction by Roger Flanagan and George Norman.
Blackwell Publishers, August 1993.
73
Facilities Operations & Maintenance

by Don Sapp, Plexus Scientific
Introduction
The operations and maintenance (O&M) of facilities covers all that broad spectrum of
services required to assure the built environment is available to and will perform the
functions for which they were designed and constructed. O&M is comprised of the day-
to-day activities necessary for the built entities to perform their intended function.
Operations and maintenance are combined into the one term O&M because an entity
cannot operate without being maintained; therefore the two are discussed as one.
At this time the Operations and Maintenance section offers guidance in the following
areas:
• Real Property Inventory (RPI)—Provides an overview on the type of system

needed to maintain an inventory of an organization's assets and manage those
assets.
• Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS)—Contains
descriptions of procedures and practices used to track the maintenance of an
organization's assets and associated costs.
Future updates to the Operations and Maintenance section will provide additional
guidance in the areas described below.
The scope of O&M includes the activities required to keep the entire built environment as
contained in the organization's Real Property Inventory of buildings and structures and
their supporting facilities such as utility systems, parking lots, roads, drainage structures
and grounds in condition to be used to meet their intended function during their life cycle.
These activities include routine and breakdown maintenance and repairs, operations of
utility systems and grounds care. It varies from O&M of a single building to a complex of
many buildings and structures or groups of complexes. As the number of buildings and
structures increases, the organization performing the O&M increases in size and
complexity. In all cases it requires knowledgeable and skilled management and skilled
and trained technical personnel to perform the many varied O&M functions.
Major Resources
A. Planning and Design Phase
74
O&M activities start with the planning and design of a facility and continue through its
life cycle. During the planning and design phases, O&M personnel should be involved
and should identify maintenance requirements for inclusion in the design, such as
equipment access, built-in condition monitoring, sensor connections, and other O&M
requirements that will aid in their operations and maintenance when the built facility is
turned over to the O&M organization.
• WBDG—Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE)

• Benchmarking, a Reliability Driver by Ray Oliverson, SMRP Presented at the 8th
International Process Plant Reliability Conference (October 26, 1999)
• DOD UFC 3-270-06 Paver Asphalt Surfaced Airfields Pavement Condition Index
(PCI)
• DOD UFC 4-310-02N Design: Clean Rooms
• DOE/EE-0249 FEMP Low Energy Building Design Guidelines
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 3: O&M
Management
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance: Pump Design / Selection
• DOE FEMP Utility Services Case Study—Thermal Energy Storage at a Federal
Facility
• EPA I-BEAM—The Indoor Air Quality Building Education and Assessment
Model (I-BEAM) is a guidance tool designed for use by building professionals
and others interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings.
o Chapter - Ductwork cleaning/standards
o Chapter - Exhaust System Design
• GSA 2003 Facilities Standards (P100)—Appendix 3: New Constructions and
Modernizations
B. Construction Phase
During the construction phase and prior to turnover of the facility for O&M operations
and maintenance manuals are provided to the O&M organization and O&M organization
personnel are provided training required for their O&M of the new facility. Assurance
that the manuals and training are provided is a part of the Building Commissioning
process.

• DOE FEMP Commissioning Case Study—In-house Retro-commissioning at a
DOE National Laboratory
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 7:
Commissioning Existing Buildings
• FEMP O&M Continuous Commissioning Guidebook
• Energy Star® Buildings Manual Recommissioning
• Example Retro-Commissioning Scope of Work
• GSA - Succession Planning
• Mechanical Systems Commissioning
• Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology
75
• TM 5-697 Commissioning of Mechanical Systems for Command, Control,

Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
(C4ISR) Facilities
C. Life Cycle O&M
O&M of the elements included in buildings, structures and supporting facilities is

complex and requires a knowledgeable, well-organized management team and a skilled,
well-trained work force. The objective of the O&M organization should be to operate,
maintain, and improve the facilities to provide reliable, safe, healthful, energy efficient,
and effective performance of the facilities to meet their designated purpose throughout
their life cycle. To accomplish these objectives, the O&M management must manage,
direct, and evaluate the day-to-day O&M activities and budget for the funds to support
the organization's requirements.

• DOD UFC 3-410-05N Heating Systems Operation and Maintenance
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M
Management - Section 3.4 Measuring the Quality of Your O&M Program
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Types of
Maintenance Programs - Section 5.1 through 5.5
Maintenance Programs - Sections 5.5 and 5.6 Reliability Centered Maintenance
Metering for Operations and Maintenance
• Energy Star®Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Reports
• FEMP "Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide" by Greg Sullivan PE,
CEM, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Presented at the Energy 2003,
August 18, 2003
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance
D. O&M Approach
The O&M organization is normally responsible for operating the utility systems and for
maintenance of all of the built entities. In accomplishing these responsibilities, the O&M
organization must operate the entities responsibly and maintain them properly. The utility
systems may be simple supply lines/systems or may be complete production and supply
systems. The maintenance work may include preventative and programmed maintenance,
repairs, trouble calls, (e.g., a room is too cold,) replacement of obsolete items, predictive
testing & inspection, and grounds care. Many O&M organizations are now utilizing a
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) program that includes "the optimum mix of
reactive, time- or interval-based, condition-based, and proactive maintenance practices…
These principal maintenance strategies, rather than being applied independently, are
integrated to take advantage of their respective strengths in order to maximize facility and
equipment reliability, while minimizing life-cycle costs." The O&M organization is also
76
normally responsible for maintaining records on deferred maintenance (DM), i.e.

maintenance work that has not been accomplished because of some reason—usually lack
of funds.
• Air Force Instruction 32-1051 Roof Systems Management

• DOD UFC 3-600-02: O&M: Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Fire
Protection Systems
Maintenance Programs - Section 5.4 Predictive Maintenance
• DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for
Major Equipment Types - Section 9.3 Steam Traps
Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.4.6 to 9.4.8 Maintenance of Chillers
Major Equipment Types - Section 9.5 Cooling Towers
Major Equipment Types - Section 9.6 Energy Management/Building Automation
Systems
Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.6.6 to 9.6.9 EMS Maintenance
Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.10.6 to 9.10.9 Maintenance of Air
Compressors
• Elevator inspection/repair
• Energy Star® Buildings Manual Fan System Upgrades
• Energy Star® Buildings Manual Lighting
• EPA I-BEAM—The Indoor Air Quality Building Education and Assessment
Model (I-BEAM) is a guidance tool designed for use by building professionals
and others interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings.
o Chapter - Cooling Towers
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance Fans Maintenance
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance Lighting Technologies
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance Maintenance of Pumps
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance Steam Traps
• FEMP Operations and Maintenance Types of Motors
• TM 5-617 Facilities Engineering - Maintenance and Repair of Roofs
• TM 5-692-1 Maintenance of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment at Command,
Control Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
(C4ISR) Facilities
• TM 5-692-2 Maintenance of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment at Command,
Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Facilities
• VA Boiler Plant Operations - VHA Directive 2003-050
• VA Electrical Power Distribution System Operations - VHA Directive 2006-056
77
E. Computerized Maintenance Management Systems
In today's computer age, O&M organizations utilize Computerized Maintenance

Management Systems (CMMS) to manage their day-to-day operations and to track the
status of maintenance work and monitor the associated costs of that work. These systems
are vital tools to not only manage the day-to-day activities, but also to provide valuable
information for preparing facilities key performance indicators (KPIs)/metrics to use in
evaluating the effectiveness of the current operations and for making organizational and
personnel decisions.

Computerized Maintenance Management System
F. Non O&M Work
Most O&M organizations also perform work that is not O&M, but is so often performed
by facilities maintenance organizations they become a part of their baseline. This work is
facilities related work that is new in nature, and as such should not be funded with O&M
funds but funded by the requesting organization. Examples of the work includes
installation of an outlet to support a new copier machine, providing a compressed air
outlet to a new test bench, and other minor facilities work of like nature.
78
Real Property Inventory (RPI)

by Don Sapp, Plexus Scientific
Introduction
Know Your Assets and What They Cost!
A system to maintain an inventory of an organization's assets/real property is required not

only to know what assets the organization has that must be maintained but also to manage
those assets and meet asset record and reporting requirements placed on an organization.
At one time inventory records were maintained only in paper files with a list of assets,
their value and limited other information maintained for ready reference. With the dawn
of the Computer age things have changed. Inventory records for ready reference have
become easier to prepare and maintain as they are recorded in a computer database.
These ready reference records have grown to include more information on each asset. As
the inventory database/records have grown their use has expanded because the
information can be more easily included in manage reports and other management
documents and can be made available for use in other databases such as an operations
and maintenance organization's Computerized Maintenance Management Systems
(CMMS). Because of the expanded use of real property inventories (RPIs) they have
become an important part of an organizations asset management. In fact in the federal
government all agencies are required by Executive Order 13327, Federal Real Property
Asset Management, to identify and categorize all real property owned, leased, or other-
wise managed by the agency.
Description
In today's business environment RPIs are or should be maintained in computer databases
with detailed inventory records maintained in paper files. The records should contain
details of transactions that affect the organization's assets and should be maintained as
permanent records for the life of each asset. The computer RPI size of course depends on
the number of facilities and how the organization chooses to maintain the database. The
database may be located at a site/complex/campus or at a central location where the
assets of the company/university/ government agency are maintained in total. The
inventory data on an asset will include information as determined by laws, government
regulations and/or an organization's management. It will depend on the use of the data
and what requirements have been placed on the organization such as information to meet
tax requirements, government regulations, management reports, operations and
maintenance (O&M) requirements and other requirements the organization may have.
79
The RPI paper files and database should start with the acquisition of the asset whether by
construction, purchase, lease, donation or any other source. When by construction the
RPI records should follow project delivery, at the time the asset is turned over to the
owner for O&M. When by other means the RPI should start with the owners assuming
O&M responsibility for the asset. The decision to enter an asset or improvement to an
asset in the RPI is determined by the value set by law, government regulation or the
organization and the organizations definition of real property. In most cases real property
includes land and anything permanently affixed to it, such as buildings including their
installed systems and building equipment and in some cases other installed equipment,
roads and parking facilities, fences, utility systems, structures, etc. The RPI for assets
meeting the definition and value requirements imposed on the organization should then
be maintained for the life of the asset whether in the private sector or in the government.
A. RPI Content
The RPI of an organization should include the detail paper files identifying the asset and
its cost including its initial acquisition and improvements. The RPI database should
include the asset's name (usually a descriptive title), its facility number or address, its
book value, type of facility (may be a classification code or simply included in its
descriptive title), its capacity and its unit of measure (UOM). Other asset data in the
database will depend on the organization and its management. Some other data that may
be included is its location, book value, its current replacement value, asset's use (may be a
code) and status, listing of improvements and their costs, previous years O&M costs, and
in the case of government agencies General Services Administration (GSA) Usage
Codes.
B. Book Value (Cost)
The initial entry in the RPI includes the book value with asset improvements that meet an
organizations guidelines being added to the book value as they occur. What is included in
the book value of an asset will depend on tax laws and management requirements in the
private sector and finical management rules and government regulations in the
government organizations. An example of government requirements is that capitalized
value (book cost) of a facility includes all costs incurred to bring the facility to a form
and location suitable for its intended use. The cost may include the following, as
appropriate for the type of facility to be capitalized and included as the book value of a
new asset or in the case of an asset improvement added to the facility's book value:
• Amounts paid to vendors or contractors, including fees;

• Transportation charges to the point of initial use;
• Handling and storage charges;
• Labor and other direct or indirect production costs (for assets produced or
constructed);
• Engineering, architectural, and other outside services for designs, plans,
specifications, and surveys;
• Acquisition and preparation costs of buildings and other facilities;
80
• An appropriate share of the cost of the equipment and facilities used in

construction work, including depreciation (per FMM 9091-5c.);
• Fixed equipment and related costs of installation required for activities in a
building or facility;
• Direct costs of inspection, supervision, and administration of construction
contracts and construction work, including civil service costs;
• Legal and recording fees and damage claims;
• Fair values of facilities and equipment donated to the Government, and
• Material amounts of interest costs paid.
C. Capital Improvements
Capital improvements to an asset are modifications whose cost equals or exceeds a value
established by the organization or by law/regulation and 1) extends its useful life by two
years or more or, 2) enlarges or improves its capacity or otherwise upgrades the asset to
serve needs different from, or significantly greater than, those originally intended. Capital
Improvements are capitalized and increase the book value of the facility.
Where a replacement occurs due to a capital improvement, the book cost of the asset
should be appropriately adjusted to remove the original costs of items replaced where the
costs exceeds a costs set by law, regulation or the organization. If only a portion of the
property is being replaced, and that portion is not separately identifiable in the asset's
records, the original value of the replaced portion should be estimated and the book value
adjusted accordingly. The costs of items replaced do not include the costs of removal but
only the original book costs.
D. Maintaining the RPI
The organization responsible for the RPI should develop and sponsor the establishment of
guidance and procedures as required for the organization to ensure compliance with
applicable laws, regulations, and organization policy. The guidance and procedures must
include the assignment of responsibilities and establish controls necessary to ensure that
the RPI records are kept current including the database, that periodic physical inventory
are performed and that the records are reconciled based on the inventories.
Application
An RPI should be maintained by all organizations responsible for maintaining asset
records. The records should include detailed paper records and a database containing the
asset information needed by the organization to meet reporting requirements and
recurring request for information. By having the data in a database reports and request for
information can be answered easily without using manpower to extract the data from
paper files. This is particularly applicable where the organization is responsible for a
complex or campus with numerous assets as found at large corporations, universities and
government agencies.
81
Emerging Issues
The security of the data in a database is an issue that most organizations have already
faced with their computer systems but it is a continuing problem that must be faced in the
computer world.

In the private sector the federal and state tax codes establish requirements for asset
records (RPIs) that must be maintained. Database files in the public sector will be based
on the organizations' requirements.
For government agencies the following regulations apply:
• 40 U.S.C. 483 and 484, Sections 202 and 203 of the Federal Property and
Administrative Services Act of 1949, as amended
• 41 CFR, Chapters 101 and 102, Federal Property Management Regulations
• Executive Order 13327, Federal Real Property Asset Management (PDF 96 KB)
Major Resources
• Army Real Property web site
• GSA Office of Government Wide Policy, Customer Guide to Reporting Real
Property Inventory Information (DOC 368 KB)
• Office of the Deputy Under the Secretary of Defense - Installations and
Environement Real Property Inventory Requirements
• NASA's Real Estate Management Program Implementation Manual
• U.S. Department of Energy Real Property Asset Management (PDF 188 KB)
Tools
• Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE)

82
Computer Aided Facilities Management

(CAFM)
by Dan Eckstein, Total Resource Management and Ozan Ozener, Texas A&M
Introduction
Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) is an approach in Facilities
Management that includes creation and utilization of Information Technology (IT)-based
systems in FM practice. The usage of CAFM systems in Facilities Management practice
aims to support operational and strategic facility management, i.e. all of the activities
associated with administrative, technical, and infrastructural FM tasks when the facility
or building is operational, as well as the strategic processes for facilities planning and
management¹.
CAFM systems consist of variety of technologies and information sources that may
include object-oriented database systems, Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems,
Building Information Models (BIM), and interfaces to other systems such as a Computer
Maintenance Management System. Today most CAFM systems are web-based and
provide a host of features including facilities related scheduling and analysis capabilities.
Data may be stored, retrieved, and analyzed from a single data-store or collected from a
variety of sources through technology interfaces or human transfer processes.
Description
Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) evolved in the late 1980's leveraging
the PC to automate the collection and maintenance of Facilities Management information.
Widespread usage of IT systems in almost all disciplines eventually penetrated the
construction and Facility Management industry as well. After the development of
Internet-based database systems, usage of high-end tools in FM practices increased in
that sector. CAFM systems provided the facility manager with the tools to track, plan,
manage, and report on facilities information.
A mature CAFM system combines and analyzes complex data to improve facility
management practices throughout a variety of industries including government,
healthcare, educational, commercial, and industrial environments. The CAFM system
gives decision makers the ability to automate many of the data-intensive facility
management functions and typically results in continuous cost savings and improved
utilization of assets through-out their entire lifecycle.
83
A well developed CAFM system may include a variety of functions and features to meet
the specific demands of the Facility Manager. Although there is no ideal model, suitable
for all situations, a typical CAFM system provides and maintains information on floor
plans, property descriptions, space utilization, energy consumption, equipment locations,
and other critical infrastructure data that pertains to the sector it is serving.
Components of Integrated CAFM Systems and Capabilities
A typical CAFM system is defined as a combination of CAD and/or relational database

software with specific abilities for facilities management. Parallel to this, some CAFM
systems are equipped with new and intelligent interfaces, advanced automated Facilities
Management functionalities and links between various external analysis packages.
CAFM systems in the market today can provide different tools to perform various tasks.
The following features are common to most CAFM systems.
Interactive Database: Since the data in crucial in Facilities Management practice, CAFM
systems are based on fully developed relational databases that are designed around the
functional requirements of the Facility or Space Manager.
Interactive Graphics: CAFM systems facilitate an interactive graphics module for basic
drafting and modification of facility layouts, plans and other visual documents. A
majority of CAFM systems on the market integrate industry standard CAD engines into
the CAFM system to utilize common CAD file formats. Additionally, the graphics data
may be maintained in a format compatible with Geographic Information System (GIS)
standards that will allow CAFM information to be accurately shared across multiple
platforms, including spatial environments.
Data Management Tools: CAFM systems reuse existing data and are able to recognize
and/or convert external data for their own use. These tools usually provide a robust user
interface to enable a user-friendly environment for data input, editing, and analysis.
Application
Most facility managers face a variety of constraints and challenges. The most common
issues facing most managers today include:
• Shrinking maintenance budgets

• Resource constraints
• Political priorities
• Unfunded mandates
• Distributed data and data disparities
• Organizational stovepipes
The challenge for facility managers is to overcome these obstacles by utilizing the
resources available and convincing leadership that efficiencies and cost savings can be
achieved with investments in technology, such as a well planned CAFM system. Mature
84
CAFM systems are important to enable the facility managers to become effective
decision makers and provide effective management of facility information. The mature
CAFM system will help the facility's manager ensure the organization's assets are fully
utilized at the lowest possible cost, while providing benefit to every phase of a building's
lifecycle.
Usage Areas
CAFM systems can be used for different purposes in Facilities Management practices.
Planning, monitoring, and reporting capabilities of typical CAFM systems provide vital
information to perform tasks in the facility management arena. Typical facility functions
that a CAFM can benefit include the following:
Strategic Planning: Tasks include analyses of property and space to provide capital
planning of new or remodel assets to improve the mission of the organization. The
CAFM tools will usually aid the Facility Management in determining space requirements,
equipment locations, construction costs, environmental constraints, encroachments, and
other critical planning functions.
Space Inventory and Management: The CAFM should define and standardize space
attributes and data elements as well as the physical asset inventories of the organization.
Typical functions of this module include analysis on space dimensions, utilization,
hazardous material locations, evacuation routes, fire equipment locations, and buildings
attributes such as:
• Age
• Cost data
• Life expectancy
• Construction data
• Contract and Warranty data
• Building managers
• Telephone numbers
• Technology drops
Operations: Tasks include tracking energy consumption, utilities monitoring, lighting

management, janitorial, and grounds maintenance responsibilities and cost.
Maintenance and Repairs: Tasks include monitoring routine repairs and preventive
maintenance operations in the facility. Safety conditions, such as a lock-out/tag-out
program can also be managed in this module.
Assessments: This function typically includes building condition inspections, condition

reporting, security vulnerability, and risk assessments. Often these features have an
interface for a GIS to achieve the benefits of a spatial reporting environment as well as
CAFM.
85
Space Forecasting: Includes the ability to determine current space utilization and to
project future space requirements based on customer or mission requirements. This task
typically includes the ability to manage the requirements for people, space, utilities,
technology access, as well as the cost and move planning features.
Fig. 1. Usage of CAFM in the life cycle of a building² (Schürle and Fritsch, 2000).²
Benefits
Benefits of CAFM usage in Facility Management tasks can be grouped in various areas,
including quality of life, cost reduction, cost avoidance, and information improvement.
Specifically, a mature CAFM system will provide benefits similar to those listed below:
• More efficient space utilization to achieve cost savings and potential reduction in
asset inventories.
• Reduction in moving and relocation activities resulting in greatly reduced
relocation costs.
• Continuous improvement in facilities management efficiencies.
• Improved project planning leading to reductions in A&E, construction, and
building maintenance costs.
• Fast and accurate reporting on critical facilities information.
• Existing processes will become more efficient and streamlined, using
standardized data that is shared across the enterprise.
• The CAFM will give facilities managers the tools necessary to become more
proactive instead of reactive to facilities' requirements and enable better decision
making.
• Improve safety and environmental planning capabilities, reducing risk from
accident and regulatory compliance violations.
• Disaster planning capabilities are significantly improved to reduce the potential
for human injury or death in a disaster as well as to improve those required for
operational recovery.
• Data standardization across the organization and the elimination of redundant
information held by multiple organizations in various degrees of quality and
accuracy.
86

Relevant standards for CAFM systems based on CAD, BIM, and Database file formats.
• U.S. National CAD Standard®

• CAD-GIS-BIM Open Standard—OWS-4
• W3C Fourth Edition and XML 1.1
• Spatial Data Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, and Environment (SDSFIE)
• International Alliance for Interoperability, IFCs (ISO PAS 16739)
• COBIE
Major Resources
Publications
• Facility Management, 2nd Edition, Edmond P. Rondeau, Robert Kevin Brown,

Paul D. Lapides, ISBN: 0-471-70059-2, Wiley, January 2006.
• ¹ Abel, J., Lennerts, K. 2005. "Where does CAFM really help? Current fields of
application and future trends according to system users". In: Proceedings of CIB
W78's 22nd International Conference on Information Technology in Construction,
CIB Publication 304, ISBN 3-86005-478-3, The Westin Bellevue, Dresden,
Germany, 19-21 June 2005.
• ² Schürle, T., Boy, A., Fritsch, D. (2000): IAPRS, Vol. 33, Working Group
IV/III.1 – CAFM Data Structures: A Review And Examples, Published by German
Institute for Photogrammetry (ifp), Stuttgart University, Germany.
Websites
• FM Innovations
Organizations
• BOMA International
• FIATECH
• IFMA (International Facility Management Association)
• International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI)
• NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences)
87
Computerized Maintenance Management

Systems (CMMS)
by Don Sapp - Plexus Scientific
Revised and updated by Dan Eckstein - Total Resource Management
Introduction
Know What Work Has Been Done on Your Assets and What it Costs!
Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) enable the facility manager,

subordinates and customers to track the status of maintenance work on their assets and
the associated costs of that work. CMMS are utilized by facilities maintenance
organizations to record and manage and communicate their day-to-day operations. The
system can provide reports to use in managing the organization's resources, preparing
facilities key performance indicators (KPIs)/metrics to use in evaluating the effectiveness
of the current operations and for making organizational and personnel decisions. In
today's maintenance world the CMMS is an essential tool for the modern facilities
maintenance organization.
Prior to the computer age paper records were maintained to track the work. Reports were
simple and costly to prepare. With the dawn of the computer age it was recognized
computer software could be used to record work requirements, track the status of the
work and analyze the recorded data for managing the work, produce reports and help
control costs. With time computers have become more powerful, less costly, and easier to
use and now provide tools to support improved maintenance practices. Facility
professionals now have the tools to manage the planning and day-to-day operations and
maintenance activities required for a single facility or a large complex, providing all of
the information required to manage the work, the work force and the costs and provide
management reports and historical data.
Description
The goal of a maintenance manager is to employ a management system that optimizes the
use of scarce resources (manpower, equipment, material, and funds) to maintain the
facilities and equipment that are the responsibility of the maintenance organization. The
system should provide for integrated processes giving the manager control over the
maintenance of all facilities and maintainable equipment from acquisition to disposal.
The following lists what the system should do:
88
• Address all resources involved,

• Maintain maintenance inventory,
• Record and maintain work history,
• Include work tasks and frequencies,
• Accommodate all methods of work accomplishment,
• Effectively interface and communicate with related and supporting systems
ranging from work generation through work performance and evaluation,
• Support each customer's mission,
• Ensure communication with each customer,
• Provide feedback information for analysis, and
• Reduce costs through effective maintenance planning.
A modern CMMS meets these requirements and assists the facilities maintenance
manager with work reception, planning, control, performance, evaluation, and reporting.
Such a system will also maintain historical information for management use. The
manager should evaluate management data requirements and establish electronic data
needs prior to acquiring a system or additions to, or replacement of, an existing system.
The evaluation should include a return on investment (ROI) analysis before investing in
additional or new CMMS capabilities. The manager should only acquire what is
necessary to accomplish the maintenance organization's goals. The following paragraphs
include details of capabilities that may be included in a modern CMMS.
A. Operating Locations
The CMMS may include an application that allows an operator to enter and track
locations of equipment (locations in which equipment operates) and organize these
locations into logical hierarchies or network systems. Work orders can then be written
either against the location itself or against the equipment in the operating location. Using
locations allows for the tracking of the equipment's lifecycles (history) and provides the
capability to track equipments' performance at specific sites.
B. Equipment
The CMMS may include a module that allows an operator to keep accurate and detailed
records of each piece of equipment. This module would include equipment related data,
such as bill of material, Preventive Maintenance (PM) schedule, service contracts, safety
procedures, measurement points, multiple meters, inspection routes, specification data
(name plate), equipment downtime, and related documentation. This equipment data is
used for managing day-to-day operations and historical data that can be used to help
make cost effective replace or repair decisions. The data can also be used to develop
additional management information, such as building equipment downtime failure code
hierarchies for use in maintenance management metrics.
C. Resources
89
The CMMS may include a separate module to track labor resources. This module
typically includes records for all maintenance personnel, including their craft or trade
categories, such as mechanic, electrician, or plumber. Additionally, this module may
include labor rates in order to capture and track true labor costs against any asset or piece
of equipment. Some CMMS will allow maintenance managers to also track skill levels
and qualifications for each resources to help in planning and scheduling of work.
Grouping labor categories into common associations can help a manager assign work to
particular shop rather than an individual.
D. Safety Plans
With the emphasis placed on safety throughout Government and industry a capability for
safety plans/planning may be included in a CMMS. The following capabilities should be
provided:
• Manual or automatic safety plan numbering.

• Building safety plans for special work.
• Tracking hazards for multiple equipment and locations.
• Associating multiple precautions to a hazard.
• Tracking hazardous materials for multiple equipment and locations.
• Once hazards and precautions are entered they should be available for reference
and data entry.
• Tracking ratings for health, flammability, reactively, contact, and Material Safety
Data Sheets for hazardous materials.
• Defining lock-out/tag-out procedures.
• Define tag identifications for specific equipment and locations.
• Defining safety plans for multiple equipment or locations.
• Viewing and linking documents.
• Associating safety plans to job plans, to preventative maintenance masters and to
work orders.
• Printing safety plans automatically on work orders.
• Allowing tag-out procedures to be associated to hazards or directly to locations,
equipment, and safety plans or work orders.
E. Inventory Control
An inventory control module may be included to allow an operator to track inventory

movement such as items being moved in or out of inventory, or from one location to
another. Stocked, non-stocked, and special order items could be tracked. The module
should also allow the tracking of item vendors, location of items, item cost information,
and the substitute or alternate items that can be used if necessary. Some CMMS
recommend and provide the ability to track tools and provide basic tool-room
management features as part of the inventory module. This feature will allow work
planners the ability to see what tools are in stock and assign tools to various work
categories to reduce research effort on the part of mechanics and technicians working in
the field.
90
F. Work Request
A work request module should be an integral part of a CMMS. The module could provide
the capability for a requestor to input a request, such as a trouble call, or it could be
entered by the maintenance organization's work control. The data entry screen should be
designed for minimal data entry. The work order number could be assigned manually or
automatically. A requester could enter minimal data and work control could enter
additional information as required. Data should be entered once, and pop-up tables in the
system should eliminate the need to memorize codes.
G. Work Order Tracking
A CMMS must include work order tracking because it is the heart of a work order
system. The data should be entered once, and pop-up tables should eliminate the need to
memorize codes. The tracking system should provide instant access to all of the
information needed for detailed planning and scheduling, including work plan operations,
labor, materials, tools, costs, equipment, blueprints, related documents, and failure
analysis. Of course, this is dependent on how many modules are installed and how much
information has been entered in the system. The manager must evaluate data
requirements and the practicality of adding modules.
H. Work Management
A work manager module may be a part of the CMMS. The module could provide the
capability that would let a planner specify which labor to apply to specific work orders
and when. The module would permit planning and dispatching.
• Planning—In planning, labor assignments would be planned for future shifts.

Each person's calendar availability would be considered when the assignments are
made. The assignments would be created sequentially over the shift, filling each
person's daily schedule with priority work for the craft. It could even split larger
jobs over multiple shifts—automatically.
• Dispatching—In dispatching, labor assignments would be carried out as soon as
possible. This system could begin tracking labor time from the instant the
assignment is made. The system operator could interrupt work already in progress
in order to reassign labor resources to more crucial work.
I. Quick Reporting
The CMMS could provide a rapid and easy means for opening, reporting on, and closing
work orders, and reporting work on small jobs after-the-fact. Labor, materials, failure
codes, completion date, and downtime could all be reported.
J. Preventive Maintenance
91
The following capabilities may be provided in a CMMS to manage a Preventive

Maintenance (PM) program:
• Support multiple criteria for generating PM work orders. If a PM master has both
time-based and meter-based frequency information, the program should use
whichever becomes due first, and then update the other.
• Generate time-based PM work orders based upon last generation or last
completion date. Next due date and job plans should be displayed.
• Permit and track PM extensions with adjustments to next due date.
• Trigger meter-based PM by two separate meters.
• Print sequence job plans when wanted.
• Create a PM against an item so new parts have PM automatically generated on
purchase.
• Specify the number of days ahead to generate work orders from PM masters that
may not yet have met their frequency criteria.
• Consolidate weekly, monthly, and quarterly job plans on a single master.
• Assign sequence numbers to job plans to tell the system which job plan to use
when a PM work order is generated from a PM master.
• Permit overriding frequency criteria in order to generate PM work orders
whenever plant conditions require.
• Route PM with multiple equipment or locations.
• Generate work orders in batch or individually for only the equipment wanted.
• Should have the capability to be used with the system scheduler to forecast
resources and budgets.
K. Utilities
A utilities module may be included that contains detailed information on utilities

consumption, distribution, use, metering, allocation to users, and cost. It could include
modeling capability and linkage to utility control systems.
L. Facility/Equipment History
A history module may be included that would contain the maintenance histories of the
facilities and equipment. It would contain summaries of PM, repairs, rehabilitation,
modifications, additions, construction, and other work affecting the configuration or
condition of the items. It would include completed and canceled work orders. The
maintenance history records can be used to support proactive maintenance techniques
such as root-cause failure analysis and reliability engineering.
M. Purchasing
A mature CMMS may also include a Purchasing module to initiate the requisition of
material against a work order and track the delivery and cost data of the item when the
material arrives. This capability will allow the maintenance manager improved visibility
of matters that can impact work planning and efficiency. Procuring required material
92
outside the CMMS can often leave information gaps that can inhibit the effectiveness of
work execution and result in redundant parts orderings and non-standard procurement
practices. The purchasing module may include many functions such as a vendor master
catalog, invoicing, purchase orders, receiving, and even request for quotations.
N. Facilities Maintenance Contracts
A CMMS may contain a contracts module that includes information on maintenance

contracts. With other database files, it provides a picture of each contractor's past
performance, current loading, and planned work. It could include information on
specifications, Government furnished property, quality assurance, payment processing,
delivery orders issued, schedules, and related matters. It could cover both contracts for
facilities maintenance and support services.
O. Key Performance Indicators/Metrics
The CMMS can be utilized to accumulate the data for KPIs for use in evaluating the
organization's maintenance program. The maintenance management organization must
select the metrics to utilize in establishing their goals and to measure progress in meeting
those goals. The importance of Selecting the Right Key Performance Indicators cannot be
overstated. The KPIs must be based on data that can be obtained and provide meaningful
information that will be utilized in managing the organization.
P. Specialized Features
Some CMMS providers have also developed specialized capabilities and features for
particular business sectors, functions, or requirements. Maintenance managers today are
able to use their CMMS for tracking transportation and fleet inventory , including
maintenance history, mileages, lease terms, rates, and accounting data. Other managers
are using their CMMS to track deployed assets such as computers and other IT
equipment. Through their CMMS the track changes, additions, and movement of
equipment, including software inventory on PC. When selecting a CMMS; considering
the full scope of asset management options, with a focus on consolidated IT solutions
may a sensible course of action.
Application
A CMMS can be utilized in the management of a range of facilities from a single facility
to a complex/campus. They can also be used to manage the maintenance program for a
grouping of equipment such as a fleet of vehicles. The systems are very versatile since
most are in modular form for the various maintenance functions and can be customized to
fit the particular application. Whatever system or set of modules are selected for use,
careful consideration needs to be given to Functional Requirements and a sound
deployment plan. The CMMS must meet the needs, constraints, and opportunities of the
business and be implemented in a way that users will welcome the technology and have a
93
vision for the benefits it brings. Proper configuration, testing, and training can not be over
emphasized when bringing a new CMMS or upgrading an exiting system to an
organization.
Emerging Issues
Failure of CMMS implementations is a continuing problem voiced by industry experts.
To avoid this pitfall a thorough management study of the proposed or existing system is
required to evaluate the use of such a system in their organization and to determine the
costs benefits. Not all maintenance organizations require the use of a complete set of
CMMS modules. Those that have implemented CMMS programs without a complete
study, typically fail to use the capabilities incorporated in the software and may
eventually view the program as a failure.
Avoiding the pitfalls in decision-making concerning implementing or modifying CMMS

in a maintenance organization eans research must be a high priority.
Major Resources
The Internet provides a wealth of information for use in making CMMS implementation
decisions. Two of the sites offering this type of information are Maintenance Resources
and Cmmscity.com. Maintenance Resources provides CMMS reference articles from
"What is CMMS?" and articles dealing with various aspects of CMMS. Cmmscity.com is
designed to provide the CMMS end user community with information, resources and
education relating to preplanning purchases and making effective use of computerized
maintenance management systems.
In evaluating the acquisition of a CMMS or adding to or replacing an existing CMMS an

ROI should be performed to obtain data to justify the acquisition. An ROI calculator to
determine an organizations potential savings from an improved management of their
maintenance program is available at the following locations:
• Business Industrial Network's CMMS ROI calculator,

• Datastream and
• Maintenance Resources
The following are some company web sites that offer CMMS software. There are many
others that can be found on the Internet with a "CMMS" search.
• Datastream,
• Micromain Corporation,
• IBM,
• Ivara Corporation,
• Champs Software, Inc.,
• Davison Software,
94
• TMA Systems,
• fsc Limited and
• MaintSmart Software, Inc.
Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG) Resource Page Reliability-Centered

Maintenance (RCM) provides information and guidance on preventive maintenance and
on selecting KPIs.
The National Aeronautics and Spaces Administrations (NASA) provides insight into the
use of Facilities Maintenance Management Automation in Chapter 6 of their procedures
requirements document, Facilities Maintenance Management.
95
Space Types
There are many different types of spaces in a building, and each type of space has its own
characteristics and requirements. This section of the WBDG provides information and
guidance organized by functional space types, which complements the WBDG Building
Types pages. For each Space Types page there is a discussion of the general attributes
and requirements of the space as well as example configurations, layouts, and
construction criteria. Space Types pages are also linked to related Building Types pages
and Resource Pages that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging issues relevant to
that specific Space Type. Further, all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics,
cost effective, functional/operational, historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and
sustainable and their interrelationships must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately
applied within the spaces. As such, each of these design objectives is presented in the
context of the others throughout the Space Types pages as they apply.
• Atrium
• Auditorium
• Automated Data Processing: Mainframe
• Automated Data Processing: PC System
• Child Care
• Clinic / Health Unit
• Conference / Classroom
• Courthouse: Courtroom
• Courthouse: Enhanced Office
• Courthouse: Judicial Chamber
• Firing Range
• Food Service
• General Storage
• Hearing Room
• Joint Use Retail
• Laboratory: Dry
• Laboratory: Wet
• Library
• Light Industrial
• Loading Dock
• Lobby
• Mail Center
• Office
• Parking: Basement
• Parking: Outside / Structured
• Parking: Surface
• Physical Fitness (Exercise Room)
• Place of Worship
96
• Plaza
• Private Toilet
• Warehouse
97
Family Service Centers

by Eric G. Mion
Lewis & Zimmerman Associates, Inc.
Overview
The Family Service Center is a community-based facility that provides educational and
support programs primarily for adults and families. The support programs offered will
vary widely and can include the following:
• Counseling. Counseling services may include clinical mental heath counseling,

marriage or other family counseling, and abuse counseling.
• Employment support. These services include resume preparation assistance, job
search assistance, and interviewing techniques.
• Financial management. These services include training and counseling for basic
personal and family financial management such as balancing a checkbook,
managing credit, applying for loans, etc.
• Community orientation. These services provide information on local community
services and recreational opportunities.
Some facilities may include aid- or charity-based services such as a food bank or
financial aid. Military Family Service Centers support the programs required by the
Department of Defense (DoD) Instruction 1342.22 Family Centers and must meet
specific requirements defined in UFC 4-730-01, Family Service Centers and supporting
documents.
Most of the facility's programs can be accommodated through three functional space
types: classroom and training space, resource rooms (library/computer labs), and program
or counseling offices. Additional functional areas include administrative spaces,
dedicated storage spaces, and building support spaces.
Building Attributes
A. Space Types and Building Organization
A Family Service Center must accommodate both public spaces and very private spaces.
This drives the facility layout and functional space adjacencies.
98
Sample adjacency diagram for a family service center.

Developed by DMJM Design, Arlington, VA.
Public spaces are areas that customers need ready access to and may enter unattended by
staff. They should typically be located near the main entrance and include the following:
• Lobby/waiting area
• Classroom(s)
• Resource room and
• Public toilets
Semipublic spaces are areas that customers need access to but will usually only enter
accompanied by a staff member. They include the following:
• Program offices for programs such as community orientation or employment

support that do not require a high degree of privacy and
• Material aid such as a food bank or lending locker
Private spaces are areas that customers will not normally enter or areas that a customer
will only enter with a staff member and require a high degree of privacy. They include
the following:
• Clinical counseling offices

• Group therapy rooms
• Program offices that require a high degree of privacy such as financial
management
• Staff administrative offices and work areas and
• Building support spaces such as mechanical and electrical rooms
99
Design the facility such that the entrances to the public spaces are clearly visible from the
main entrance. The resource room shares many characteristics with a library. It should be
designed to accommodate multiple computers with Internet access and the storage and
easy retrieval of printed reference material. The resource room should also allow for
display of informational brochures, such as for community resources and recreational
activities.
Staffed program offices are directly adjacent to the resource room so customers using the
resources can easily ask questions and interface with staff. Likewise, staff members that
are meeting with customers in their offices can easily take the customer into the resource
room and set them up for independent research.
The classrooms are configured like typical training facility rooms and should be designed
for flexibility of use. Since prime class time is limited to the early evening hours after
work, a flexible design will provide facility managers with more options for running
multiple classes. If budget allows, consider providing a teaching kitchen as part of or in
addition to the classrooms.
The private spaces should not be located in high traffic areas. The counseling spaces are
similar to psychiatric facility spaces and should feel safe, confidential, and non-
threatening. A beneficial additional space adjacent to counseling offices or group therapy
rooms is a waiting and/or decompression room. This room provides a private space for a
distraught customer waiting to see a counselor or for a customer to compose him or
herself after an emotionally difficult session prior to reentering the public spaces.
B. Design Considerations
Key design goals and considerations for Family Service Centers include the following:
Non-threatening Environment
In order for customers to feel comfortable using the services of a Family Service Center,
they must not feel intimidated. They also must feel that the information they share and
the emotions they express will remain confidential. Therefore, the following design
elements are critical:
• Physically separate private spaces from public spaces.

• Provide acoustical privacy. Counseling and therapy spaces should use full-height
partitions that extend to the underside of the structure and include materials that
reduce sound transmission.
• Do not place a desk or other furniture between the customer and the staff member
(see figure below).
• Provide a sense of welcome and arrival at the entrance, lobby, and control desk.
• In the counseling and therapy spaces, use indirect lighting as main ambient
lighting, and
• Avoid "institutional" finishes, textures, and colors.
100
Sample private counseling office.

Developed by DMJM Design, Arlington, VA.
Include Appropriate Space for Staff
Provide space to assist staff in developing and maintaining the center's programs and
business. Outside of normal day-to-day operations, staff must be able to accomplish the
following:
• Think and plan

• Meet and communicate
• Host visitors and
• Store equipment and records. Also review the psychiatric facility page for more
information on HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act)
regulations that address security and privacy of protected health information.
Also see the office space type for more information on staff space.
Maintain a Safe and Healthy Environment
Design the facility to accommodate equipment and operational strategies to both protect
staff and customers and maintain a healthy environment. Consider the following critical
elements:
• Prevent unauthorized access by potentially dangerous personnel

• Provide an internal, silent duress alarm system with activation points at the
reception desk and the counseling and therapy areas and the alarm signal at the
101
management areas. This alarm system allows a counselor or staff member to

signal for help.
• Provide easily-cleaned finishes
• Use nontoxic building materials and improved maintenance practices
• Ensure good indoor air quality and ample natural light
Flexibility
As with any program-based facility, flexibility is critical since programs will change as
the community served evolves and grows:
• Provide movable partitions and numerous data ports and electrical outlets in the
classrooms
• Orient as many program offices as possible around the resource room
• Design for the changing nature of work
Emerging Issues
One approach to the management of family service centers encourages staff to spend
more time out in the community versus in the facility. If this operational approach is
followed, it requires a smaller but more flexible facility design. Staff will normally work
in an open office setting rather than private offices since they will spend more time
outside of the facility. Staff-customer meetings will be performed in an expanded
resource room or in dedicated interview rooms that can be reserved when a private
meeting is necessary.

• Standard federal and state building codes apply, as appropriate. Also review the
codes and standards for the aforementioned related building types: psychiatric
facilities, libraries, and training facilities.
Department of Defense
• DoD Instruction 1342.22, Family Centers

• Department of the Air Force:
• Air Force Instruction (AFI) 36, 3009, Family Support Center Program
• Department of the Army:
• Army Regulation (AR) 608-1, Community Service Program
• UFC 4-730-01, Family Service Centers
102
Community Services
Overview
The Community Services building type is distinguished by the wide range of different
facility types that fall under it. While all Community Services facilities share a common
purpose in the service of public needs, each facility is very specialized and the functional
requirements are extremely varied. For example, facilities such as museums, visitor
centers, and youth centers are recreational in nature, accommodate the general public,
and are open and welcoming in design character. However, facilities such as police and
fire stations, while sometimes being partially open to the public, comprise many spaces
that are intended to be occupied only by highly trained professionals. Spaces such as the
following will represent unsafe or high-risk areas to the general public:
• Police holding cells,

• Police firing ranges, and
• Fire-fighting apparatus bays and equipment maintenance rooms.
Therefore, the design and functional layout of these facilities will vary widely. If there is
one unifying theme to these building types, it is that the exterior architectural message
should respect the cultural tastes and history of the community served.
Emerging Issues
As with all public buildings and buildings with a 24-hour staff, several design issues have
gained increased attention over recent years:
• Quality of life issues for staff, particularly overnight staff, and health and safety
concerns for patrons drive issues such as daylighting, the specification of non-
toxic building materials, and the quality of finishes and the environment they
create;
• Anti-terrorism/force protection measures are vital to protect life, protect physical
assets, and to maintain operations in critical community service facilities such as
police and fire stations; and
• Return on investment is of paramount importance and can be enhanced through
the use of renewable energy sources and sustainable design principles.
Classification
As noted, the range of Community Services facility types is vast and varied:
103
• Auditoriums
• Banks/Credit Unions
• Central Laundry/Dry-Cleaning Facilities
• Community Centers
• Fire Stations
• Fitness Center
• Museums
• Police Stations
• Post Offices
• Visitor Centers
• Youth Centers
104
Clinic / Health Unit

by WBDG Staff
Overview
The Clinic/Health Unit space types are facilities where outpatient ambulatory health
services are provided. Sub-space types, such as office spaces, private toilets, and filing
and storage areas are included.
This space type does not include provisions for invasive surgery, in-patient services,
medical diagnostic categories I, II, and III equipment (including exam lights and medical
gas systems), radiological diagnostic services (including special structural elements and
radiation shielding on ceiling and floor areas), darkroom revolving door systems, or
medical laboratory spaces. Clinics where general anesthesia, invasive procedures, or
overnight care are provided require Institutional Occupancy construction types and are
not included.
See Health Care, Hospital, Nursing Home, Outpatient Clinic, and Psychiatric Facility for
more information about inpatient and specialized care facilities.
Space Attributes
The Clinic/Health Unit space type should provide a sanitary and therapeutic environment
in which patients can be treated by medical practitioners quickly and effectively. Typical
features of clinic/health unit space types include the list of applicable design objectives
elements as outlined below. For a complete list and definitions of the design objectives
within the context of whole building design, click on the titles below.
Accessible
• All areas should comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, with the Uniform
Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS). For more information, see WBDG
Accessible Branch and Comply with Accessibility Requirements (historic
facilities).
Functional / Operational
• Cleanliness and Sanitation: The cleanliness of a facility is not only related to a

patient's medical recovery, but can also affect the perceived level of care. To
105
maintain a sanitary environment, spaces should be easy to clean and maintain.

Use durable finishes and sterile/antimicrobial surfaces as necessary. For more
information, see WBDG Therapeutic Environments.
• Occupancy: The occupancy classification for the Clinic/Health Unit space type is
Business Occupancy B2, with sprinklered protected construction and GSA
Acoustical Class C2.
Productive
• Efficiency and Flexibility: The layout of the Clinic/Health Unit should promote
prompt and reliable medical attention. Relationship and flow diagrams created at
the beginning of the design process will ensure a sensible programming of space.
Office support spaces such as workrooms, file rooms, copier areas, coat storage,
and lockers typically will be integrated into the clinic environment. Flexibility
must also be a basic feature of any health care facility to keep it from rapid
obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies.
• Acoustic and Visual Privacy: The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and
Accessibility Act) regulations address the security and privacy of "protected
health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and
visual privacy, and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle
medical records and other patient information-both paper and electronic-as well as
patient accommodations. Flow diagrams created in the beginning of the design
process should address controlled access areas.
Secure / Safe
• Emergency Backup Systems: Typically, this space type will require emergency
battery backup for 25% of lighting. Refer to individual utility requirements for
specific medical equipment.
Example Program
The following building program is representative of Clinic/Health Unit spaces.
HEALTH UNIT
Sum Tenant
Description SF Space Tenant
Qty. Actual Usable
Tenant Occupiable Areas Each Req'd. USF
SF Factor
Entry Lobby 240
Waiting 1 120 120
Reception/Registration 1 60 60
Payee Window 1 60 60
General Patient Care 684
106
Physician Office/Consult 1 120 120

Exam Room 3 108 324
Nurse Work Area 1 40 40
Patient Toilets 1 60 60
Clean/Supply Room 1 60 60
Medications Storage 1 20 20
Soiled Utility Room 1 60 60
Medical Records 60
Medical Records Files 1 60 60
Staff Support Spaces 216
Staff Toilet (Male) 1 60 60
Staff Toilet (Female) 1 60 60
Staff Break Room 1 60 60
Housekeeping 1 36 36
Tenant Suite 1,200 1,200 1.53 1,840
Tenant Usable Areas 1,840
Example Plans
The following diagram is representative of typical tenant plans.

107
Example Construction Criteria
For GSA, the unit costs for the Clinic/Health Unit space type are based on the
construction quality and design features in the following table (PDF 57 KB, 5 pgs). This
information is based on GSA's benchmark interpretation and could be different for other
owners.

The following agencies and organizations have developed codes and standards affecting
the design of health facilities, including clinics. Note that the codes and standards are
minimum requirements. Architects, engineers, and consultants should consider exceeding
the applicable requirements whenever possible:
• Americans with Disabilities Act

• Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care
Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The
American Institute of Architects, 2001.
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100, GSA
• International Building Code
• Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA): Office of Facilities Management Technical
Information Library contains many guides and standards, including: Design
108
Guides for planning hospital based ambulatory care clinics, community based
outpatient clinics, satellite outpatient clinics, and ambulatory surgery clinics. This
information library also includes Design Manuals of technical requirements,
equipment lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and
standard details.
Major Resources
WBDG
Building Types
Community Services, Youth Centers, Educational Facilities, Child Development Centers,

Training Facility, Health Care Facilities, Office Building, Research Facilities
Design Objectives
Accessible, Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective,

Functional / Operational, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable
Products and Systems
Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Federal Green
Construction Guide for Specifiers, Building Envelope Design Guide
Project Management
Building Commissioning, Project Planning and Development
Publications
• AIA Academy of Architecture for Health (AAH)—Contains AAH newsletters,

reports, and other documents related to health care design
• Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition by Charles Ramsey, Harold
Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities ed. Stephen A. Kliment. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd ed. by
Janet R. Carpman, Myron A. Grant and Deborah A. Simmons. New York: John
• Innovations in Healthcare Design: Selected Presentations from the First Five
Symposia on Healthcare Design ed. Sara Marberry. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1995.
109
Design Disciplines
Every building project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that
demand assembling all the stakeholders and a team of professionals in various design
disciplines. Each design discipline has a different set of skills, professional standards, and
issues that drive how they operate in the building process. Traditionally, many disciplines
provide a specialized technical service that is not always well coordinated with other
aspects of the project. 'Whole building,' or integrated, design as a process requires the
various stakeholders and disciplines to coordinate and interact as early as possible in the
process, and throughout the life cycle of the project to achieve a holistic solution that may
yield multiple benefits.
• Architecture
• Cost Estimating
• Fire Protection Engineering
• HVAC and Refrigerating Engineering
• Information Technologies Engineering
• Interior Design
• Landscape Architecture
• Planning
• Plumbing Engineering
• Architectural Programming
• Structural Engineering
This Branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist participants in planning, design,
and construction programs understand how building design disciplines are organized and
practice. This Branch also offers insight into creating opportunities for successful project
delivery through a coordinated, integrated design, construction, and management process.
Each Design Discipline page provides information and guidance from a 'whole building'
perspective. In addition, each page includes a discussion of the discipline's professional
services, legal definition, their roles and responsibilities in the emerging integrated design
process, other emerging issues facing the professional discipline, the codes and standards
governing or affecting their practice, and lists of numerous resources relating to each
discipline. With this knowledge in hand, each professional will be able to move beyond
conventional practice to a more comprehensive, integrated practice.
Design Discipline Pages are also linked to related Resource Pages, Design Objectives,
Building Types, and Space Types that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging
issues relevant to that specific Design Discipline. Each design discipline is encouraged to
review the other design disciplines. By expanding your knowledge of their roles and
responsibilities, you will be able to work together better, identify gaps and omissions, and
resolve issues holistically.
110
More Design Disciplines Pages will be posted when they are available. If you are a
qualified professional and would like to develop a Design Discipline Page for any of the
following disciplines, please contact us for more information:
• Archaeologist
• Site Engineer
• Civil Engineer
• Surveyor
• Demolition Specialist
• Waste Management Specialist
• Soils Engineer
• Seismic Engineering
• Blast Resistance Expert
• Electrical Engineer
• Lighting Designer
• Building Envelope Specialist
• LEED® Specialist
• Commissioning Agent
• Historic Preservation Specialist
• Conveyance Specialist
• Space Planner
• Productivity Specialist
• Acoustical Engineer
Design Objectives
Each design objective described herein is significantly important, yet it is just one aspect
of what it takes to achieve a successful project. A truly successful project is one where
project goals are identified early on and where the interdependencies of all building
systems are coordinated concurrently from the planning and programming phase. Further,
all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics, cost effective, functional/operational,
historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and sustainable and their interrelationships
must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied. Each of these design objectives
is presented in the context of the others throughout the WBDG web site.
Accessible
Pertains to building elements, heights and clearances implemented to address the specific
needs of disabled people.
Related topics:
• Provide Equal Access

111
• Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactive
Aesthetics
Pertains to the physical appearance and image of building elements and spaces as well as
the integrated design process.
Related topics:
• Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of Design

• Engage the Integrated Design Process
• Select Appropriate Design Professionals
• Design Awards
Cost-Effective
Pertains to selecting building elements on the basis of life-cycle costs (weighing options
during concepts, design development, and value engineering) as well as basic cost
estimating and budget control.
Related topics:
• Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development

Process
• Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives
• Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation,
Security, and Safety
Pertains to functional programming—spatial needs and requirements, system

performance as well as durability and efficient maintenance of building elements.
Related topics:
• Account for Functional Needs

• Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration
• Meet Performance Objectives
Historic Preservation
Pertains to specific actions within a historic district or affecting a historic building

whereby building elements and strategies are classifiable into one of the four approaches:
preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, or reconstruction.
Related topics:
112
• Apply the Preservation Process Successfully

• Update Building Systems Appropriately
• Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs
• Comply with Accessibility Requirements
Productive
Pertains to occupants' well-being—physical and psychological comfort—including

building elements such as air distribution, lighting, workspaces, systems, and technology.
Related topics:
• Integrate Technological Tools

• Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces
• Design for the Changing Workplace
• Promote Health and Well-Being
• Provide Comfortable Environments
Secure / Safe
Pertains to the physical protection of occupants and assets from man-made and natural
hazards.
Related topics:
• Plan for Fire Protection

• Ensure Occupant Safety and Health
• Resist Natural Hazards
• Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets
Sustainable
Pertains to environmental performance of building elements and strategies.
Related topics:
• Optimize Site Potential

• Optimize Energy Use
• Protect and Conserve Water
• Use Environmentally Preferable Products
• Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
• Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
113
Accessible
by the WBDG Accessible Committee
Overview
"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal..."
- Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776
In daily life, as we maneuver through society, nothing is more important yet taken for
granted more often than access. For millions of people with disabilities, the access that
most of us take for granted is difficult, impossible, or achievable only with the
intervention of a third party. We live in what is considered an independent society, yet
independent access to programs, facilities, and employment are not easily achievable by
many. Physical access is historically the arbiter of success and the source of opportunity
in education, employment, and social freedom. Thus, accessibility is a civil rights issue
for many people with disabilities and for our society.
History of Accessible Building Design
The accessibility movement has common roots with the civil rights movement and the
Civil Rights Act of 1964. These roots lie in the structure and implementation of laws
dealing with accessibility.
The first nationally recognized accessible design standard American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities. Released in
1961, this standard was based upon research done by the University of Illinois and
funded by the Easter Seals Research Foundation. It served as an important reference for
private entities and local and state governments. In 1974, the standard received federal
input when the Department of Housing and Urban Development joined the Secretariat of
the committee in charge of the standard.
Since 1968, when the Architectural Barriers Act was passed, the federal government has
taken steps to address accessibility and its enforcement in facilities designed, built,
altered, or leased using certain federal funds. The timeline below details many of these
steps.
114
(Courtesy of Bill Brack)
Milestones of Accessible Design Requirements
196 American National Standard Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable
1 Buildings and Facilities—Became the private sector model for a technical standard
for accessible features. This document was most recently updated and published in
2003.
196 Civil Rights Act—Made racial discrimination in public places illegal, required
4 employers to provide equal employment opportunities, stated that uniform
standards must prevail for establishing the right to vote
196 Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)—Requires that facilities designed, constructed,
8 altered, or leased with certain federal funds be accessible to persons with
disabilities
197 Rehabilitation Act—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs
3 conducted by federal agencies, in programs receiving federal financial assistance,
in federal employment, and in the employment practices of federal contractors
Section 504—Each agency has its own set of section 504 regulations that apply to
its programs. Agencies that provide federal financial assistance also have section
504 regulations covering entities that receive federal aid. Requirements common to
these regulations include reasonable accommodation for employees with
disabilities; program accessibility; effective communication with people who have
hearing or vision disabilities; and accessible new construction and alterations.
198 Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)—Contains accessibility scoping
4 and technical requirements implementing the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968
198 Fair Housing Amendments Act (FHAA)—Requires adaptable features in certain
8 covered multi-family dwellings with 4 or more units
199 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of
0 disability; establishes design requirements for the construction or alteration of
facilities required to be accessible. It covers facilities in the private sector (places of
public accommodation and commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and
115
local government facilities).

Title I—Access to workplace
Title II—State and local government services
Title III—Places of public accommodation and commercial facilities
Title IV—Telecommunications: hearing or speech impairments
Title V—Miscellaneous instructions to Federal agencies that enforce the law
199 Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines—Provides minimum technical and scoping
1 criteria for compliance with the FHA
199 American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)—Contains
1 scoping and technical requirements for access to buildings and facilities by
individuals with disabilities under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
As originally published in July 1991, ADAAG addressed places of public
accommodation and commercial facilities in the private sector. ADAAG was
updated in September of 1991 to cover transportation facilities in the private and
public sectors.
199 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for state and local
8 government facilities and building elements designed for children's use
200 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for play areas
0
200 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for recreation
2 facilities
200 Help America Vote Act—Regulates equipment and voting booths for equal access
2 voting areas
200 Equal Opportunity Commission Management Directive 715—Provides a roadmap
3 for creating effective equal employment opportunity (EEO) programs for all federal
employees as required by Title VII and the Rehabilitation Act
200 ADA and ABA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities—Updated and
4 published in the Federal Register in July of 2004
Summary information about these regulations is available at the Department of Justice's

Guide to Disability Rights Laws.
Definition and Goals of Accessible Design
(Courtesy of Bill Brack)

116
If we live long enough, all of us may eventually have a disability that requires a
modification of the built enviroment. The number of Americans having a disability is
projected to grow rapidly as our population ages. One outgrowth of this is that the line
between who is and who is not a person with a disability will steadily erode. We must
redefine and redirect our traditional understanding of designing for accessibility to not
only include those persons permanently disabled, but also those temporarily disabled due
to an injury as well as any other potentially debilitating condition.
The Accessible branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to provide insight and raise
awareness on accessible design issues. For information about compliance with
accessibility guidelines and standards for a particular facility, contact the Department of
Justice or the U.S. Access Board.
Two principles of accessible design are:
• Provide Equal Access

Accessible design benefits all of us at some point in our lives. The goal of
accessible design is to provide equal use of the built environment for all people.
• Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactive
Being proactive by planning for flexible design features and products will
increase the likelihood of providing equal access over the life cycle of the facility.
Note: Information in these Accessible pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Emerging Issues
Revision of ABA and ADA Accessibility Guidelines
The U.S. Access Board's guidelines issued under the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) and the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) have been completely updated and
revised. The ADA Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) cover the construction and
alteration of facilities in the private sector (places of public accommodation and
commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and local government facilities). The
accessibility guidelines issued under the ABA primarily address facilities in the federal
sector and others designed, built, altered, or leased with federal funds. The guidelines
under both laws have been combined into one rule entitled Americans with Disabilities
Act and Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines that contains three parts: a
scoping document for ADA facilities, a scoping document for ABA facilities, and a
common set of technical criteria that the scoping sections will reference. As a result, the
requirements for both ADA and ABA facilities will be made more consistent. The
updated guidelines were published as a final rule in the Federal Register in July of 2004.
Revision of Accessibility Standards

117
The federal agencies that are responsible for setting the standards to enforce the ADA and
ABA are revising their standards so that they are consistent with the updated guidelines.
For the ADA, the responsible agencies are the U.S. Department of Justice and
Department of Transportation. The responsible agencies for the ABA are the U.S. Postal
Service, Housing and Urban Development, General Services Administration, and
Department of Defense. Until an agency revises its standards, the current standards will
remain in effect. For more information, contact the U.S. Access Board.

• ADAAG 104 "Reference Standards" section
• ASME A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators
• ASME A18.1 Safety Standard for Platform Lifts and Stairway Chairlifts
• International Code Council (ICC)—ICC is the secretariat for the ICC/ANSI
A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, International Building
Code, International Existing Building Code, International Residential Code
• ICC Code Requirements for Housing Accessibility (CRHA)—Provides an
opportunity for safe harbor in compliance with accessibility requirements in the
federal Fair Housing Act
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm
Code, NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code, NFPA 101 Life Safety
Code
Major Resources
The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access
Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for
people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and
maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles,
telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing
technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing
accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the
Access Board's Links Page.
Federal Mandates, Legislation, etc.
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

• Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)
• ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities
• Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)
• Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines
• Help America Vote Act
• Rehabilitation Act
• Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)
118
Organizations
• ADA&IT Technical Assistance Centers

• Adaptive Environments
• Center for Universal Design
Federal Agencies
• ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals:

(800) 514-0301 (voice)
(800) 514-0383 (TTY)
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office of Fair Housing
and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act and has
issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines)
which cover multi-family housing. Information is also available on how to file a
complaint with HUD under the Fair Housing Act. HUD's website also addresses
access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
• Department of Justice (DOJ)—DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA
Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public
accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit
service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also
provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical
assistance letters are available online.
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—Accessibility Program
• General Services Administration (GSA)—National Accessibility Program
• U.S. Air Force—Air Force Center of Expertise for Accessibility
• U.S. Army—TI 800-01 Design Criteria, Chapter 7, Provision for Individuals with
Physical Disabilities, Section 4, 20 July 1998.
• U.S. Navy—NAVFAC PDPS 94-01, Barrier Free Design Accessibility
Requirements, 26 May 1994 (Revised 1 June 1997).
Provide Equal Access

Overview
For Americans with disabilities, access means simply being able to use, enjoy, and
participate in the many aspects of society, including work, commerce, and leisure
activities. While removing architectural barriers may allow people with disabilities to
circulate within and around a facility, other factors, such as transportation, affect their
119
ability to fully participate in activities. Designers and other suppliers of services and
goods need to provide equal access for all without undermining the needs of people with
disabilities.
What is "Equal Access"?
Providing equal access means ensuring all individuals can make use of transportation,
buildings and facilities, programs and services, employment opportunities, and
technology. It also means offering all users the same provisions for privacy, security, and
safety.
Design professionals can promote equal access by incorporating accessible features

throughout a building's program.
The renovated Post Office at Ronald Reagan National Airport provides equal access to
the intake windows, Arlington, VA.
Photos before and after the renovation by: Eric Taylor on behalf of the Metropolitan
Washington Airports Authority
Why Provide "Equal Access"?
Providing equal access removes discrimination and protects human rights. An accessible
built environment provides the opportunity for all people to fully participate in and
contribute to their families, communities, and society. Equal access offers individuals the
occasion to improve the quality of life and standard of living for themselves, their
families, and other people in the world. Finally, providing equal access is required, to
varying degrees, in order to meet applicable building codes, accessibility standards, and
accessibility guidelines.
How Do We Achieve "Equal Access"?
Equal access must be an integral part of the life-cycle process (planning, programming,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance) of buildings and facilities, not an
afterthought. Accessible features should blend with the design. All stakeholders on the
project should work together from the start to coordinate and optimize the design of the
site and the building. A building and its site should be designed as an integrated whole,
120
rather than as a collection of isolated systems (see also WBDG Functional—Ensure

Appropriate Product/Systems Integration).
Design and construction decisions impact accessibility. Single building elements or

systems should not be added, deleted, or modified anytime in the life of the building until
they are coordinated and evaluated with the other elements and systems in the whole
building package and with all parties involved.
Keep in mind that "equal access" applies to programs, services, benefits, transportation,
fixtures, furnishings, equipment, employment opportunities, and technology. The
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in aspects of
all programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial
assistance, in Federal employment, and in the employment practices of Federal
contractors.

Major Resources
WBDG
Fenestration Systems—Exterior Doors
Organizations
121
• International Code Council (ICC)—ICC is the secretariat for the ICC/ANSI

A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities.
• ICC Code Requirements for Housing Accessibility (CRHA)—Provides an
opportunity for safe harbor in compliance with accessibility requirements in the
federal Fair Housing Act.
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm
Code
Federal Agencies

• (800) 514-0301 (voice)
• (800) 514-0383 (TTY)
• Department of Defense (DOD):
• U.S. Army—TI-800-01, Provision for Individuals with Physical Disabilities,
Chapter 7, Section 4, 20 July 1998.
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)—Office of Fair Housing
• Department of Transportation (DOT)—People with Disabilities
Publications
• Mechanical Lift Analysis (Accessibility Method for Accommodation of

Physically Disabled People in the U.S. Courthouse Courtrooms)
• The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0 by The Center for Universal
Design. North Carolina State University: 01 Apr 1997.
Others
Special thanks to Lex Frieden for his inspiring words in the speech "Toward a Barrier
Free World for All," April 5, 2001.
122
Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactive

Overview
During the early stages of developing a building, when the planning, programming, and
concept design are being shaped and molded, there may be many goals. An owner may
talk about the ultimate design providing a "user-friendly work environment" and "future
flexibility." What exactly does this mean? Physically, these concepts are demonstrated
with spaces that can be easily modified and that can serve a variety of purposes for a
diverse group of users. See also WBDG Productive and WBDG Functional.
Flexible design principles include spaces that:
• are easy to modify (See also WBDG Productive—Design for the Changing
Workplace.)
• can serve multiple uses and/or users (See also WBDG Functional—Account for
Functional Needs.)
• accommodate future technologies (See also WBDG Productive—Integrate
Technological Tools.)
• are life-cycle cost-effective.
Flexibility in accessible design manifests in the concepts of Universal Design and Visit-
Ability described below.
Universal Design and Visit-Ability

123
This grade level building entrance utilizes universal design priciples. Student Union,
University of Arizona—Tucson, AZ
In accessible design, "flexibility" manifests in the concepts of Universal Design and

Visit-Ability described below.
Universal Design advocates addressing human needs within the mainstream of building
and product design. Many of the design features that are user-friendly and flexible are
simply good design practices, rather than requirements of a building code or accessibility
standard or guideline. According to the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina
State University, the intent of universal design is to simplify life for everyone by making
products, communications, and the built environment more usable by as many people as
possible at little or no extra cost. Universal Design benefits people of all ages and
abilities.
As such, one should note that providing Universal Design features in a building does not
necessarily mean that one has complied with the legal and regulatory accessibility
criteria, including those contained in the UFAS and ADAAG. These ideas must not be
used interchangeably. Universal design concepts developed over the years promote
environments, building components, and features designed to be "usable by all people, to
the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation, specialized design, or
significant additional cost." (Mace)
124
The campus master plan at Carnegie Mellon University incorporates the principle that
"All improvements to the physical environment shall adhere to the concept of universal
design."
The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University defines Universal
Design principles to include:
• Equitable Use
• Flexibility in Use
• Simple and Intuitive
• Perceptible Information
• Tolerance for Error
• Low Physical Effort
• Size and Space for Approach and Use
©1997 NC State University, The Center for Universal Design
These seven principles may be applied to evaluate existing designs; guide the design
process; and educate both designers and consumers about the characteristics of more
usable products and environments.
The Center for Universal Design provides a comprehensive list of resources on their
website.
Visit-Ability
Visit-Ability, a movement started by Atlanta-based Concrete Change, refers to including

basic barrier-free features in single-family homes so that they can be visited by relatives,
friends, and others who may have disabilities. Visitors with a disability can enter the
home through an accessible entrance on an accessible route; easily negotiate spaces and
hallways; and enter and use the bathroom. A visit-able home includes a zero-step entry,
32-inch clear width at user passage doors, and a bathroom or powder room on the
entrance level. Routes through visit-able homes should also be a minimum of 36 inches
wide.
An Additional Benefit of Flexibility: Life-Cycle Cost-Effectiveness
Studies have shown that the additional cost of providing many accessible features in new
construction is minimal when compared to adding accessible features during alterations
to existing construction. Features and systems that contribute to greater usability in the
future should be integrated into the design at the onset of the project. For example,
according to Concrete Change, on average and depending on the type of foundation, it
costs approximately $150 extra for a zero-step entrance when it is included at the time of
design and construction. Modifications to achieve a zero-step entry to an existing home
could cost at least $1,000 and can be much higher.
125
Design and analysis tools, such as ADA Design Assistant and CodeBuddy Version 5.0
Accessibility can be used during the design process to evaluate the benefits of providing
accessible design features and products. See also WBDG Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
(LCCA).

Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational—Account for Functional Needs, Historic—

Comply with Accessibility Requirements, Productive—Integrate Technological Tools,
Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace, Sustainable
Organizations and Associations
• American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)—A nonprofit membership

organization dedicated to addressing the needs and interests of persons 50 and
older. Through information and education, advocacy and service, AARP enhances
the quality of life for all by promoting independence, dignity, and purpose.
Among other things, AARP seeks to promote independent living and aging-in-
place.
• Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access (IDEA), School of
Architecture and Planning, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY—The Center is
dedicated to improving the design of environments and products by making them
126
more usable, safer, and appealing to people with a wide range of abilities,
throughout their life spans.
• Center for Universal Design—A national research, information, and technical
assistance center that evaluates, develops, and promotes universal design in
housing, public and commercial facilities, and related products. They have an
extensive publications list including material on many aspects of accessible and
universal design, as well as slide shows and video tapes to supplement print
resources.
• Concrete Change—An Atlanta-based organization that started the visit-ability
movement. Concrete Change is dedicated to promoting visit-ability in all single-
family homes across the U.S. As a result of its advocacy, visit-ability legislation
in several cities and towns across the U.S. requires that single-family homes
incorporate basic barrier-free design.
Federal Agencies

• (800) 514-0301 (voice)
• (800) 514-0383 (TTY)
• U.S. Army—TI-800-01, Provision for Individuals with Physical Disabilities,
Chapter 7, Section 4, 20 July 1998
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)—Office of Fair Housing
• Department of Transportation (DOT)—People with Disabilities
Publications
• The 1995 Accessible Building Product Guide by John P.S. Salmen and Julie
Quarve-Peterson. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.
• Access by Design by George A. Covington and Bruce Hannah. New York, NY:
127
• The Accessibility Checklist—User's Guide by Susan Goltsman, ASLA, Timothy

A. Gilbert, ASLA and Wohlford, Steven D. Berkeley, CA: MIG Communications,
1992.
• The Accessible Housing Design File by Barrier Free Environments, Inc. and
Ronald L. Mace, FAIA. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991.
• The ADA Answer Book by Building Owners and Managers Association
International (BOMA). 1992.
• The Center for Universal Design (1997). The Principles of Universal Design,
Version 2.0. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University
• Mechanical Lift Analysis (Accessibility Method for Accommodation of
Physically Disabled People in the U.S. Courthouse Courtrooms)
• The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0 by The Center for Universal
Design. North Carolina State University: 01 Apr 1997.
• Universal Design Handbook by Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Elaine Ostroff. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001.
Aesthetics
by the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee
Overview
aes•thet•ics: 1: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of the beautiful and with
judgments concerning beauty…
Figure 1: Jose V. Toledo U.S. Post Office and Courthouse, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Credits: Finegold Alexander + Associates, and GSA.
Originating from the Greek, aesthetics is the term used since classical times for the study
of beauty and the nature of the beautiful. In 1 B.C., Vitruvius the renowned Roman
architect declared that all architecture must possess commodity, firmness, and delight
(utilitas, firmitas, and venustas). Other aesthetic developments such as the Romanesque,
Gothic, Baroque and Neoclassical periods occurred over the next several centuries. In the
128
second half of the 19th Century, poets, writers, designers, and architects began to turn
again to aesthetic concerns and to place more emphasis on ornament and the past, the
result being the Aesthetic Movement and a new freedom in design. The 21st Century
brought Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Expressionism, the Bauhaus, Functionalism, Hi-Tech
and Post-modernism to name a few. So based on this triad, former Senator Daniel Patrick
Moynihan, then Special Assistant to the Secretary of Labor, wrote in 1962 the Guiding
Principles for Federal Architecture. Issued by the Kennedy Administration, it states that
federal buildings must be "efficient and economical" as well as "provide visual testimony
to the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American Government." The study of
aesthetics continues to evolve as social, political, and even industrial or technological
developments contribute to new views on art, architecture, and design and their
manifestations in the built environment.
Architects, interior designers, landscape architects, planners, and other design

professionals today have the obligation to address these issues, particularly that of
including "delight", and aesthetics. Additionally it is important to understand the
vocabulary of aesthetics and how to apply it to the design process or project. (See WBDG
pages on Form, Style, and Materials.) It is essential to consider aesthetics not just as it
applies to the building façade, but also to interiors and the surrounding context including
the landscape, other buildings, and the larger community. However, what qualifies as a
beautiful building or place is open to a considerable amount of personal interpretation.
Additionally the aesthetic architectural language or architectural expression selected by
the architect, design professionals, or client will vary with consideration of context and
program, the constructional means selected for the building or project, and personal or
cultural inclination. Yet no matter what expression is selected, a good design will be
accountable to the users' needs, the client's budget, and public judgment in its many
forms. What is most notable today is that there is much variety in the expression of
aesthetics occurring simultaneously.
Figure 2: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Satellite Operations

Facility, Suitland, MD.
Credits: Morphosis and GSA.
Most designers would also agree that aesthetically satisfactory architecture most often
comes from an integrated approach. Beginning with a correctly formulated problem (or
program) developed with the client's participation to design reviews involving the
129
delivery team to Facility Performance Evaluations conducted with building occupants,

this process leads most effectively to the best aesthetics AND cost-effective, secure/safe,
sustainable, accessible, functional/operational, etc. solution. Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate
the variation in aesthetic solutions to very different architectural and aesthetic programs.
This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with
architectural design terminology understand the basic process, technique, and language
by which architectural aesthetic decisions are made. Towards this end, users are
encouraged to investigate three essential principles of aesthetics and design:
• Engage the Integrated Design Process

The integrated design process involves steps that foster successful integration of
the many factors and design disciplines that influence good building design.
These steps provide an orderly flow that build on each other, and full and
constructive participation of all members of the design and delivery team will
help assure the best results.
• Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of Design
The language of design describes fundamental visual elements of architecture and
design. The appropriate application and thoughtful integration of these elements
are key to achieving high quality facilities.
• Select Appropriate Design Professionals
Individual architectural design firms—including architecture, engineering, interior
design, landscape architecture, and planning—may have formal predilections
which will be evident in their portfolios. Just as important is the firm's
demonstrated ability to conduct an inclusive, comprehensive, and well organized
design process, and to produce buildings which are responsive to client and user
needs. The appearance of the result may, in the end, derive from the satisfaction
of these functional requirements.
The result of successfully integrating the three principles often leads to exemplary
projects that are awarded through Design Awards Programs sponsored by professional
societies, the federal government, and industry trade associations. These programs offer
insight into aesthetic choices and values at a given time in history. For more information
see Design Award Programs.
Note: Information in these Aesthetics pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-
Major Resources
Federal Agencies

• DOD—UFC 3-120-10 Interior Design
• U.S. Army—Installation Design Guides
130
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Engineering and Design Regulation - Interior

Design ER 1110-345-122
• NAVFAC—MIL-HDBK 1190 Facility Planning and Design Guide, Chapter 5,
Section A.1, 1987
• U.S. Air Force—Achieving Design Excellence
• General Services Administration:

• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P-100, Chapter 1, Section 2
• Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications—Architects and engineers
use this form to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal
projects and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E
services. This form replaces SF 254/255.
Organizations
• National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC)—The National Capital Planning

Commission provides overall planning guidance for federal land and buildings in
the National Capital Region
• U.S. Commission of Fine Arts—The Commission of Fine Arts was established by
Congress in 1910 as an independent agency to advise the Federal and District of
Columbia governments on matters of art and architecture that affect the
appearance of the nation's capital.
Associations
The work of many building professionals impact aesthetics decisions. These include
architects, landscape architects, interior designers, lighting designers, and engineers. In
part to help define the boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of
these professions is represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade
association or organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and
aesthetics role of their members in the building design process.
Profession Association
Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Society of American Registered Architects
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
(NCARB)
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture
(ACSA)
Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)
International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
National Council for Interior Design Qualification
(NCIDQ)
131
Lighting Designers Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

(IESNA)
International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)
Professional Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)
American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)
Structural Engineers Association International (SEA)
Planners American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)
American Planning Association (APA)
Others ASIS International
Associated General Contractors (AGC) of America
Audio Engineering Society (AES)
Building Commissioning Association
Building Owners & Managers Association International
(BOMA)
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI)
International Facility Management Association (IFMA)
Publications
• The Aesthetic Movement by Lionel Lambourne. London, England: Phaidon Press

Limited, 1996. ISBN 0714830003.
Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Architecture For Dummies by Deborah K. Dietsch and Robert A. M. Stern. New
York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
• The Four Books of Architecture by Andrea Palladio and translated by Robert
Tavernor and Richard Schofield. Dover Publications, 1965.
• Design Professionals and the Built Environment: An Introduction by Paul Knox
(Editor), Peter Ozolins (Editor). February 2001. ISBN: 0-471-98515-5.—Brings
together many of the world's leading names from the UK, USA, Europe, and
Asia; this is the first book to fully reflect the move towards a more synthetic
approach in professional and student courses.
• A History of Interior Design, 2nd Edition by John Pile. August 2004. ISBN: 0-
471-46434-1.—Much like the history of art, the history of interior design
encompasses numerous styles, movements and the international political and
132
social developments that have informed or challenged its evolution. This lavishly
illustrated book will be of interest to anyone who appreciates interior design as
well as antiques, furniture design, textiles, decorative objects and the general
evolution of the space where we work and live.
• Interior Design Illustrated, 2nd Edition by Francis D. K. Ching, Corky Binggeli.
October 2004. ISBN: 0-471-47376-6.—Ching's illustrated introduction to interior
design is now completely revised to be even more clear and accessible. It includes
new and updated material on finishes, furnishings and textiles, lighting,
sustainability, acoustics, workstations, and much more.
• Interior Graphic Standards by Maryrose McGowan (Editor-in-Chief), Kelsey
Kruse (Graphics Editor). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
• On the Art of Building in Ten Books by Leon Battista Alberti and translated by
Joseph Rykwert and Neil Leach. MIT Press, 1988.
• A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray
Silverstein, with Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. Oxford
University Press, 1977.
• The Ten Books on Architecture by Pollio Vitruvius and translated by Morris
Hicky Morgan. Dover Publications, 1960.
Glossary of Architecture Terms
• archiseek online architectural resources

• Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online
• Illustrated Architecture Dictionary
Sample of Great Buildings and Architecture
• Architecture and Interior Design Through the 18th Century: An Integrated History
by Buie Harwood, Bridget May and Curt Sherman. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall,
December 2001. Exceptionally comprehensive, this single-source reference
allows readers to compare and contrast architecture, interior design, interior
architectural features, design details, motifs, furniture, space planning, color,
lighting, textiles, interior surface treatments, and decorative accessories through
many centuries—from antiquity to the 18th century—from the many regions of
the world.
• architekturphoto provides a large-scale, specialized online archive of carefully
composed photographs of prominent projects.
• The ArcSpace image archive includes brief descriptions of cutting-edge design.
Exhibit reviews give a taste of architectural gallery installations.
• The Art of Landscape Detail: Fundamentals, Practices, and Case Studies by Niall
Kirkwood. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., August 1999. ISBN: 0-471-
14044-9. A fresh, holistic approach to the theories, approaches, and practices of
landscape detail. With the support of a wealth of graphic and written material
taken from historic and contemporary landscape design work, Kirkwood clearly
demonstrates the role that landscape detail plays in the design process. Going
beyond theoretical considerations, the book outlines landscape detail as a primary
133
design activity, both pragmatic and poetic, using a range of built landscape design
examples.
• The Evolution of American Urban Design: A Chronological Anthology by David
Gosling. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., December 2002. ISBN: 0-471-
98345-4. Covering a 50-year span, the book seeks to identify built urban design
projects and traces the evolution and separation of American urban design
theories up to the end of the twentieth century. It includes contemporary designs,
projects, and writings in an attempt to identify future directions of the next
century.
• The Great Buildings Collection
• The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary World Architecture is a gorgeous new
compendium of recent design from around the globe. This coffee-table book is so
heavy, it's sold in its own carrying case.
• Weimar University's Innovative Housing (in German) Website allows you to
search by criteria, architect, or name of project. Pick "Kriteriensuche" or "Suche".
If you have trouble reading a foreign site, try using the Babelfish translator to get
a crude approximation.
Engage the Appropriate Language and

Elements of Design
Overview
134
Detail of Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Building—St. Louis, MO
In the late nineteenth century, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan wrote, "Form follows
function." This dictum became one of the rallying cries of twentieth century modern
design, and remains one of the best known architectural aphorisms today.
What Sullivan implied was that design—or in his phrase, "form,"—is a natural
consequence of meeting functional requirements. For many, particularly those
uncomfortable with the subjective and decorative dimension of design, this was an
appealing message.
But even a cursory look at Sullivan's own architecture reveals that his work is far from
purely functional. Indeed, Sullivan is often described as one of the greatest ornamental
detailers in American architectural history. It was this aspect of his work that attracted his
most famous protégé, Frank Lloyd Wright.
Countering Sullivan's position, it has also been argued¹ that there is no such thing as a
purely utilitarian object—that there are always at least two ways of meeting the same
functional objective (for example, getting people from the first floor to the second;
bringing light into a room; or making a hinge). Once a choice between these two
alternatives has been made, an aesthetic consideration has come into play.
The architect is responsible for the design integrity of the building and will make
decisions and selections which support this integration. The point is that while it is
appealing to reduce design decision making to a brief set of rules or axioms, nearly all
designers agree it is impossible to do so.
The Language of Design
It is relatively easy to determine if a given design contains the right square footage or the
right number of rooms. It can be more difficult to evaluate its aesthetic success.
Complicated, and often conflicting, formal and compositional desires must be weighed in
the light of technical, economic, and social constraints.
To assist in this process, like most professionals, architects and other designers share a
language and vocabulary that helps them reduce complex ideas into short phrases or
highly charged terms. An architectural language is a vocabulary of forms arranged
according to a particular grammar. The particular forms used become the 'words' of the
language and how those forms are put together is the 'grammar' of the language. To the
uninitiated, the use of the language and terms can be dismissed as jargon. But, to the
designer, this shared terminology is very much at the heart of aesthetic communication.
Indeed, designers must be aware that no matter what design language is used, key players
on the project team must be able to understand and communicate well with each other
(visually and verbally) to produce successful solutions.
135
It is beyond the scope of the WBDG to provide a comprehensive list of design terms and
their definitions. However, the fundamental visual elements of design that these terms
describe are explained below.
Archetypical Building Elements
• Vertical:
o Wall, Arch, Beam Lintel, Quoin, Column, Orders
o Base: Shaft, Capital
o Openings: Window, Door
• Horizontal:
o Plinth, Floor, Roof
Style
A distinctive manner of expression or fashion. In architecture, historical styles are often

dignified by a specific name such as the Baroque, the Victorian, or the International
Style.
Form
Mass and shape define form. Mass refers to the volume defined by a structure relative to
its surroundings and to its solidity and weight. Shape is the composition and complexity
of the surface planes.
Materials
Both exterior and interior building materials should be selected based upon their
appropriateness for the building type, durability, impact on the environment, climatic
conditions, and the prevailing architectural design and character of the installation.
136
Major Resources
Useful introductions for the layman to architectural design, the design process, and
design decision making include the following:
Publications
• Architecture For Dummies by Deborah K. Dietsch and Robert A. M. Stern. New

• Architecture: Form, Space, & Order, 3rd Edition by Francis D.K. Ching. New
• The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment by Reyner Banham.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969.
• Experiencing Architecture by S.E. Rasmussen. London, England: Chapman &
Hall Ltd, 1959.
• How Buildings Learn by Stewart Brand. New York, NY: Viking. 1994.
• The Nature of Design by David Pye. London, England: Studio Vista, 1964.
• The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution by C.P. Snow. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press, 1959.
Glossary of Architecture Terms
• archiseek-online architectural resources

• Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online
• Illustrated Architecture Dictionary
Sample of Great Buildings and Architecture
• The Great Buildings Collection
Engage the Integrated Design Process

Overview
The design of buildings requires the integration of many kinds of information into a
synthetic whole. An integrated process, or "whole building" design process, includes the
active and continuing participation of users, code officials, building technologists, cost
137
consultants, civil engineers, mechanical and electrical engineers, structural engineers,

specifications specialists, and consultants from many specialized fields. The best
buildings result from active, consistent, organized collaboration among all players. (See
the Design Disciplines branch of the WBDG to learn more about the role of design
disciplines in the whole building process.)
The integrated design process enables project team members to work together from the
project outset to develop solutions that have multiple benefits.
A. The Integrated Design Process
Preparation for the project can be led by many players but generally comes from the
user/client who identifies the need for building on the basis of quantifiable requirements
for space and budgetary capacity to undertake the activity. A needs assessment often
accompanies this planning activity—it can describe existing space use; develop realistic
estimates of requirements, both spatial and technical; and arrive at a space program
around which design activity can develop. For larger projects, a construction manager or
a general contractor may be engaged at this point. See also WBDG Project Management
and Programming.
Once the Pre-design activities are complete, the architect or other prime consultant, in
consultation with his or her team of sub-consultants, may produce initial graphic
suggestions for the project or portions of it. Such suggestions are meant to stimulate
thought and discussion, not necessarily to describe the final outcome. Involvement of
sub-consultants is a critical part of the process at this stage - their individual insights
made at this point can prevent costly changes further along in the process. Gradually a
design emerges which embodies the interests and requirements of all participants while
also meeting the overall area requirements which the project budget will have established
during Pre-Design activities. The resulting Schematic Designs produced at this stage
show site location and organization, general building shape, space allocation, and an
outline specification which makes an initial list of components and systems to be
designed and/or specified for the final result. Depending on the size of the project, it is
often useful to have a cost estimate performed by a professional cost estimator at this
point. For smaller projects, one or more possible builders may perform this service as part
of a preliminary bidding arrangement—selection can be made on the basis of an estimate
at this stage. On larger projects, a cost estimate can be part of the selection process for a
builder, assuming other prerequisites like bonding capacity, experience with the type, and
satisfactory references are met.
138
Design Development enlarges the scale of consideration—greater detail is developed for

all aspects of the building—the collaborative process continues with the architect
providing graphic focus for the various contributors. Greater detail is considered for all
aspects of the building. The conclusion of this phase is a detailed design on which all
players agree and may be asked to sign off.
The Development of Contract Documents involves translating the Design Development

information into formats suitable for pricing, permitting, and construction. No set of
contract documents can ever be perfect, but high quality can be achieved by scrutiny,
accountability to the initial program needs by the design team and the client, along with
careful coordination among the technical consultants on the design team. Decisions
continue to be made with the appropriate contributions of all players. Changes in scopes
during this phase will become more expensive once pricing has begun. Changes to the
contract documents invite confusion, errors, and added costs. Cost estimates by an
estimator may be made at this point, prior to or simultaneous with bidding, in order to
assure compliance with the budget and to check the bids. Bids taken at this point may be
used as a basis for selecting a builder.
After the general contractor is selected and during the Construction Phase, the designers
and other members of the team must remain fully involved. Decisions previously made
may require clarification; suppliers' information must be reviewed for compliance with
the Contract Documents; and substitutions must be evaluated. Contract Documents are
never perfect—clarifications will be required. If changes affect the operation of the
building, it is especially important that the user/client be involved. User requirements
may change, necessitating changes in the building—these changes require broad
consultation among the consultants and sub-consultants, pricing, and incorporation into
the contract documents and the building.
The design team is responsible for assuring that the building meets the requirements of
the Contract Documents, but the building's success at meeting the requirements of the
original program can be assessed by the construction management team or third parties in
a process known as Commissioning. Here the full range of functions in the building is
evaluated and the design and construction team can be called upon to make changes and
adjustments as needed.
After the building is fully operational, it is often useful to conduct a Post-Occupancy

Evaluation to assess how the building meets the original and emerging requirements for
its use. Such information is especially useful when further construction of the same type
is contemplated by the same user. Mistakes can be prevented and successes repeated.
This summary describes the standard operation of the integrated project team. Such a
model is neither new nor exceptional. But it depends on:
1. clear and continuous communication

2. rigorous attention to detail
3. active collaboration among all team members
139
—adherence to these principles will assure the best result.
B. The Integrated, Multidisciplinary Project Team
Team Members in a process like this may include the following:
The Owner's Representative: this person must speak for the owner and be prepared to
devote the time needed to fully advocate, defend, clarify, and develop the owner's
interests. This person may come from within the organization commissioning the project
or may be hired as a consultant.
The Construction Manager: this professional is hired on a fee basis to represent the
logistics and costs of the construction process. This person can be an architect, a general
contractor, or specifically a consulting Construction Manager. It is beneficial for this
person to be involved from the beginning of the project.
The Architect acts as the lead designer in most building projects, coordinating the sub-
consultants, assuring compliance with the program, and assuring compliance with the
budget. In some cases, the architect hires some or all of the sub-consultants; in larger
projects the owner may contract directly with some or all of them. He or she provides the
progressively more precise and detailed suggestions for the form of the result and
manages the production of the contract documents. The architect usually participates in
the construction phase of the project, assessing compliance with the contract documents
by managing appropriate inspections, submissions approvals, and evaluations by the sub-
consultants. The architect assists in the evaluation of requests for payment by the builder.
The Civil Engineer is essential for understanding the land, soil, and regulatory aspects of
any construction project; early involvement is essential and the civil engineer is
frequently hired directly by the owner in advance of the rest of the design team. The civil
engineer prepares his or her own contract documents and assesses compliance of the
work with the contract documents.
140
The Landscape Architect is often part of the civil engineer's resources, but can also be
involved as an independent consultant. In either case, the landscape architect should be
involved early in the project to assess natural systems, how they will be affected by the
project and the best ways to accommodate the project to those systems.
Consulting Structural, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineers can be engaged by the

architect as part of his work or, on larger or more complex projects, may be engaged
separately by the owner. They are responsible for the structural, heating, ventilating and
air-conditioning and the power, signal, and illumination aspects of the project. Each
produces his or her own portions of the contract documents and should be involved in
assessing their part of the work for compliance with those documents.
Specialized Consultants should be involved as needed by the special requirements of the

project. These may include specifications writers, materials and component specialists,
sustainability consultants, and technical specialists like kitchen, audio-visual, materials
handling, and parking. The size, complexity, and specialization of the project will suggest
the kinds of additional experts who will be needed. Like all contributors to the integrated
design process, they should be involved early enough to include their suggestions and
requirements in the design, not so late that their contributions must be remedial.
C. Results
The best buildings in history are the result of high degrees of consistency at all levels of
their realization. The simplicity in massing of the Seagram Building by Mies van der
Rohe in New York City, for example, is supported by the building's subtle and spare
details at every level. Design attention is applied to the massing and the drinking
fountains, the site plan, and the door details. Good buildings result from an appreciation
by all involved of the importance of formal consistency throughout the design.
141
Left: The Seagram Building by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, New York, NY in 1950s.
And Right: This U.S. Courthouse in Seattle, Washington by NBBJ won a 2004 GSA
Citation Award for architecture and interior design and an honor award for construction
excellence.
Frank Lloyd Wright referred to this process as "organic design"—he used the phrase to
refer to the integral relationship in good architecture between the parts and the whole—
setting out the architect's obligation to assure consistency throughout the project and at
every level of detail.
The WBDG features successful projects that have engaged the integrated design process
in the Case Studies section. Among them are:
• Center for Neighborhood Technology

• DOE's Strategic Computing Complex
• EPA's New England Regional Laboratory
• U.S. Navy's Building 33
You are encouraged to share your project successes and challenges by submitting a case
study write-up. Click here to download the WBDG Case Study Template (MS WORD 48
KB).
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Aesthetics—Select Appropriate Design Professionals, Accessible, Cost-

Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Productive, Secure / Safe,
Sustainable
Project Management
Project Delivery Teams, Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning,

Project Delivery and Controls
WBDG News
The "Whole Building" Design Approach
Publications
• Betterbricks.com—Integrated Design Process

• Buildinggreen.com—Articles related to Integrated Design Process
142
• "Efficiency and Comfort: An Integrated Approach" by Clark Bisel and Peter

Simmonds. Consulting Specifying Engineer, Jan 1998.
• "Finding the Opportunities in Integration" by Anil Ahuja. Consulting Specifying
Engineer, Sept. 1994.
• Green Federal Facilities, Section 4.1 Integrated Building Design by U.S.
Department of Energy. 2001.
• "Integrated Building Design" by Ira Krepchin. E Source, ER-00-15, Sept. 2000.
• Integrated Building Design for Energy Efficiency by DOE Building Technologies
Program.
• "Strategic Issues Paper: Energy-Efficient Buildings: Institutional Barriers and
Opportunities" by Amory Lovins. E Source, Dec. 1992.
Select Appropriate Design Professionals

Overview
Design professionals play a critical role in the quality of our built environment. The
capabilities of the architects and engineers (A/Es) on the integrated design team
constitute the single most important factor in determining the success of the overall
design—from image and attributes of the building and landscape to construction costs
and life-cycle costs. Building in today's marketplace is a complex undertaking requiring
many different skills and materials. Successful designs are the result of an integrated
design process that addresses not only client needs and requirements, but also climate,
context, and quality while complying with public health, safety, and welfare building
requirements. Well qualified design professionals who understand these complexities can
deliver thoughtful and innovative designs that satisfy the client's programmatic needs
while addressing the unique characteristics of a given site and community.
The clinic's unique design promotes efficient and cost-effective medical care, and
enhances quality of life for military personnel in an environment equal to off-base
civilian facilities while adhering to Air Force design standards and guidelines. Medical
Clinic, McChord Air Force Base, WA.
143
Credits: NBBJ, Seattle District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Air Force Center for
Environmental Excellence, and Air Force Surgeon General-Facilities.
Federal sites and buildings are with us for centuries. Therefore, government agencies are
often committed to design excellence, sustainability, the development of a world-class
workplace, and the legacy that quality federal buildings provide. A/E teams and customer
agencies are encouraged to explore new technologies and foster alternative solutions to
the numerous challenges of designing a facility, while expending the taxpayers' dollars
effectively and efficiently. They are encouraged to address the needs of the community
and to work within the context of broader issues—not just the functionality of a facility,
but its appropriateness to the surrounding landscape, its responsiveness to our limited
resources, and its representation of the federal government to the public.
The selection of the design team should be undertaken as early in the life of a project as
possible. Every design and construction project is unique, with a variety of services
required to transform the generalized concept into reality. A qualified design professional
can guide an owner through the intricacies of the design process; standard phases include
pre-design, concept design, design development, construction documentation, bidding
and negotiations, and construction. Building design professionals can assist in defining
the project at the outset in terms that provide meaningful guidance for design. Pre-design
services might include site selection, existing facilities surveys, environmental studies
and reports, feasibility and programming studies. Design services, in addition to the
standards phases of design, might include Building Information Modeling, LEED
certification, and commissioning. It is important to begin the process of selecting design
professionals with a consideration of delivery method, and site, programmatic, schedule,
and budget issues. These factors contribute to defining the scope of work for projects,
which in turn inform the selection of appropriate design professionals and delivery team
composition.
A. Selecting Design Professionals
When a building project is initiated by an agency representing the public, the selection of
a qualified building professional becomes a reflection of how tax dollars will be spent.
When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns are to get the
best available design services and outcome, and to conduct a fair and equitable selection
process. Once that selection has been made, it is then the responsibility of the agency to
negotiate the best value for those services; but first, the selection panel should ensure the
selection of the best available firm for the project. A building project is a long-term
investment, and the realized, built project will be a testament to how well thought-out the
selection process is.
For public projects, there are two main methods for selecting design professionals:
Qualifications-Based Selection and Design Competitions. In either method, the
individuals responsible for selecting the design professional should have an
understanding of the needs of a specific project and should be able to evaluate the
achievements of the potential firms. Selection panels evaluate firms on criteria such as
144
previous experience, past performance, portfolio review, awards and recognitions, level
of commitment to project, and overall customer service.
To ensure the selection panel will make a well informed choice, it is important that any
procurement for professional design services take into consideration:
• The goals of the project. Solicitations for qualifications and requests for proposals
should be specific about the goals and parameters of the project, the anticipated
scope of work, and any specialty disciplines that will be required. Be clear about
what will be expected of the design team and what evaluation factors will be used
to select them.
• The design team's suitability for the project. This does not mean an AE must have
done the same type of project, but that his/her experience demonstrates a
competency in projects of similar complexity or context.
• Who is in charge. Complex needs may be addressed by a complex team; make
sure you know who is in charge and how the team is structured.
Engineering News Record, a national magazine, publishes an annual listing of the top
design, construction, and international firms.
Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS)
Qualifications-Based Selection - When a building project is initiated by an agency

representing the public, the selection of a qualified building professional becomes even
more important. When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns
are to get the best available design services, and conduct a fair and equitable selection
process. Federal project solicitations are announced in FedBizOpps.gov, a website that
lists government-wide notices for all types of services.
Recognizing the need for a qualifications-based approach to procuring design services,

the U.S. Congress established as federal law in 1972 (P.L. 92-582), commonly referred to
as the "Brooks Act", that requires that architects and engineers be selected for projects on
the basis of their qualifications subject to negotiation of fair and reasonable
compensation. Selection panel members must be highly qualified professionals with
experience in design and construction related fields. Most states and numerous local
jurisdictions also use Brooks Act procedures.
Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS) usually involve the following steps:
1. The owner prepares a description of the project to be built or problem to be

solved, referred to as a preliminary scope of services.
2. The owner invites design professionals to submit statements of qualifications for
the project at hand.
3. Statements of qualifications are evaluated and several individuals or firms are
selected, or "short-listed," for further consideration.
145
4. The individuals or firms are then interviewed and ranked according to an

evaluative scoring system.
Design Competitions
A design competition is a method of awarding a design contract based on design

excellence and is a permitted selection method allowed by FAR 36.602-1b. When the use
of a design competition is approved by the agency head or designee, the agency may
evaluate firms based on their conceptual design of a project. Design competitions are
typically used for significant Federal projects, such as monuments or those of unusual
national significance. Since selection of the design firm takes longer when a competition
is used as the selection method, there must be sufficient time in the project schedule to
produce and evaluate conceptual designs. There must also be a significant benefit to the
project to use a competition as this selection vehicle also costs more.
There are two types of federal design competitions:
• Open design competitions are open to all design professionals. These are usually
design teams headed by an architectural firm with a registered architect at the
helm. An example of this is the World War II Memorial Competition, won by
Freidrich St. Florian.
• Invited design competitions are competitions where a selected group of design
professionals, usually highly regarded or recognized architects, are invited to
submit a design on a project. This is often the last stage of a qualifications-based
selection process. An example of this is the proposed Federal Courthouse in
Rockford, IL, won by Koetter Kim Architects.
Competitions are structured as a one-stage, two-stage, or in some cases, a three-stage

process:
• In a One-Stage design competition, the selected firm is chosen by a jury from all
submitted entries. The winner is then awarded the design contract. Because of the
nature of projects that lend themselves to Federal Design Competitions, this type
of competition is not used very often.
• A Two-Stage design competition is also open to all design professionals. The goal
of the first stage is to solicit design portfolios from Design Firms and Lead
Designers. Based on the jury evaluation of the submitted portfolios, a short-list of
Design Firms and Lead Designers is selected to proceed to Stage II. The highest
ranking competitors are then invited to form complete A/E teams, and submit
additional written material on the teams for further evaluation by the agency's A/E
Evaluation Board. During Stage II, team interviews are also held. A final ranking
of the teams is completed by the A/E Evaluation Board, who then makes the final
selection.
• A Three-Stage competition incorporates the same components as the One- and
Two-Stage competition, however final selection is made following completion of
a "vision" for the project. The evaluation of the design concepts by an
146
independent jury, as well as the evaluations of the Stage I and Stage II

components, will be used by the A/E Evaluation Board to prepare the final
ranking of the Stage III Teams. Because of the additional expense associated with
preparing project "vision" submittals, teams are compensated with an amount that
is specified in the original announcement in FedBizOpps.gov
For information on how to run a design competition, see WBDG Running a Design
Competition.
This Federal Courthouse in Las Vegas, NV was designed via GSA's Design Excellence
Program.
(Courtesy of Cannon Dworski Architects)
U.S. General Services Administration's (GSA) Design Excellence Program streamlines

the way GSA selects architects and engineers for construction and major renovation
projects. It is a qualifications-based selection process that simplifies proposal
requirements, reduces GSA's evaluation time, and lowers costs for both the government
and the competing private firms. Stage 1 is the selection of a short list of lead designers;
stage two is completion of AE teams followed by team interviews. There is also a
procedure in place for limited and full design competitions.
The Design Excellence Program recognizes the GSA's commitment to the "Guiding
Principles for Federal Architecture" which states that "The policy shall be to provide
requisite and adequate facilities in an architectural style and form which is distinguished
and which will reflect the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American
National Government. Major emphasis should be placed on the choice of designs that
embody the finest contemporary American architectural thought".
B. Design Recognition
Architecture has a robust tradition of awards and recognition for design. Each year, many
of the periodicals, journals, and organizations affiliated with the profession hold open
competitions under which firms anonymously compete for architecture, planning, urban
design, and research awards and recognition.
147
Design Award Programs
Design award programs serve as the vehicle to honor the creative strengths of building
design professionals and to publicize the enduring results of their efforts. For more
information and a listing of agency and industry-sponsored design awards, see WBDG
Aesthetics—Design Awards.
Participation in Design Competitions
Design competitions can bring many different design ideas, innovations, and publicity to
a project, an issue, or to the designer/design team. They broaden the field of opportunity
for client and architect alike and can often be a means for younger, less established
architects to gain acclaim and win projects that they might not have been awarded under
a qualifications-based selection process. Examples of this are the Vietnam War Memorial
in Washington DC, awarded to Maya Ying Lin, a 21-year old undergraduate architecture
student at Yale University, and the Evanston Public Library Competition, an international
design competition won in 1991 by 28-year old Joseph Powell. See Section on Design
Competitions.
Publications
Winners of design awards and competitions are often published in professional journals
and architectural periodicals where they receive additional publicity and recognition. In
addition, some publishing houses routinely publish monographs or reviews of
architectural design, practice, and theory. They include:
• MIT Press
• Oxford University Press
• McGraw-Hill
• Princeton Architectural Press
• Wiley Publishers Architectural catalogue
Periodicals
Mass market and trade periodicals present articles and photographs of current projects
and current issues. Often they present the latest in contemporary theory, design, and
technologies—from urban planning principles to smart buildings and materials—as well
insights on specific building types. These articles can be a useful tool in gaining an
understanding of contemporary architectural practices and practitioners. See the
Periodical list below.
C. Professional Organizations
The involvement of many building professionals has an impact on aesthetic decisions

throughout the design and construction process. This may include architects, landscape
architects, urban designers, interior designers, lighting designers, engineers, and
148
representatives from throughout the construction industry. In part to help define the
boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of these professions is
represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade association or
organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and aesthetic role of
their members in the building design and construction process.
Profession Association
Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA)
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
(NCARB)
Society of American Registered Architects
Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)
International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ)
Lighting Designers Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA)
International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)
Professional Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)
American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)
Structural Engineers Association International (SEA)
Planners American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)
American Planning Association (APA)
Others Building Commissioning Association
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Disciplines
Applicable to all pages within the Design Disciplines branch

149
Federal Agencies/Organizations
• General Services Administrations, Design Excellence Program

• National Endowment for the Arts
• National Institutes of Health, Office of Research Facilities
• U.S. Air Force, A-E Services with Air Force
• U.S. Department of State, Office of Overseas Buildings Operations
Organizations/Associations
• Mayor's Institute on City Design
Architecture/Engineering Periodicals
• Architectural Record
• Architectural Review
• Architecture Magazine
• Contract Design
• Designarchitecture.com—An electronic journal of architecture and design
updated daily on the Internet
• Design Build Magazine
• Engineering News Record—A national magazine that publishes an annual listing
of the top design, construction, and international firms.
• Environmental Design and Construction
• Landscape Architecture
• Metropolis
Design Competitions
• AIA Guide to Architectural Design Competitions by The American Institute of

Architects. Available: The American Institute of Architects Committee on
Design.
• WBDG Running a Design Competition
Selecting Design Professionals
• American Architecture
• The American Institute of Architects, Locating an architect
• AIA Issue Briefs: Qualifications-Based Selection in the Federal Sector, January
2001, and Qualifications-Based Selection in the Public Sector by The American
Institute of Architects. The American Institute of Architects, State and Local
Government Affairs, January 2003.
• Architects USA
• designguide.com
150
• Qualifications-Based Selection: A Process for the Selection of Architects by

Public Owners by The American Institute of Architects. The American Institute of
Architects, State and Local Government Affairs, January 1992.
• Questions and Answers on the Procurement of A/E Services by Public Owners.
Professional Engineers in Private Practice, National Society Professional
Engineers, and The American Institute of Architects. NSPE Publication Number
1976.
• Selecting Architects and Engineers for Public Building Projects: An Analysis and
Comparison of the Maryland and Florida Systems. The American Institute of
Architects.
• Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications—Architects and engineers
use this form to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal
projects and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E
services. This form replaces SF 254/255.
• U.S. Architects
• You and Your Architect by The American Institute of Architects. Resource
booklet to selecting an architect.
Publications on the Sociology and Structure of the Architecture Profession
• Architects and Firms: A Sociological Perspective on Architectural Practice by

Judith R. Blau. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1984.
• Architectural Practice: A Critical View by Robert Gutman. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988.
• Architecture: The Story of Practice by Dana Cuff. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press, 1991.
151
Cost—Effective
by the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee
Overview
"We no longer build buildings like we used to, nor do we pay for them in the same way.
Buildings today are... life support systems, communication terminals, data manufacturing
centers, and much more, They are incredibly expensive tools that must be constantly
adjusted to function efficiently. The economics of building has become as complex as its
design." (Wilson, in foreword to Ruegg & Marshall, 1990)
Every owner wants a cost-effective building. But what does this mean? In many respects
the interpretation is influenced by an individual's interests and objectives.
• Is it the lowest first-cost structure that meets the program?

• Is it the design with the lowest operating and maintenance costs?
• Is it the building with the longest life span?
• Is it the facility in which users are most productive?
• Is it the building that offers the greatest return on investment?
While an economically efficient project is likely to have one or more of these attributes, it
is impossible to summarize cost-effectiveness by a single parameter. Determining true
cost-effectiveness requires a life-cycle perspective where all costs and benefits of a given
project are evaluated and compared over its economic life.
In economic terms, a building design is deemed to be cost-effective if it results in benefits

equal to those of alternative designs and has lower life-cycle costs. For example, the
HVAC system alternative that satisfies the heating and cooling requirements of a building
at the minimum life-cycle cost, is the cost-effective HVAC system of choice.
152
The federal government has numerous mandates that define program goals with the
expectation that they be achieved cost-effectively.
The challenge is often how to determine the true costs and the true benefits of alternative
decisions. For example, what is the economic value in electric lighting savings and
productivity increases of providing daylight to workplace environments? Or, what is the
value of saving historic structures? Alternately, what is the cost of a building integrated
photovoltaic system (BIPV), given that it may replace a conventional roof?
The following three overarching principles associated with ensuring cost-effective

construction reflect the need to accurately define costs, benefits, and basic economic
assumptions.
• Utilize Cost Management and Value Engineering Throughout the Planning,

Design, and Development Process
As most projects are authorized/funded without a means of increasing budgets, it
is essential that the project requirements are set by considering life-cycle costs.
This will ensure that the budget supports any first-cost premium that a life-cycle
cost-effective alternative may incur. Once a budget has been established, it is
essential to continually test the viability of its assumptions by employing cost
management throughout the design and development process. An aspect of cost
management is a cost control practice called Value Engineering (VE). VE is a
systematic evaluation procedure directed at analyzing the function of materials,
systems, processes, and building equipment for the purpose of achieving required
functions at the lowest total cost of ownership.
• Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives
In addition to first costs, facility investment decisions typically include projected
cost impacts of, energy/utility use, operation and maintenance and future system
replacements. At the beginning of each project, establish what economic tools and
models will be used to evaluate these building investment parameters. The
methodologies of life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) will typically offer comparisons
of total life-cycle costs based upon net present values. Other methods usually used
as supplementary measures of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA include Net
Savings, Savings-to-Investment Ratios, Internal Rate of Return, and Payback.
• Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation,
Most economic models require analysts to place a dollar value on all aspects of a
design to generate final results. Nevertheless it is difficult to accurately value
certain non-monetary building attributes, such as formality (for example, of a
federal courthouse) or energy security. The objective of a LCCA is to determine
costs and benefits of design alternatives to facilitate informed decision-making.
Costs can be more readily quantified than benefits because they normally have
dollar amounts attached. Benefits are difficult because they often tend to have
more intangibles. In some cases, these non-monetary issues are used as
tiebreakers to quantitative analyses. In other instances, non-monetary issues can
override quantitatively available cost comparisons, for example, renewable energy
153
application. These cost-effectiveness principles serve as driving objectives for

cost management practices in the planning, design, construction, and operation of
facilities that balance cost, scope, and quality.
Note: Information in these Cost-Effective pages must be considered together with other
Major Resources
Mandates
• Code of Federal Regulations, 10 CFR 436.a

• Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and
Transportation Management"
• National Energy Conservation Policy Act
• OMB Circular A-94—Guidelines for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs
WBDG
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable
Project Management
Project Planning, Management, and Delivery
Publications
• A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life-Cycle Costing and Sustainable

Development Federal Facilities Council, 2001.
• Air Force Military Construction and Family Housing Economic Analysis Guide
1996.
• Building Economics for Architects by Thorbjoern Mann. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0-442-00389-7.
• Building Economics: Theory and Practice by Rosalie Ruegg and Harold Marshall.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. ISBN 0-442-26417-8.
• Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100 (GSA)—Chapter 1.7
Life-Cycle Costing
• Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program (PDF
9.73MB, 224 pgs) NIST HB 135 1995 Edition.
• NAVFAC Economic Analysis Handbook 1993.
• Project Estimating Requirements, P120 (GSA)
154
• Standards on Building Economics, 5th ed. ASTM, 2004. ASTM Stock #:

BLDGEC04, ISBN# 0-8031-3148-8.
Others
• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Federal Energy Management

Programs (FEMP)
Utilize Cost Management Throughout the

Planning, Design, and Development
Process
Overview
Throughout a project's planning, design, and construction phases, Cost Management is
employed as a means of balancing a project's scope and expectations of quality and
budget. The approach can be summarized as requiring the following three steps:
1. Define the scope, the level of quality desired, and the budget
2. Ensure that the scope, quality, and budget are aligned
3. Monitor and manage the balance of these three components throughout the life of
the project
Cost Management encompasses more than cost estimates however—it includes Risk
Management and in the federal arena in particular, can include Earned Value Analysis.
Risk Assessment and Management are important as identified risks on construction
projects are typically financial in nature. Therefore early in the project an assessment of
risk is crucial to establish the budget parameters within which the project must be
completed. The calculation of project contingencies should be based on an assessment of
the risk surrounding the project (site issues, availability of bidders, method of
procurement, general market conditions etc). As risks are mitigated (site investigation is
done, market survey completed, program finalized, design started, and so forth) then
contingencies can be reduced and the range of estimated final cost narrowed.
The firm charged with managing the costs of the project should ideally be hired directly
by the owner, early in the process, and should be independent of both the
architect/engineer and the construction contractor.
Planning Phase
155
Cost Management differs from Building Economics in that it is typically concerned with
the initial costs—or first costs—of accomplishing new construction or renovation
projects. A project must start right in order for it to finish right, so the establishment of an
appropriate budget is critical. Early in the planning stages, both building owners and
designers must agree on an anticipated cost of the project at bid award. This is a critical
stage in the cost management process—an inaccurate budget can doom a project to
continual stress and compromise, with neither the owner, end-user nor design team being
completely satisfied at the end. A common mistake at this stage is to take a program of
areas and apply those to historical costs without making adjustments for the myriad
factors which affect construction costs—size of the project, renovation versus new,
location (has a market survey been done?), price increases since the date of the data used,
method of procurement, overall quality of the space envisioned, etc.
Preliminary Estimates are employed in the early planning phases of a proposed project to
match an owner's needs, expressed as written programmatic requirements, with budget
constraints in order to establish its overall scope (size) and quality expectations.
The method of procurement selected should be identified at this stage. The options
available today are more numerous than in the past—Lump Sum, Construction Manager
as Constructor (CMC) (also known as CM at Risk), Design/Build and so forth. Each
method has pros and cons relative to cost and risk, so the method selected should also be
factored in to the project budget.
Value Engineering should also be considered at this stage. Any changes to the program at
this early phase have very little, if any, impact on schedule and A/E time and redesign
costs, but the benefits in terms of solidifying the program and establishing project goals
can be huge.
Design Phase
Chesapeake Bay Foundation Philip Merrill Environmental Center—Annapolis, MD
Once an initial budget has been established, the scope set and the quality expectations
documented, it is important to monitor the estimated cost of the project by employing a
series of increasingly precise cost estimating techniques that coincide with further
development of design and construction details.
156
Intermediate Estimates are employed at various stages of project design development as

part of ongoing cost management, and as a means of evaluating competing alternative
construction assemblies, systems, and materials. On large projects it is common practice
for an owner to employ a construction manager or professional estimator to continually
update project estimates and provide feedback on budget impacts of decisions on major
design elements. The drawings and specifications should also go through a
constructability review, wherein an independent review team analyzes the construction
documents for completeness, coordination between disciplines, cost-effective design
solutions, and general code compliance. The specifications should also be reviewed to
ensure that the General Requirements included in division 1 are not overly restrictive
(e.g. working hours, noise restrictions and so forth) and that the use of proprietary
materials is minimized. A market survey should be carried out on sizable projects to
determine where the bidders will come from—is the local market sufficiently large to
accommodate the project, or will the major subcontractors be at capacity and therefore
likely to bid high, if at all?
Earned Value Analysis is a useful tool in cost management, in that costs for each
component of the project (in a Work Breakdown Structure, or WBS) can be tracked
against the initial budget, and adjustments made to ensure the overall budget is on track.
Movements between components are common; however, without tracking where costs
are changing, the budget is in danger of being exceeded leading to re-design or extensive
value engineering. Similarly future cost planning can be improved by the use of Earned
Value Analysis, by tracking where the money really goes in a project.
Construction Phase
At the bid stage, the drawings should be 100% complete; however, in many instances this
does not happen, leading to addenda being issued to clarify details, resolve conflicts or to
complete the design. Often the estimate is not adjusted to account for these design
changes, leading to a so-called final estimate that really does not represent the scope of
work being bid. The estimate should therefore be adjusted during bidding to reflect the
same information the bidders receive. Also a read of the market at bid stage is still useful,
and can be included in a risk assessment to determine a range of bids expected. In a
particularly volatile market, the use of bid options may allow the owner some flexibility
in achieving the budget on bid day.
The preparation of the bidding documents is also crucial in an overall cost management
strategy. Consideration should be given to contract clauses that govern changes in the
work and how they will be valued (e.g. by reference to a published price book or trade
manual); allowable mark-ups on changes by the various levels of contractors and sub-
contractors; notice requirements for delays; the use of unit prices for changes and any
other clauses that may affect the final cost of the project.
During construction the focus shifts from predictive cost estimating to reactive cost
management of any changes in the work. Changes arise from a number of different
sources—unforeseen conditions, owner-generated changes, drawing errors and
157
omissions, code issues or contractual claims. Also changes can arise from on-going
proactive cost management, either generated by the design team or the general contractor,
where one of the parties proposes a better-value substitution (sometimes known as Value
Engineering Change Proposals or VECPs). For all reviews of changes the owner should
first establish the ground rules as delineated in the contract documents, agree a format
with the general contractor, and require the general contractor to first review change
proposal from subcontractors before compiling and forwarding to the owner. Changes
should also be reviewed by the design time for entitlement—is it really a change to the
scope and are there any credits due? Then the agency Construction Manager or
independent cost consultant should review the pricing against the contract and industry
norms, leading to an independent government estimate for presentation to the general
contractor.
Earned Value Analysis is often used in this phase to determine at any given point in time
the likely financial and schedule outcome of the project.
Post-Occupancy Evaluation
To provide data for future cost management, an evaluation is often carried out to prepare
a detailed cost analysis of the completed project and to develop lessons learned to inform
future design decisions.
Major Resources
Associations
• American Society of Professional Estimators (ASPE)

• International Cost Engineering Council
• Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS)
• Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis (SCEA)
Publications
• Architect's Essentials of Cost Management by Michael Dell'Isola. New York, NY:

• Building News International website
• From Concept to Bid…Successful Estimating Methods by John D. Bledsoe, PhD,
PE. Kingston, MA: R.S. Means Company, Inc., 1992.
• GCCRG—General Construction Cost Review Guide
• GSA Project Estimating Requirements
• R.S. Means website
Others
158
• ER 1110-3-1300 Military Programs Cost Engineering (PDF 90 KB, 24 pgs) by

U.S. Army. 1999.
• Historical Cost Analysis Generator (HAG)—Used by the Tri-Services to collect
historical costs on awarded military construction projects
• Micro Computer-Aided Cost Engineering Systems (MCACES) by U.S. Army
Corp of Engineers.
• P-120 Project Estimating Requirement for the Public Buildings Service by GSA.
• P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook by NAVFAC.
• SuccessEstimator by Tri-Services.
• UFC 3-700-02A Construction Cost Estimates by DOD.
Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate

Design Alternatives
Overview
During the energy crisis and inflationary cycles of the 1970s and 1980s, the federal
government, as the nation's largest owner and operator of built facilities, was faced with
increasing initial construction costs and ongoing operational and maintenance expenses.
As a result, facility planners and designers began to use economic analysis to evaluate
alternative construction materials, assemblies, and building services with a goal to lower
costs. Today, building owners wishing to reduce expenses or increase profits utilize
economic analysis to improve their decision making during the course of planning,
designing, and constructing a building. Moreover, federal, state, and municipal entities
have all enacted legislative mandates—in varying degrees—requiring the use of building
economic analysis to determine the most economically efficient or cost-effective choice
among building alternatives.
The Economic Analysis Process
The steps to estimate the economic consequences of a decision, as listed in Ruegg's and
Marshall's Building Economics—Theory and Practice, are summarized below:
1. Define the problem and the objective.

2. Identify feasible alternatives for accomplishing the objective, taking into account
any constraints.
159
3. Determine whether an economic analysis is necessary, and if so, the level of effort
which is warranted.
4. Select a method or methods of economic analysis.
5. Select a technique that accounts for uncertainty and/or risk if the data to be used
with the economic method are uncertain.
6. Compile data and make assumptions called for by the economic analysis
method(s) and risk analysis technique.
7. Compute a measure of economic performance.
8. Compare the economic consequences of alternatives and make a decision, taking
into account any non-quantified effects and the risk attitude of the decision maker.
Types of Economic Analysis Methods
There are many methods available to calculate specific economic performance measures.
Used appropriately, these methods allow the planning and design team to analyze the
economic consequences of particular design decisions and fairly evaluate alternative
approaches.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is the basic method recommended in 10 CFR 436A
and OMB Circular A-94 for evaluating the economic performance of federal investments
in buildings or building systems. It involves computing the Life-Cycle Cost (LCC) for
competing design alternatives, considering all significant costs over the economic life of
each alternative (expressed in equivalent dollars), then comparing them, and choosing the
alternative with the lowest LCC. LCCA is particularly useful in evaluating building
performance from an energy consumption perspective (i.e., MEP systems and building
envelope). The other methods described below are usually used as supplementary
measures of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA.
Value Engineering
The solar photovoltaic system, cool roofing, and energy efficiency upgrades installed at
Alameda County's Santa Rita Jail have resulted in net savings of $410,000 in its first year
of operation.
(Courtesy of R. Solari)
160
Apart from, but related to economic analysis methods, Value Engineering (VE) is a
systematic evaluation procedure directed at analyzing the function of materials, systems,
processes, and building equipment for the purpose of achieving required functions at the
lowest total cost of ownership.
According to VE experts Kirk and Dell'Isola, "Value Engineering is a team approach that
analyzes a function by systematically developing the answers to such questions as: what
is it?; what does it do?; what must it do?; what does it cost?; what other material or
method could be used to do the same job without sacrificing required performance or
degradation to safety, reliability, or maintainability?" VE is concerned with elimination
or modification of anything that adds costs without contributing to the program functional
requirements. Reductions in a project's scope or quality to get it into budget are not
considered VE—those decisions are simply "cost cutting".
Major public works projects may undergo both VE studies and LCCA, and while the two
practices serve separate purposes, their consideration of design alternatives is often
interrelated. For example, value engineering can be used to complement a life-cycle cost
analysis when selected LCC alternatives cannot be adopted without exceeding the project
budget. VE can be utilized to reduce initial costs of design features other than those under
study in a LCCA. If the VE effort results in sufficient reduction in initial costs, savings
may allow selected LCC alternatives to be adopted within the overall program budget,
thus optimizing the long-term cost-effectiveness of the project as a whole.
Perhaps the most challenging aspect of a VE analysis is the evaluation of the non-
quantifiable benefits of design, materials, or system attributes. Aesthetics, occupant
comfort and performance, environmental impact, historic preservation, and the like may
be key design objectives that drive budget decision making and contribute enhanced
value to the project.
It is important to understand that while some alternatives are quantifiable, qualitative

elements such as better aesthetics and increased worker productivity can also influence
the economic analysis and decision-making process. Refer to the WBDG page on
"Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security,
and Safety." Also, note that economic analysis needs to be combined with thorough
architectural and engineering analyses. That is, all project alternatives considered should
be technically sound and practical, and must meet the project's performance
requirements.

In varying degrees, the federal government, state and municipal entities have all ratified
legislative mandates requiring building economics analysis be performed on most capital
investment programs. Some of the key federal mandates and standards are listed below.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

161
• 10 CFR 436 Subpart A—Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs,

Methodology and Procedures for Life-Cycle Cost Analyses
• DOD Tri-Services Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) on "Criteria/Standards for
Economic Analyses/Life-Cycle Costing for MILCON Design" (PDF 265 KB, 3
pgs) 1991. Provides guidance on LCCA for military construction design.
• Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service P100 - Chapter 1.7 - Life-
Cycle Costing by GSA.
• OMB Circular A-94-Guidelines for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs
Value Engineering (VE)
• DOD 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for Major Defense Acquisition Programs

and Major Automated Information System Acquisition Programs (PDF 2.2 MB,
193 pgs)
• Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), Part 52.248, Value Engineering Parts and
Clauses (PDF 126 KB, 27 pgs)
• Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), Part 48, Value Engineering
• OMB Circular A-131—Value Engineering
• Public Law 104-106, Section 4306 of the National Defense Authorization Act—
Value Engineering for Federal Agencies
• United States Code (U.S.C.), Title 41 - Public Contracts, Chapter 7 - Office of
Federal Procurement Policy, Section 432 - Value Engineering
• Value Engineering Program Guide for Design and Construction PQ-250 GSA.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Cost-Effective—Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and

Development Process, Cost-Effective—Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as
Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and Safety
Publications
• Architect's Essentials of Cost Management by Michael Dell'Isola. New York,

NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
• Building Economics for Architects by Thorbjoern Mann. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0-442-00389-7.
• Building Economics: Theory and Practice by Rosalie Ruegg and Harold Marshall.
New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. ISBN 0-442-26417-8.
• DOD 4245.8-H, Value Engineering Handbook
• GSA P-120 Project Estimating Requirements for the Public Building Service
162
• Life-Cycle Costing for Design Professionals, Second Edition by Stephen Kirk,

AIA and Alphonse Dell'Isola, PE. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.
• Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program by
Sieglinde Fuller and S.R. Peterson. NIST Handbook 135. National Institute of
Standards and Technology, 1995.
• MIL-HDBK-115A DOD Handbook U.S. Army Reverse Engineering Handbook
(Guidance and Procedures)
• NAVFAC P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook
Others
• Federal LCCA Software Tools:

• Building Life-Cycle Cost Program Version 5 (BLCC5)—an economic analysis
tool developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology for the U.S.
Department of Energy Federal Management Program.
• ECONPACK for Windows—an economic analysis tool developed by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers in support of DOD funding requests.
• eVALUator: Building Life-Cycle Cost Assessment Program by DOE.
• Life-Cycle Cost in Design WinLCCID Program—developed for MILCON
analyses by the Construction Engineering Research Laboratory of the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers. For password contact lawrie@dilbert.me.uiuc.edu.
Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as

Aesthetics, Historic Preservation,
Overview
The essential aspects of conducting a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and determining
the cost-effectiveness of any given construction alternative are the identification of all the
relevant inputs and outputs and quantification, when possible, of these as costs and
benefits to facilitate informed decision making. Costs can be more readily quantified than
benefits because they normally have dollar amounts attached. Benefits are difficult
because they often tend to have more intangibles. In analyses, benefits should be as
important as costs and deserve to be brought to the attention of decision makers.
Other Quantifiable Benefits

163
Many investment decisions, especially in industrial applications, have a stated goal

defined in terms of required or expected output (e.g. number of kilowatt-hours of
electricity produced per year, number of aircraft overhauled per year). The goal is not
always quantified, but it is often susceptible to quantification and thus provides a
potential measure of benefits associated with the investment. A Benefit/Cost Ratio (BCR)
may be determined when the output from the investment can be quantified and a uniform
annual cost derived from the life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA). Using the examples
provided, typical output of this type would be number of kilowatt-hours of electricity
produced (benefit) or completed aircraft overhauls (benefit) per $1,000 (cost). These
ratios may be compared for several different alternatives to assist in selection of the most
cost-effective.
Non-Quantifiable Benefits
Despite best efforts to develop quantitative measures of benefits, there are situations that
simply do not lend themselves to such an analysis. Certain projects may provide benefits
such as improved quality of the working environment, preservation of cultural and
historical resources, safety and security of the building occupants, and other similar
qualitative advantages. Although they are most difficult to assess, these benefits should
be documented and portrayed in a life-cycle cost analysis.
Owners of the West Bend Mutual Insurance credited the energy efficient strategies
implemented in the new Headquarters Building, West Bend, IN for 99% reduction in
personnel complaints about IAQ and 16% improvement in productivity.
In such instances, written and accurate descriptions of qualitative benefits must be done.
This is the least preferred method of analyzing benefits due to its subjectivity and
inherent lack of precision. However, under certain conditions, this method must suffice;
and if the following guidelines are observed, qualitative statements can make a positive
contribution to the analysis.
1. Identify all benefits associated with each alternative under consideration. Give
complete details.
2. Identify the benefits common in kind but not to the same degree among the
alternatives. Explain all differences in detail.
164
To formalize the inclusion of non-monetary costs or benefits in the decision-making

process, the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) should be employed. AHP is one of a set
of multi-attribute decision analysis (MADA) methods that consider non-monetary
attributes (qualitative and quantitative) in addition to common economic evaluation
measures when evaluating project alternatives. Standard Practice E 1765 Guidelines for
Applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Multi-Attribute Decision Analysis
of Investments Related to Buildings and Building System published by ASTM
International presents a procedure for calculating and interpreting AHP scores of a
project's total overall desirability when making building-related capital investment
decisions.
Following these general guidelines will help to enhance the difficult task of documenting
these intangibles that are measured in non-economic terms like aesthetics, safety, or
morale, and enhance the value of benefit/cost analyses and make informed decision-
making easier.
Quantifying Negative Aspects
It is also noted that in addition to benefits, information concerning negative aspects of

alternatives, quantified where possible, should also be included to ensure the objectivity
and completeness of the analysis. This information is important in decision making and
possibly to the community at large; and may be a determining factor in deciding between
possible investment alternatives.
Externalities
Externalities (also referred to as external effects or spillovers) are an important class of

outputs that may be benefits or disadvantages. They are generally defined as outputs
involuntarily received or imposed on a person or group because of an action by another
and over which the recipient has no control. Air pollution is an example of an externality
that is not a benefit. The recipients accrue potential health, aesthetic, and other
disadvantages from a polluter for which they receive no compensation.
For most investment decisions (particularly with respect to the public sector), it is not
necessary to analyze in depth externalities such as environmental impacts and community
economic impacts as part of the life-cycle cost analysis. These aspects of alternatives
being considered are usually treated in detail as part of the Environmental Impact
Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement process or environmental documentation
associated with local and state processes for addressing environmental impacts of
construction projects. However, the mention of anticipated impacts (both quantified and
qualitative) in life-cycle cost analysis documentation is appropriate.
Summary
There is no standard or recommended format prescribed for benefit analysis information.

What is important is the content; and in the case of benefits, content is critical. No
165
analysis is truly complete unless it addresses benefits attending all the alternatives under
consideration.

• Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100 - Chapter 1.7 - Life-
Cycle Costing by GSA.
• Standard Practice E 1765-98 Guidelines for Applying the Analytical Hierarchy
Process (AHP) to Multi-Attribute Decision Analysis of Investments Related to
Buildings and Building System published by ASTM International.
• Standards on Building Economics, 5th ed. ASTM International, 2004. ASTM
Stock #: BLDGEC04, ISBN# 0-8031-3148-8.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Cost-Effective—Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and

Development Process, Cost-Effective—Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design
Alternatives, Productive
Publications
• GSA P-120 Project Estimating Requirements for the Public Building Service
• NAVFAC P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook
by the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee
Overview
166
Exterior lateral bracing created open interior spaces at the John Hancock Building—
Chicago, IL
Courtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP
A client's/owner's intent to develop a project is derived from a need, a purpose or

mission, and a desired result. When the design and use of a facility serves the people who
use them and the programs it houses, the project is functionally successful. Program and
functionality are also characterized by building type. When designs fall short of this goal,
the cost can be modest to extreme, but the failures are generally noted more significantly
than the expected successes. A clear understanding of the functional and physical
requirements of a project is essential to ensuring its success.
Development in the building sciences in the late 1900's has pointed to the need to refocus
on programming, designing, constructing, and operating facilities that function well,
while at the same time incorporating new technologies, and creatively meeting other
design objectives such as sustainability, accessibility, safety, energy, and environmental
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®)). Post-occupancy
evaluations have shown that early programming and design decisions have significant
impact on the functional quality, and long-term efficiency and effectiveness of buildings,
initially and over their life cycle. By adopting a methodical approach that extends through
all phases of a project, from pre-design through owner occupancy and operation to
disposal, with checks at each stage of the process to ensure validation of decisions to
meet the owner's program and design requirements, buildings can be functionally
successful and thus more safe, productive, and inspiring places that enhance work and/or
livability.
This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with
architectural and engineering design understand the basic process, technique, and
language by which functional decisions are made.
A building that functions as it is intended is the underpinning of a quality "whole"

building. The qualities of such a building may not even be noticed or recognized, but a
poorly functioning building can be costly to correct, if the opportunity to correct ever
becomes available. There are three overarching principles associated with ensuring
functional building design and operations:
167
• Account for Functional Needs

Accounting for spatial needs is a primary element of the planning process that
translates to an owner's spatial and service requirements for a building or facility.
This process seeks to establish goals; collect and analyze facts; establish
functional relationships; uncover and test concepts; determine needs; and state the
problem. There is also a need to design for flexibility of programmed space.
• Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration
A successfully designed building that functions properly in all respects is
composed of building systems, materials, and technologies that are selected and
integrated to be mutually supportive as a cohesive "whole" system.
• Meet Performance Objectives
Meeting performance objectives is not achieved by simply a "Final Inspection" of
the finished product, but is a sustained effort from inception and planning through
turnover and operation to assure the delivery of a project that satisfies all of the
owner's functional and operational requirements. There are many aspects involved
in assuring performance objectives are met, from assembling a qualified project
delivery team; to adequately coordinating team member roles and responsibilities;
to instituting systematic quality assurance programs, like Building
Commissioning.
Relationship of Function/Operation and Cost
Care should always be used when undertaking cost management practices (i.e., Value
Engineering, cost cutting, etc.) not to compromise the functional or operational
performance of the interrelated and often interdependent systems.
Design Lessons Learned
Key to improving the facility planning, design, and delivery process is continual
improvement of team performance through learning from and avoiding repeated design
errors, omissions, or flaws in project execution. "Lessons Learned" is a common term
that refers to an organization's compilation and publication of the lessons for the
knowledge and benefit of future project teams.
Design of facilities that meet or exceed the functional expectations of owners and facility
managers will require the application of these principles as well as thorough
understanding of historical precedent and knowledge of current design practices for the
building type.
Note: Information in these Functional pages must be considered together with other
Major Resources
168
Codes and Standards
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100, GSA—Establishes

integrative performance standards for federal facilities.
• Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building
Rating System™ is a program of the U.S. Green Building Council.
• Standards on Whole Building Functionality and Serviceability by ASTM. 2000.
ASTM Stock #: WBDG2000, ISBN# 0-8031-2734-0.
Publications

Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000—The
most widely recognized reference manual for architectural design guidance on
planning, design standards, building systems, materials, methods, and
construction techniques.
• The Architect's Studio Companion: Rules of Thumb for Preliminary Design, 4th
Edition by Edward Allen and Joseph Iano. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 2006.
• ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals by ASHRAE Handbook Committee.
Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc. 2001.
• ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment by ASHRAE Handbook
Committee. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 2001.
• Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 10th Edition by Ben Stein,
John S. Reynolds, Walter T. Grondzik, Alison G. Kwok. New York, NY: John
• Project Planning Guide, The, by the U.S. General Services Administration, Public
Building Service, Washington, DC, 2004.
• Time-Saver Standards for Building Types, 4th Edition by Joseph DiChiara and
Michael Crosbie. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 2000—A comprehensive
reference for building type design guidance, including sample projects with plans
and illustrations of functional features and details.
Associations
The following are major associations representing design professions that publish
resources and set practice standards for the planning and design of facilities.
• The American Institute of Architects (AIA)

• American Planning Association (APA)
• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
• American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
169
• American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)

• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• SAVE International
Account for Functional Needs

Overview
Primary Systems diagram of the Wieden + Kennedy Ad Agency building—Portland, OR

Courtesy of Allied Works Architecture
Programming should begin with a clear definition of the work activities to be performed.
Accounting for functional needs is a primary purpose of the planning process that defines
an owner's functional and physical requirements for each spatial element in a building or
facility. This process seeks to state the problem; establish goals; collect and analyze facts;
establish functional relationships; uncover and test concepts; and finally state the problem
to direct a course of action. Adequate programming performed in the project planning
phase will clearly delineate functional requirements and relationships of occupant
activities and spaces required for all supporting building systems and equipment.
170
However, a truly functional building will require a thorough analysis of the parts of the
design problem and the application of creative synthesis in a solution that integrates the
parts in a coherent and optimal operating manner. 'Whole Building' design is
characterized by a design solution that functions well from an occupant activity and
building systems point of view.
There are several key steps in the development of project requirements that fully describe
the design problem. They are:
• Understand how the work processes support the mission and purpose of a facility;
• Define spatial requirements for occupant activities and equipment;
• Understand functional relationships among the programmed spaces;
• Anticipate installation, O&M practices, spatial change, and replacement of
building equipment;
• Accommodate information technology (IT), communication, and other building
systems equipment; and
• Consider serviceability (clearance) requirements.
Effective programming will include all pertinent stakeholders to ensure "Whole

Building" functions have been identified. Conducting programming and design charrettes
with these stakeholders is an effective means of enhancing integrated functionality and
mutual agreement on a design approach.
Recommendations
Understand How the Work Processes Support the Mission and Purpose of
a Facility
• Determine facility use, occupancy, and activities to be housed.

• Balance the owner's needs and goals for space, quality, budget, and time.
• Set owner's design objectives in the early planning stage.
• Reference building type guidelines. See also WBDG Building Types.
Define Spatial Requirements for Occupant Activities and Equipment
• Consult all pertinent stakeholders for their requirements.

• Consult planning guides and specialists on programmed activities.
• Document all regulatory requirements, such as building codes, accessibility laws,
ATFP, etc.
• Explore the possible necessity of making spaces flexible to accommodate changes
in business practices, work activities, and technologies.
• Consider building operations and maintenance activities in the design of spaces.
Understand Functional Relationships Between Program Spaces

171
• Engage user groups in facilitated discussions to brainstorm solutions.

• Examine patterns of activity in facility program and consider how those patterns
create spatial relationships.
• Account for physical security requirements in the layout of space planning.
• Consider impacts of building systems and engineering needs on spatial
relationships in both occupied and unoccupied spaces.
• Leverage opportunities for quality environmental aesthetics such as natural light,
spatial volume, views, texture, and materials. See also WBDG Aesthetic
Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
Anticipate Installation, Operation, Spatial Change, and Replacement of

Building Equipment
• Incorporate structural and mechanical systems as integral parts of early design

concepts.
• Account for structural loads (dead and live) of building systems and equipment.
• Ensure that mechanical system equipment and furniture, fixtures, and building
equipment (FF&E) can actually be installed, operated, and replaced.
• Consult facility O&M personnel in the programming and early design stage.
• Plan infrastructure for flexible spatial modifications or "churn".
Accommodate Information Technology (IT), Communication, and Other

Building Systems Equipment
• Determine the owner's goals and needs for spatial and mechanical support of the
organization's IT program.
• Incorporate IT system needs as an integral part of the design concept.
• Design for configuration flexibility within workspaces that promotes occupant
productivity. See also WBDG Accessible—Plan for Flexibility.
• Accommodate network support and servicing requirements in the design of
spaces.
Vontz Center for Molecular Studies—Cincinnati, Ohio. This 150,000 gsf., $35 milllion
interdisciplinary research center is designed to accommodate neuroscience and cancer
research. It includes core science research labs, offices, support areas, and seminar rooms
with fully accessible mechanical, electrical, and support spaces between the main
172
laboratory floors.
Courtesy of BHDP Architecture
Consider Serviceability (Clearance) Requirements
• Design for vehicular clearances in the site design (e.g., drives, gates, ramps,
parking).
• Design for vehicular clearances in building design (e.g., doors, docks,
obstructions).
• Design for durability.
• Design for maintainability (including housing of maintenance equipment).
• Consult facility O&M personnel in the design process.
Emerging Issues
• Computer-based space programming applications
• Appropriate accommodation for the changing nature of work (productivity)
• Virtual workplaces and increased use of "Hoteling" for flexible space
• Building Information Modeling (BIM) (defining object functionality for facility
life cycle)

• Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional
Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities. Paper published in Federal Facilities
Council (FFC) Report #145.
• For spatial requirements related to fire safety (ingress/egress):
• Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA)
• International Code Council (ICC)
• International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)
• Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI)
Major Resources
Publications
• A Handbook for Planning and Conducting Charrettes for High Performance

Projects by Gail Lindsey, Joel Ann Todd and Sheila J. Hayter. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2003.
• Interior Graphic Standards New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
• Problem Seeking, Third Edition by William Pena (CRSS). Washington, DC: AIA
Press, 1969, 1987.
173
• Professional Practice in Facility Programming by Wolfgang Preiser. New York:

Van Nostrand-Reinhold Co., 1992.
• Programming for Design: From Theory to Practice by Edith Cherry. New York:
• Time-Saver Standards for Building Types, 4th Edition by Joseph DiChiara and
Michael Crosbie. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2000.
Associations
• American Council of Engineering Companies (ACEC)

• American Society of Interior Designers
• International Interior Design Association
• National Charrette Institute
• National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
Others
• CCB documents and publications (for Building-Type Design Guides)

• Compendium of Lessons Learned CD, Volume I by General Services
Administration. July 2001. Contact Office of the Chief Architect, GSA Public
Buildings Service.
Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems

Integration
Overview
174
Centre Georges Pompidou—Paris, France

(Courtesy of Rogers and Piano)
"There is no separation of utility and beauty. You cannot determine where a tree stops
being beautiful and starts becoming utilitarian." Richard Neutra
A successfully designed building has also been compared to a beautiful symphony. The
parts of a building, like individual instruments in an orchestra, have the capacity to make
up a whole that is greater than if they were played alone. Imagine, for instance, that an
office space had a beautifully designed interior and state-of-the-art furniture and
computer equipment, but could not be heated and cooled properly. The lack of adequate
climate control would be as apparent as if a loud "off-key" note were played during a
symphony.
Like musical instruments, building systems, materials, and products incorporated into a
design must be "integrated" in a supporting way to create a unified whole that achieves
the desired functional purpose. See 'Whole Building' Design Approach.
An integrated solution results from a methodical design approach that considers the
characteristics and properties of each system or product, its role in the greater whole of
the design, and its needs for installation, coordination with other building systems and
O&M serviceability. For example, the selection of a ceiling light fixture has implications
that must be considered in terms of light as well as energy use, heat, noise, and radiation.
An integrated design solution will:
• Develop design concepts that meet functional needs of the building program;
• Understand the integral relationship of form and function;
• Evaluate product/system selection for the specific application;
• Seek design solutions that fully integrate product/systems; and
• Consider how the facility will be operated and maintained.
Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco
Recommendations
175
Develop Design Concepts that Meet Functional Needs of the Building

Program
• Understand the needs of occupants required to perform programmed activities

(space, environmental qualities, furniture, fixtures, equipment, communications,
information technologies, etc.).
• Explore a variety of design solutions and consider the merits of each alternative
on the basis of functional performance.
• Facilitate discussions with users to evaluate and test assumptions made involving
functional issues. See WBDG Planning and Conducting Integrated Design (ID)
Charrettes.
• Understand design implications and space needs of unique "mission critical"
activities requiring permanent construction as compared to more flexible spaces
that can be configured to support multiple activities and functions.
• Track decisions to maintain focus on design intents.
Understand the Integral Relationship Between Form and Function
The glazed wall on the south contributes to passive solar heating and daylighting.
Chesapeake Bay Foundation's John Philip Merrill Environmental Center—Annapolis,
MD
(Courtesy of David Harp/Chesapeake Bay Foundation)
Functional characteristics of building systems (e.g., air distribution systems) can serve as
unique design opportunities in shaping the facility's form and aesthetics. See WBDG
Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
• Accept environmental conditions as a primary influence on the building's form.

• Develop design concepts that provide the user with a clear sense of the facility's
functional purpose.
• Address functional requirements and aesthetic goals through integrated solutions.
For example, in the Chesapeake Bay Foundation's John Philip Merrill
Environmental Center, the need for sun control resulted in an interior shading
system that mimics sailboat rigging and an external structure supporting a "Brise
Soleil", or solar shades.
176
Evaluate Product/System Selection for the Specific Application
• Select systems and products that are "use-appropriate" and support functional
goals of individual spaces as well as the entire facility.
• Avoid a "one size fits all" design approach. Also see WBDG Accessible—Plan
for Flexibility. More
• Look at design problems as unique opportunities for creativity and innovation.
See WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
• When resolving conflicts in the design and selection of products and systems,
coordinate with consideration of opportunities and impacts affecting design and
constructability of all involved building systems.
• Consider energy conservation and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis in the selection of
systems and equipment, especially for facilities with longer expected/designed
service life (such as institutional and governmental buildings).
Seek Design Solutions that Fully Integrate Product/Systems
Integrated design strikes a balance between all design objectives, including Aesthetics
and Functional/Operational.
• Adopt a 'Whole Buildings' approach—Systems integration involves the awareness

of all affected trades and disciplines. Design with functional attributes of systems
and products in mind.
• Select materials and products that are compatible with design objectives for both
appearance and function.
• Carefully research the owner's equipment requirements and integrate them with
the design.
Consider How the Facility Will Be Operated and Maintained
• Anticipate the needs of the building-cleaning program, including refuse storage

and disposal.
• Provide adequate space for maintenance equipment, materials, and storage.
• Design for regular building systems maintenance, including easy access to light
fixtures, HVAC filters, sensors, and surfaces requiring scheduled cleaning.
• Plan for eventual replacement of major systems components.
• Give careful thought to designing delivery drives, loading docks, and storage
rooms. Allow ample maneuvering room and clearance width and height.
• See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices and Reliability-Centered
Maintenance (RCM).
Emerging Issues
• Increased use of extranets and new communication tools that enhance
interdisciplinary design coordination
177
• Use of object-oriented CAD programs (Building Information Modeling) to check

for conflicts
• Trend towards using "Total Building Commissioning" throughout the planning,
design, construction, operation, repair/alteration, and disposal life cycle

• The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building
Rating System™ is a program of the U.S. Green Building Council.
Major Resources
WBDG
Wall Systems Branch, Fenestration Systems Branch, Roofing Systems, Atria Systems
Publications

Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• The Building Systems Integration Handbook by Richard D. Rush. Butterworth-
Heineman, 1991.
• Construction Materials Evaluation and Selection by Harold Rosen and Philip
Bennett. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1979.
• Design & Planning of Engineering Systems by Dale Meredith, Kam Wong,
Ronald Woodhead, and Robert Wortman. Princeton, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.
• Design for Maintainability Guidebook by Construction Industry Institute (CII).
Oct 1999. IR142-2.—Designed to assist owners and others by providing specific
instructions on using tools for improved design for maintainability. Includes a
self-assessment that will define the user's "level of maintainability," and then
provides specifics on more than 22 maintainability best practices as well as 16
tools to help in implementing the best practices.
• Dictionary of Architecture and Construction by Cyril M. Harris. New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2000. Oct. '99, 96 pages.
• Environmental Control Systems by Fuller Moore. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
1993.
• Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods, 4th Edition by
Edward Allen and Joseph Iano. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
• The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing
Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Government wide Policy
of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999. Developed by GSA's
Office of Real Property to provide guidelines to help federal agencies define
important issues and needs for an organization's workspace; to identify
178
measurement tools that can be used to track the workplace's effects on people and
organizations; and to define the basic elements of the Integrated workplace—
people, technology, and space—and discusses how each of these should be
considered when providing new or reconfigured offices.
• Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data by Donald Watson, Michael
Crosbie, and John Hancock Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997.
Associations
• Building Commissioning Association (BCA)

• Construction Industry Institute (CII)
• Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
• Fully Integrated and Automated Technology (FIATECH)
• Specification Consultants in Independent Practice
Others
Products and Systems Information Sources
• ARCAT
• CMD First Source
• Pierpoint
• Building Poducts and Materials by Sweets Network
• 4.specs.com
Communications Technologies and Tools
• Design Intent Tool (by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories)

• Dr. Checks website
• The Extranet List (by Extranet News)
Meet Performance Objectives

Overview
Meeting performance objectives is a sustained effort from inception and planning,
through turnover and operation, to assure the delivery of a project that satisfies all of the
owner's functional requirements. There are many aspects involved in assuring
performance objectives are met; from assembling a qualified project delivery team; to
179
adequately coordinating team member roles and responsibilities to instituting systematic

quality assurance programs, like an appropriate level of Building Commissioning.
The ability of a building to perform in a way that fully meets an owner's functional
expectations—both qualitative and quantitative—requires a coordinated effort by a multi-
disciplined team of experts who understand and apply a 'Whole Buildings' design
approach.
Some practical ways to approach developing a proactive performance assurance program

for a project include:
• Assure that appropriate programming occurs;

• Establish design objectives and priorities that will drive design concepts;
• Review "Lessons Learned" to leverage corporate knowledge and assure past
mistakes are not repeated;
• Institute a project delivery quality assurance (QA) program;
• Understand the role of Facility Management and Operations; and
• Use Facility Performance Evaluations (FPE's).
Recommendations
Assure that Appropriate Programming Occurs
• Facilitate discussions with key stakeholders in establishing project requirements

and goals.
• Facilitate good communication between project team members during
programming and throughout the facility acquisition process.
• Identify mission critical programs and requirements.
• Clearly describe all functional needs and design intents.
• Communicate owners' special knowledge of what works well and what does not.
• Document all performance expectations.
• Address information technology (IT) and communication needs—both current
and future.
Establish Design Objectives and Priorities that Will Drive Design Concepts
• Set performance goals for both building envelope and building systems.
• Look for unique aspects of the project to feature and enhance.
• Reconcile conflicting priorities (i.e. physical security vs. fire safety needs).
• Define qualitative and quantitative performance measures (e.g., design for
sustainability, maintainability, etc.)
Review "Lessons Learned" to leverage corporate knowledge and assure

past mistakes are not repeated
180
• Several organizations have compiled "Lessons Learned" on past projects that are
available in the following resources.
o GSA Compendium of Lessons Learned
o GSA Facilities Performance Tool
o NAVFAC Facility Quality Survey [requires NAVFAC account access]
o NIBS Building Operations Manuals
o VA Technical Library
o VA Design Alerts & Quality Alerts
Institute a Project Delivery Quality Assurance (QA) Program
This Environmental Management System (EMS) enables facilities engineering personnel

to maintain comfort and ventilation levels at the high standards set by the stakeholders at
the beginning of the project.
• Conduct thorough owner reviews of A-E designs and documentation.

• Track critical decisions to focus on design intents.
• Establish owner's measurable quality standards and metrics for performance
expectations.
• Identify owner's tests and certification expectations.
• Hire an owner's representative, if necessary, to oversee performance assurance.
• Focus enhanced performance assurance measures on mission critical systems and
features. Use the building commissioning process, as appropriate.
• Include training of facility operators on the interdependent function of systems
integration.
Understand the Role of Facility Management and Operations
• Involve O&M staff in all design phases. See WBDG Aesthetics—Engage the
Integrated Design Process.
• Bring forward special knowledge and experiences of O&M staff into the design
phases.
• Anticipate what it will take to maintain and operate the facility. See WBDG
Sustainable—Optimize O&M Practices.
• Perform energy analysis in design phases; make sure operating budgets are
addressed. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
181
• Consider O&M stakeholders as partners in the performance optimization

program.
• Document O&M procedures that contribute to optimal facility performance.
Use Facility Performance Evaluations (FPE's)
• Seek feedback from users and include it in performance optimization efforts

through Post-Occupancy Evaluations.
• Use prototypes to evaluate the performance of designs to be repeated.
• Assure functional reliability through continued monitoring and analysis, and
acting to correct degradation. OMSI (Operations & Maintenance Support
Information) is NOT monitoring and analysis. It is the "Operating Manual" so to
speak. More
Emerging Issues
• Computer-Aided modeling for predicting performance
• Building Commissioning procedures
• Re-commissioning and continuous commissioning
• Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
• International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)
Savings from Continuous Commissioning Program in laboratory building at Texas A&M

University

• ASTM Standards on Whole Building Functionality and Serviceability (2000)
182
Major Resources
Publications
• Adding Value to the Facility Acquisition Process: Best Practices for Reviewing
Facility Designs by Ralph S. Spillinger in conjunction with the Federal Facilities
Council, Standing Committee on Organizational Performance and Metrics,
National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
Report #139.
• Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional
Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities—Paper published in Federal Facilities
Council (FFC) Report No. 145.
• Journal of Architectural and Planning Research (Vol. 1-18) edited by Andrew
Seidel. Locke Science Publishing Co.
• Learning From Our Buildings by the Federal Facilities Council. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 2001. Report #145.
• Post-Occupancy Evaluation by Wolfgang Preiser, Harvey Rabinowitz, and
Edward T. White. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1988.
• Problem Seeking, Third Edition by William Pena (CRSS). Washington, DC: AIA
Press, 1987.
Associations
• Building Commissioning Association (BCA)

• International Facility Management Association (IFMA)
Others
• Texas Engineering Experiment Station (TEES), Energy Systems Laboratory,

Texas A&M University
• Usable Buildings Trust (UK)
183
by the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee
Overview
Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand
ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them
attractive for a variety of uses.
Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of
historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural
resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings,
archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is
often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological
remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or
natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical
intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection
Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.
Some practical and/or intangible benefits of historic preservation include:
• Retention of history and authenticity

o Commemorates the past
o Aesthetics: texture, craftsmanship, style
o Pedestrian/visitor appeal
o Human scale
184
• Increased commercial value

o Materials and ornaments that are not affordable or readily available
o Durable, high quality materials (e.g., old growth wood)
• Retention of building materials (refer also to WBDG Sustainable Branch)
o Less construction and demolition debris
o Less hazardous material debris
o Less need for new materials
• Existing usable space—quicker occupancy
• Rehabilitation often costs less than new construction
• Reuse of infrastructure
• Energy savings
o No energy used for demolition
o No energy used for new construction
o Reuse of embodied energy in building materials and assemblies
Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for
the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of
historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards
are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.
Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has
identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.
Four Treatment Approaches
Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties
there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties:
preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.
Preservation focuses on the maintenance stabilization, and repair of existing historic

materials and retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time.
Rehabilitation acknowledges the need to alter or add to a historic property to meet

continuing or changing uses while retaining the property's historic character.
Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing
evidence of other periods.
Reconstruction re-creates vanished or non-surviving portions of a property for

interpretive purposes.
Additional Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Resources—

landscapes, archaeological and maritime resources, etc. are maintained by the National
Park Service.
185
While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could
"restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if
there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative
lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall
approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.
Treatment Plan
Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival
documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be
replicated within restoration zones.
Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at
project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic
property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of
the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design
and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan,
site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These
assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of
significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes
preservation priorities.
Of concern to design and preservation professionals is the cumulative effect of various

seemingly minor changes to a cultural resource over time, which can greatly diminish its
integrity. Therefore, to ensure the maximum protection of America's cultural resources,
specifically historic buildings and properties, it is useful to identify four major
preservation design topics for the Whole Building Design Guide:
186
San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant
features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.
• Apply the Preservation Process Successfully—The preservation process involves

five basic steps: Identify, Investigate, Develop, Execute, and Educate. Successful
preservation design requires early and frequent consultation with a variety of
organizations and close collaboration among technical specialists, architects,
owner/occupants, and preservation professionals.
• Update Building Systems Appropriately—Updating building systems in historic
structures requires striking a balance between retaining original building features
and accommodating new technologies and equipment. Building system updates
require creativity to respect the original design and materials while meeting
applicable codes and tenant needs.
• Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs—The accommodation of new
functions, changes in technology, and improved standards of protection provide
challenges to the reuse of historic buildings and sites. Designers must address life
safety, seismic, and security issues in innovative ways that preserve historic sites,
spaces and features.
• Comply with Accessibility Requirements—Accessibility and historic preservation
strategies sometimes conflict with each other. Designers must provide access for
persons with disabilities while meeting preservation goals.

Federal Mandates
• 36 CFR 67, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation

• 36 CFR 68, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic
Properties
• 36 CFR 61, Professional Qualifications for Historic Projects
187
• 48 FR 22716, The Secretary of the Interior's Professional Qualification Standards,

Sep 1983
• Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment
(1971)
• Executive Order 13006, Locating Federal Agencies in Historic Buildings in
Historic Districts in Our Central Cities
• Executive Order 13287, Preserve America
• National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966
• Section 106, 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties
• Section 110
For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here
Standards and Guidelines
• Cultural Resource Management Guideline, NPS-28

• Guidelines for Federal Agency Responsibilities, Under Section 110 of the
National Historic Preservation Act
• The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and
Historic Preservation (As amended and annotated by the National Park Service)
Major Resources
WBDG
Historic Preservation—Additional Resources
Federal Agencies
• Department of Defense (DoD):

• DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program (3 May 96) (PDF
200 KB, 45 pgs)
• Department of Defense Conservation Program
• AR 200-4 Cultural Resources Management (Oct 97)
• Center of Expertise for the Preservation of Historic Buildings and Structures
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Tribal Affairs and Initiatives
• U.S. Army Environmental Center—Cultural Resources
• Department of the Navy:
• Naval Facilities Engineering Command
• Historic and Archaeological Resources Protection Planning Guidelines, January
1997.
• SECNAV 4000.35A Department of the Navy Cultural Resources Program (9 Apr
01) (PDF 120 KB, 17 pgs)
• U.S. Air Force:
188
• Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence—Cultural Resources

• Air Force Instruction 32-7065 Cultural Resources Management Program (1 June
2004.) (PDF 707 KB, 39 pgs)
• Department of Veterans Affairs:
• Office of Facilities Management—Historic Preservation
• Heritage Preservation Services
• National Park Service
• National Register of Historic Places
• U.S. General Services Administration—Historic Preservation
• Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP)

• National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers (NCSHPO)
• National Trust for Historic Preservation
• National Preservation Institute
• Smithsonian Institution
• Architectural History and Historic Preservation Division
• Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations
Publications
• Federal Historic Preservation Laws National Park Service.
Other
• PreservationDirectory.com—an online resource for historic preservation, building

restoration and cultural resource management in the United States & Canada.
Overview
189
Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand
ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them
attractive for a variety of uses.
Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of
historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural
resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings,
archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is
often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological
remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or
natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical
intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection
Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.
Some practical and/or intangible benefits of historic preservation include:
• Retention of history and authenticity

o Commemorates the past
o Aesthetics: texture, craftsmanship, style
o Pedestrian/visitor appeal
o Human scale
• Increased commercial value
o Materials and ornaments that are not affordable or readily available
o Durable, high quality materials (e.g., old growth wood)
• Retention of building materials (refer also to WBDG Sustainable Branch)
o Less construction and demolition debris
o Less hazardous material debris
o Less need for new materials
• Existing usable space—quicker occupancy
• Rehabilitation often costs less than new construction
• Reuse of infrastructure
• Energy savings
190
o No energy used for demolition

o No energy used for new construction
o Reuse of embodied energy in building materials and assemblies
Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for
the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of
historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards
are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.
Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has
identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.
Four Treatment Approaches
Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties
there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties:
preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.
Preservation focuses on the maintenance stabilization, and repair of existing historic

materials and retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time.
Rehabilitation acknowledges the need to alter or add to a historic property to meet

continuing or changing uses while retaining the property's historic character.
Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing
evidence of other periods.
Reconstruction re-creates vanished or non-surviving portions of a property for

interpretive purposes.
Additional Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Resources—

landscapes, archaeological and maritime resources, etc. are maintained by the National
Park Service.
While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could
"restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if
there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative
lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall
approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.
Treatment Plan
191
Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival
documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be
replicated within restoration zones.
Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at
project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic
property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of
the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design
and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan,
site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These
assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of
significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes
preservation priorities.
Of concern to design and preservation professionals is the cumulative effect of various

seemingly minor changes to a cultural resource over time, which can greatly diminish its
integrity. Therefore, to ensure the maximum protection of America's cultural resources,
specifically historic buildings and properties, it is useful to identify four major
preservation design topics for the Whole Building Design Guide:
San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant
features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.
192
• Apply the Preservation Process Successfully—The preservation process involves

five basic steps: Identify, Investigate, Develop, Execute, and Educate. Successful
preservation design requires early and frequent consultation with a variety of
organizations and close collaboration among technical specialists, architects,
owner/occupants, and preservation professionals.
• Update Building Systems Appropriately—Updating building systems in historic
structures requires striking a balance between retaining original building features
and accommodating new technologies and equipment. Building system updates
require creativity to respect the original design and materials while meeting
applicable codes and tenant needs.
• Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs—The accommodation of new
functions, changes in technology, and improved standards of protection provide
challenges to the reuse of historic buildings and sites. Designers must address life
safety, seismic, and security issues in innovative ways that preserve historic sites,
spaces and features.
• Comply with Accessibility Requirements—Accessibility and historic preservation
strategies sometimes conflict with each other. Designers must provide access for
persons with disabilities while meeting preservation goals.

Federal Mandates
• 36 CFR 67, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation

• 36 CFR 68, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic
Properties
• 36 CFR 61, Professional Qualifications for Historic Projects
• 48 FR 22716, The Secretary of the Interior's Professional Qualification Standards,
Sep 1983
• Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment
(1971)
• Executive Order 13006, Locating Federal Agencies in Historic Buildings in
Historic Districts in Our Central Cities
• Executive Order 13287, Preserve America
• National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966
• Section 110
For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here
• Cultural Resource Management Guideline, NPS-28

• Guidelines for Federal Agency Responsibilities, Under Section 110 of the
National Historic Preservation Act
193
• The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and
Historic Preservation (As amended and annotated by the National Park Service)
Major Resources
WBDG
Federal Agencies

• DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program (3 May 96) (PDF
200 KB, 45 pgs)
• Department of Defense Conservation Program
• AR 200-4 Cultural Resources Management (Oct 97)
• Center of Expertise for the Preservation of Historic Buildings and Structures
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Tribal Affairs and Initiatives
• U.S. Army Environmental Center—Cultural Resources
• Department of the Navy:
• Naval Facilities Engineering Command
• Historic and Archaeological Resources Protection Planning Guidelines, January
1997.
• SECNAV 4000.35A Department of the Navy Cultural Resources Program (9 Apr
01) (PDF 120 KB, 17 pgs)
• U.S. Air Force:
• Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence—Cultural Resources
• Air Force Instruction 32-7065 Cultural Resources Management Program (1 June
2004.) (PDF 707 KB, 39 pgs)
• Department of Veterans Affairs:
• Office of Facilities Management—Historic Preservation
• Heritage Preservation Services
• National Register of Historic Places
• U.S. General Services Administration—Historic Preservation
• Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP)

• National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers (NCSHPO)
• National Trust for Historic Preservation
• National Preservation Institute
• Smithsonian Institution
• Architectural History and Historic Preservation Division
194
• Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations
Publications
• Federal Historic Preservation Laws National Park Service.
Other
• PreservationDirectory.com—an online resource for historic preservation, building

restoration and cultural resource management in the United States & Canada.
Apply the Preservation Process

Successfully
Overview
Work on historic buildings, landscapes, archaeological sites, or other cultural resources,
requires knowledge of a unique process of compliance and review. This process differs
from work on existing buildings or on new construction and should be considered in
concert with other project goals requiring close collaboration between preservationists
and design disciplines. To ensure a balanced, economically viable, and preservation-
sensitive project, the outline below should be followed.
A. Initial Project Planning Stage
Determining What Makes a Building Historic and Who Makes this

Determination
In the United States, a property—either public or private—is considered historic if it

meets a set of criteria established by the National Register of Historic Places, a division
of the National Park Service that lists cultural resources worthy of preservation. The
nomination process is initiated by a property owner and/or interested citizen in
collaboration with the following entities (these entities also determine if a property is
eligible for listing): State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs) for properties in their
state, Federal Preservation Officers (FPO) for properties under federal ownership or
control, and Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPO) for properties on tribal lands or
with tribal interests. These organizations process the nominations and then forward them
to the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, DC for final approval.
195
Eligibility for listing in the National Register is based on a set of criteria, which are used
by those involved in the decision making process on local, state and federal levels. There
are also local and state registers who evaluate their resources in a similar manner.
A general threshold for eligibility in the National Register, or state or local registers, is
that the property be at least 50 years old, although there are exceptions to this rule. The
four principal eligibility criteria are:
A. Resources that are associated with the events that have made a significant
contribution to the broad patterns of historic; or
B. Resources that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or
C. Resources that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method
of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic
values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose
components may lack individual distinction; or
D. Resources that have yield or may be likely to yield information important in
prehistoric or history.
Monticello, Charlottesville, VA, Thomas Jefferson, 1768 to 1782.

Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, John
Collier Photographer. Reproduction number, e.g., LC-USF35-1326
Eligible properties that meet these criteria and successfully complete the formal
nomination process are then "listed" in national, state, and/or local registers. Buildings
are either located within the boundaries of a designated "historic district", or are
"individually listed" for their architectural and/or historical merit. A listed building may
also become eligible for tax credits and other financial incentives.
A completed register nomination form may be a valuable source of information on a

building's (or other resource's) history. Nominations are generally available through State
Historic Preservation Offices, or through the National Register of Historic Places.
Conduct Investigation and Research
Completing a state and/or national historic register nomination requires general

knowledge of the resource type being considered (building, landscape, archaeological
site), which necessitates investigation and historical research requiring qualified
preservation professionals. Procuring qualified preservation professionals can make the
196
process more efficient. (Refer to section on Form a Qualified and Experienced Project
Team in Section B below.) There may also be regulations, guidelines, and applicable
codes that must be followed. Preparing a nomination should be done in consultation with
the consulting agencies (State Historic Preservation Office, the Federal Preservation
Office, and the Tribal Historic Preservation Office) to make certain all requirements are
met. Nominations for federal properties in certain historic districts must also be reviewed
by the local historic preservation commission.
Understand the History of a Property
For the long-term preservation of a historic property, it is very important to understand its
history before any construction begins. Consider the following:
• When was it built?

• With what materials and methods was it built?
• Who was the architect or designer?
• What are its architectural characteristics or features?
o Are these features unique in some way?
• What is their condition and will they be lost if not repaired in a timely manner?
• Are original drawings or other planning documents for a building still available?
• Has the building changed over time? If so, how?
Gamble House, Pasadena, CA, Greene and Greene, 1909.

(Courtesy of National Park Service)
Archival research to verify the original appearance of the building and site is helpful in
establishing preservation priorities and in preparing treatment alternatives.
An excellent planning tool for successfully completing a project for any historic resource
is to develop a Preservation Management Plan. This document records a resource's
history, why it is significant, what are the most important features to preserve if work is
completed. The plan delineates which areas require special protection or which areas first
merit rehabilitation. The preservation management plan guides future maintenance,
repairs, and alterations. Some also provide detailed guidance for rehabilitation or
adaptive use.
The following are sources to aid in archival research concerning the property:
197
National Sources
• American Association of State & Local History

• American Historical Association
• Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)—for architectural drawings
• Historic Americal Engineering Record (HAER)—for architectural drawings
• Library of Congress
• National Archives
• National Register of Historic Places—National Register Research
State Sources
• State Historic Preservation Offices

• State Nonprofit Preservation Alliances
• State archives, newspapers, historical societies, libraries, and genealogical
societies
Local Sources
• Local preservation commissions, archives, newspapers, historical societies,

libraries
Determine the Regulation, Guidelines, and Standards That Affect the

Proposed Work
When work is proposed for a historic property, compliance involving a variety of public
agencies may be required. Compliance with federal preservation laws is mandatory if the
property is using federal funds, leases, grants, permits, or licenses (even if the historic
resource is privately owned), is on federal land, or is under the jurisdiction of the federal
government. To save time and money, determine ahead of time who must review the
preservation project and learn what is required for approval (at all governmental levels).
Section 106 and Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act
Section 106, 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties: Section 106 regulations
require that the head of any federal agency "prior to the approval of the expenditure of
any federal funds on the [construction] undertaking … take into account the effect of the
undertaking on any [historic] district, site, building, structure, or object". Or, more
simply, if federal funds are used to do work on an individual property, then studies must
be conducted to determine the potential effect of the work on the property. If any historic
or cultural resource (building, land, structure, object, or feature) will be adversely
affected by the work, then mitigation and/or remedial plans must be made, as well as a
plan to suitably document any resource to be lost. The Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation establishes policy on this process.
198
Section 110: Section 110 regulations require that each federal agency establish and
maintain a "preservation program for the identification, evaluation, and nomination to the
National Register of Historic Places, and protection of historic properties" for all
properties owned by or under the jurisdiction of the agency, thus providing responsible
management of current and future historic properties under their care.
For more information on compliance with Section 106 and Section 110, refer to the
following:
• The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation

• Federal Preservation Officers (FPO)—For projects affiliated with an agency of
the federal government
• State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPO)
• Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPO)—For projects affiliated with a
property located on or owned by a Sovereign Tribe recognized by the United
States federal government
Legal Agreements
Sometimes there are historic easements, covenants, mechanisms of title transfer, or other
legal agreements placed on historic properties that can restrict work undertaken.
For more information on easements, refer to the following:
• The Conservation Easement Handbook: Managing Land Conservation and

Historic Preservation Easement Programs by Janet Diehl and Thomas S. Barrett.
Land Trust Alliance.
• Façade Easements
• Preservation Easements—An Important Legal Tool for the Preservation of
Historic Places
• What is a Historic Preservation Easement?
There are also binding commitments that federal agencies make with specific regulators
that must be taken into consideration. These arrangements are established to protect
significant historic, archeological, or cultural resources, and to ensure that the property's
intrinsic values will be preserved for future generations through subsequent ownership.
Local Compliance
For information on compliance to local regulations, refer to the following:
• Certified Local Governments

• Historic Preservation Review Boards (contact local historic or preservation
society, permitting board, or county clerk)
• National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA)
199
Codes Compliance—Building Codes and Historic Buildings
Until recently, building codes were generally written exclusively for new construction
with few provisions made for historic buildings and their unique requirements. New
codes are now being developed for older structures on local, state, and national levels.
These include those listed in the Codes & Standards.
Additionally, significant older buildings often qualify for zone or code variances if
provisions are not explicitly made for historic buildings in the state or local code. Federal
Agencies must adhere to other mandates, such as those listed in the WBDG
Mandates/Reference section. Federal employees embarking upon a project involving a
historic building in addition to checking with the agency's Federal Preservation Officer
(FPO), should check with their environmental compliance office, preservation office,
and/or facilities division for immediate requirements that must be adhered to.
Identify the Character-Defining Features of the Historic Property
U.S. Capitol
Courtesy of Architect of the Capitol
The terms "character-defining" or "architectural character" refer to all those distinctive

elements and physical features that comprise the appearance of every historic building.
Character-defining aspects of a historic building include its massing, materials, features,
craftsmanship, decorative details, interior spaces and features, as well its site and
environment.
Consider the following in identifying the character defining features of the historic
property:
• Site
o Setting, landscape features, district, or neighborhood
• Plan
o Spatial definition and volume
• Envelope
o Roof profile
o Window and door pattern
o Elements and assemblies
200
o Envelope materials
• Finishes
o Interior materials
o Color and texture
o Decoration (ornamentation and artwork)
o Fixtures and furnishings
Following are recommended sources to aid in the investigation and to help identify a
building's most salient features:
• National Park Service: Preservation Brief 17—Architectural Character:

Identifying the Visual Aspects of Historic Buildings as an Aid to Preserving Their
Character
• National Park Service: The Walk Through—Identifying the Visual Character of
Historic Buildings
• National Park Service: The Good Guides—A group of websites developed by the
National Park Service to help people new to the preservation field understand how
to care for historic buildings.
• National Park Service: The Illustrated Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic
Buildings—the online version of the book. The print version is available through
the Government Printing Office.
• National Park Service: A Checklist for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings
Fit the Program to the Historic Building
This former rail station depot was converted to a hotel with reception areas. This program
fit the extant building well.
Courtesy of National Park Service.
The goal of preservation is to protect the historic integrity of an individual building and
its surroundings. Once the important features of a property are identified, their protection
is a priority. The design process should respect and respond to the historic features.
201
Consider the following:
• Will the building's proposed new use compromise its integrity?

• Can the design include provisions for protecting the property from the wear and
tear associated with active use?
• What should tenant do to ensure long-term protection of the resource?
• Does it involve removing too much of the original architectural materials,
changing the plan, or adding an addition that will adversely affect the historic
construction?
• Are there alternative approaches that will save more historic fabric?
• Is it feasible to adapt this property to meet the programmatic needs?
• Is it possible to satisfy federal, state, and local regulations and compliance that
deal with historic preservation?
Instead of demolishing the former train shed, it was converted into an indoor ice arena.
This program fit the extant building well.
Courtesy of National Park Service; Photo of indoor ice arena: Audrey Tepper
For more information, click here.
B. Planning Stage
Form a Qualified and Experienced Project Team
A historic property's architectural integrity and successful long-term preservation rest on

decisions made throughout the entire design and construction process. Therefore,
assembling an experienced, competent project team is extremely important. The selected
preservation professionals should have experience working on similar historic
preservation projects (e.g., the same building type or property), and understanding their
unique requirements.
Historic building surveys, planning documents, and technical studies concerning repair
and alteration of historic material and spaces should be prepared only by firms and
individuals meeting, at a minimum, Department of Interior qualification standards for the
applicable preservation professions. This should also be done in accordance with the
Secretary's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. These individuals include
202
but are not limited to architectural conservators, architectural historians, preservation

architects, preservation engineers, and other allied preservation professionals.
Some agencies have developed criteria and procedures for evaluating the competency of
preservation professionals and construction contractors.
There are many sources for finding good expertise in historic preservation, including:
• Federal Preservation Officer (FPO)—For Federal Agencies. Some agencies also

have preservation professionals on staff or on contract.
• GSA Preservation Professionals
• Construction Contractors
• State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO)—SHPOs often have lists of
individuals with this type of experience.
• How to Find Preservation Professionals
Develop Individual Preservation Management Plans
Continuing the preservation process with sound preservation planning is the next course
of action. Prior to construction, it is essential to create a planning document outlining the
significance of a historic building, documenting the qualities and elements that contribute
to its historic character, establishing preservation priorities, and addressing how the
building is to be treated. This type of plan is often called a "preservation management
plan" or "Historic Structures Report." In government agencies, this type of document may
also be referred to as an Integrated Cultural Resource Management Plan (ICRMP) and
Building Preservation Plan (BPP). In addition, a "Cultural Landscape Report or
Inventory" may also need to be prepared.
For additional information on preservation management plans, click here.
Federal regulation requires development of individual preservation management plans if

the property is federally owned or uses federal funds. The plan can take many forms, but
MUST include the following types of information:
• Key Historical Information (when, who, what, where)

o Archival Research (including historic drawings and photographs if
available)
• Site Survey Information
• Statement of Significance
• Identification of Character Defining Features
• Documentation of Existing Conditions
o Captioned and Mapped Photos of Existing Conditions (interior and
exterior)
o Description of Existing Physical Conditions (on the interior and exterior)
• Materials Analyses
o Overall Conditions Assessment
203
o Structural Analysis
o Fabric Analysis, Including Paint Analysis; Masonry
• Recommendations for Appropriate Treatments
• Future Compliance Requirements (where applicable as required by law)
The following types of information may be included in a preservation management plan

or Historic Structures Report:
• Disaster Mitigation/Management Plan

• Preservation Maintenance Plan
• Establishment of Preservation Zones
• Design Concept (for preservation, rehabilitation, and restoration of building)
• Feasibility Study for Reuse of Building
• Narrative History of Use (construction campaigns, alterations, and additions)
• Description as Built
• Project Scope of Work and Specifications
• Structural Analysis
• Life-Cycle Analysis
Plan Suitable Spaces for Program Needs
This late 19th century hotel ballroom conversion into a parking garage is not a suitable
use or program for this type of highly articulated finished space.
Courtesy of National Park Service
Preservation management plans identify character-defining qualities and establish

preservation priorities for matching program functions to specific buildings or spaces.
The goal is to make the best possible use of existing historic features, minimizing the
need for interventions that might compromise the historic character of the building or
site. Comprehensive planning is encouraged so that all changes, large or small, are part of
a well-integrated building plan, as opposed to piecemeal alterations undertaken without
regard to long-term effects.
Preservation zoning establishes a hierarchy based on architectural merit, historic

significance, and historic integrity, or the extent to which original materials and design
remain intact. These zone categories are then correlated to appropriate levels of
treatment, in accordance with the Secretary of the Interior's Standards. The proportion of
204
zones dictating a stricter vs. more lenient design approach is unique to each building. In
some buildings, every space is highly significant and all changes must be taken with great
care, under the guidance of an experienced preservation professional or team. Other
buildings can accommodate greater change while still maintaining their historic
character.
Buildings well matched to their tenants and functions require very little change.
Whenever changing building occupancy or functions, seek uses and tenants suited to the
building. Suitable uses are functions that minimize the need to alter character-defining
features or spaces. The less modification required by the proposed program, the more
suitable the program.
Accommodating new functions demands ingenuity. The success of which rests, to a great
extent, upon the ability to successfully integrate old and new so that the property retains
its historic character and the parts still relate to the whole.
In addressing changing space requirements, first consider options that enable the historic
building to continue serving the function for which it was originally constructed. When
the historic function is no longer viable, feasibility studies are undertaken to assess the
financial and practical achievability of treatment options.
C. Design Development Stage
Design to Minimize Changes to Historic Property
Federal Courthouse, Scranton, PA. Adding an adjoining or freestanding annex has

enabled many federal courts to remain in historic courthouse buildings, allowing
continued public access to ceremonial courtrooms.
The underlying philosophy behind any preservation project is to keep to a minimum the
proposed changes to a historic property. For its long-term protection, the historic property
must always come first. Therefore, any changes should play a secondary role to the
historic property and new work must not dictate what occurs on site. The role of the
preservation design team or specialist is to help ensure that these changes contribute to,
rather than detract from, a building's historic character and design unity.
If a historic property is on federal land or using federal funds and changes are proposed,
the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) in which the property is located must be
205
consulted to comply with Section 106. The Secretary of the Interior's Standards provide
the framework for responsible preservation design. Technical guidance is available to
help resolve common preservation challenges.
For more detailed design guidance, refer to the following WBDG pages:
• Update Building Systems Appropriately

• Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs
• Comply with Accessibility Requirements
Select Competent and Qualified Contractors
Similar to the selection of the project team, the construction team should consist of
qualified contractors and subcontractors with experience working on similar historic
properties. Select contractors early enough to include them in developing solutions that
meet the project goals (where the contract process so permits).
GSA has developed contract language and evaluation criteria to verify the competency of
architectural and engineering firms, as well as, construction contractors that propose to
work on historic buildings. GSA's preservation project management online guidance also
includes a model scope of services for architectural and engineering design work
involving historic buildings. For more information, visit the GSA Historic Buildings
website.
D. Construction Stage
Provide Temporary Protection
Construction activity during the course of a project can damage historic resources.
Therefore, providing temporary protection of a building or site during this time should be
incorporated in planning and construction documents. On-site supervision with regular
inspections ensures that historic fabric is not at risk. For additional information on
temporary protection see the National Park Service TechNote section on Temporary
Protection.
Ensure Fire Safety During Construction
Many historic buildings are destroyed as a result of fires during construction. Fire-safe
clean-up, including removal of flammable solvents and rags and debris, is critical. Fire
suppression systems must be maintained and augmented when appropriate. Leave
pathways to exits clear, and ensure that fire doors remain closed. Additional supervision
may be required while high risk construction activities are underway.
206
Educate Workers and Public on Significance of Historic Property
Educating everyone involved in the project—from the property owner, to the consultants
(architectural, structural, mechanical, plumbing, electrical, civil), to the contractors and
laborers, and to the eventual property users—about why the property is worthy of
preservation is vitally important. The better informed one is the more likely one is to treat
the property with care.
Regular on-site supervision and good communication between the preservation team and
the construction team can protect a historic building while construction is underway.
Sometimes features worthy of preservation are uncovered as work progresses and this can
ensure these and other important elements are not compromised.
Wayside signs or exhibits describing construction/preservation work can generate interest

in the project while building good will among tenants and visitors who are
inconvenienced by construction. The costs of these installations can be offset by reduced
effort required to respond to questions and complaints.
Develop Building Maintenance Manual
For the long-term protection of a historic resource, operational guidelines should be

developed for not only tenants, but also for the building staff. These guidelines should
provide:
• Documentation on building systems

• Facilities management programs to record important information on the operation
of a building or property
• Schedules for cyclical maintenance and custodial procedures
• Schedules for regular inspections of important features
E. Occupancy Stage
Modify Leasing Agreements and Provisions
Tenants must know what they can and cannot do prior to leasing. This type of
information may be included in leasing documents and through the development of tenant
guidelines.
Historic properties must also be protected when tenants move in or relocate to a property.
Transporting furniture and office equipment can often cause damage unless care is taken
to protect important features during increased levels of activity. Once again,
accommodations for temporary protection should be made early on in the planning
process and in construction documents.
Leases should also include procedural guidance for Section106 compliance when
alterations are unavoidable.
207
Develop Special Events Policies
Historic properties are often used for special events (e.g., exhibitions, exceptions, parties,
demonstrations, etc.). These activities increase the wear and tear on a property and can
damage an historic resource. Temporary protection of the architectural fabric and
landscapes when equipment is moved in and out, and when the space is being used,
should be provided. The following actions are recommended to minimize the effects of
special events on the historic property:
• Confer with code officials to determine the types of activities that are appropriate
for the space. Develop specific special events guidelines, noting that some
activities are inappropriate for the property.
• Establish a permitting process when public or private buildings are leased for uses
beyond their usual function, such as using a museum for a social event.
• Establish that lessees should submit in advance how they propose to use a historic
property; some activities may be inappropriate.
• Determine beforehand who is responsible for protection and incidental damage as
a result of leasing out a space. Consider mandatory security deposits.
• Ensure that the property (or lessee) is adequately insured to cover any damage.
• Ensure that appropriate on-site supervision is present throughout the event and
clean-up.
Update Individual Preservation Management Plans
Technical guidance provided in the preservation management plans and other

preservation plans should be periodically updated to ensure that the plans reflect current
conditions. Updating also ensures that recommendations take into account technical
advancements in treatment technologies that may have occurred since the plan was
initially created. Updates should be undertaken by a specialist firm meeting the
Department of Interior qualification standards, preferably by the firm who prepared the
original plan.

Federal Mandates
• 16 U.S.C. 470 et seq. National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended

through 1992
• Section 110
• National Historic Landmark Designation

• National Park Service, Caring for Your Historic Building
208
• Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Treatment of Historic Properties

• National Register Nomination Process
• Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes
• Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Buildings
• Standards and Guidelines also exist for: archaeology, maritime resources, and
other cultural resources
Federal
• General Services Administration Historic Preservation Technical Procedures
State/Local
• Contact your State Historic Preservation Officer
Codes
• 1997 Uniform Code for Building Conservation

• 2001 Maryland Building Rehabilitation Code
• 2003 International Building Code
• California Historic Building Code (2001)
• HUD's Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies
• Massachusetts Building Code Section 780 CMR 3409.0 (2000)—Historic
Building exceptions
• New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code (1999)
• Uniform Code for Building Conservation by International Code Council.
• International Conference of Building Officials, 1997.
• Refer also to Section A. of this page Determine the Regulations, Guidelines, and
Applicable Codes That Will Affect the Proposed Work
• Vermont Department of Labor and Industry's Fire Prevention and Building Code
Compliance for Historic Buildings: A Field Guide
Major Resources
WBDG
Publications
General
• For more information about the preservation field in the United States please see
the ICOMOS Document, A Brief Overview of Preservation in the USA
209
• Conservation of Historic Buildings, Third Edition (Conservation of Historic

Buildings) by Bernard Feilden. Architectural Press: July 2003.
• National Park Service, National Register Bulletins and Brochures
• Note #1: Eight Guiding Principles in the Conservation of Historic Properties
Architectural Conservation Notes. Ontario Ministry of Citizenship, Culture, and
Recreation.
Codes
• Building Codes for Heritage Buildings Heritage Society of British Columbia—

Examples of historic building codes and some code exceptions.
• Smart Codes: A New Approach to Building Codes by Elizabeth G. Pianca. Forum
News: May/June 2001, Vol.7, No. 5.
Technical Guidance
• Association for Preservation Technology International (APTI) Bulletin

• Conservation of Historic Buildings, Third Edition by Bernard Feilden. Boston,
MA: Architectural Press, 2003.
• Conserving Buildings: Guide to Techniques and Materials, Revised Edition.
Martin E. Weaver. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.
• Cultural Landscapes Charrette Background Paper
• English Heritage Publications
• GSA Preservation Note Series
• Historic Scotland Technical Publications
• National Park Service National Center for Preservation Technology and Training
(NCPTT)
• National Park Service, Preservation Brief Series
Investigation
• House Histories: A Guide to Tracing the Genealogy of Your Home by Sally Light
and Margaret Eberle (Illustrator). Golden Hill Press, September 1989.
• Preservation Brief 35—Understanding Old Buildings: The Process of
Architectural Investigation by Travis C. McDonald, Jr. National Park Service,
1994.
• Specifying Buildings, A Design Management Perspective by Stephen Emmitt and
David T. Yeomans. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
Preservation Management Plans
• The Conservation Easement Handbook: Managing Land Conservation and

Historic Preservation Easement Programs by Diehl, Janet, Barrett, Thomas S.
Land Trust Alliance.
• CRM (Cultural Resources Management Bulletin) Issue 1984 7-01, Page 15:
Historic Structures Report (PDF 94 KB, 29 pgs) by Frances Joan Mathien.
210
• A Historic Structure Report Symposium Proceedings by Lonnie J. Hovey. The

American Institute of Architects Press, October 1996.
• House Histories: A Guide to Tracing the Genealogy of Your Home. Sally Light,
Margaret Eberle (Illustrator). Golden Hill Press, September 1989.
• Preservation Plan for the Cruiser Olympia—Example of an individualized
preservation plan
• Specifying Buildings, A Design Management Perspective, Stephen Emmitt,
David T. Yeomans. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
• What is Preservation Planning? (As it pertains to collections.) Sherelyn Ogden.
Northeast Document Conservation Center.
Special Events Policies
• The Lincoln Memorial: Guidelines for Special Events and Demonstration,

December 1996 by National Park Service, National Capital Parks-Central
(NACC). Washington, DC, December 1996.—available through the National Park
Service, Lincoln Memorial Park or National Capital Region Office.
• Understanding Old Buildings; The Process of Architectural Investigation.
Preservation Brief 35 by Travis C. McDonald, Jr. National Park Service, 1994.
Training
• Advisory Council for Historic Preservation 106 Training

• National Council for Preservation Education
• National Preservation Institute, Historic Structures Reports: A Management Tool
for Historic Properties—Seminar
• National Preservation Institute, Preservation Maintenance: Understanding and
Preserving Historic Buildings—Seminar
Update Building Systems Appropriately

Overview
For many historic structures, "building systems" are new additions that must be
incorporated with as much sensitivity to the original fabric as possible. However, more
recently constructed buildings, such as early 20th century commercial buildings, may
contain early systems that may be historic themselves and can be reused. For example,
decorative ventilation grilles and switch plates may contribute to a building's significance
as much as marble wainscoting or decorative stenciling.
211
Careful planning is required to balance preservation objectives with interior systems,

such as HVAC, electrical, plumbing, structural systems, information and communication
technologies, and conveyance systems. Since new mechanical and other related systems,
such as electrical and fire suppression, can use up to 10% of a building's square footage
and 30%-40% of an overall rehabilitation budget, decisions must be made in a systematic
and coordinated manner. While it might not be always possible to completely conceal the
presence of new technology, it may be possible to lessen the impact on a building's
integrity and retain as much of the original building fabric as possible.
Changes—both big and small—can have a significant cumulative impact over time. Care
must be taken during initial project design and periodic upgrades to avoid the incremental
loss of integrity. Following are four basic principles to keep in mind when upgrading
systems in historic properties:
• Sympathetic Upgrades: Building systems upgrades should be sympathetic to the

architect's specific design intent, e.g., utilitarian spaces vs. highly finished spaces.
• Reversibility: Building systems upgrades should be installed to avoid damage to
—or to be removable without further damaging—character-defining features
and/or finishes.
• Retention of Historic Fabric: 'Work around' the historic fabric as much as
possible. The basic mind-set prescribes forethought and respect for historic
materials. For example, design systems efficiently enough to fit into existing
openings or be accessible off site.
• Life-Cycle Benefit: Long-term preservation emphasizes life-cycle benefits of
reusing historic properties and planning for changing needs. As such, consider the
following:
o Minimize intrusions and long-term impact on historic materials as future
repairs and replacements are made.
o Complex systems will require more maintenance to perform properly.
o Explore alternatives that will allow the reuse of existing system elements,
e.g., reuse ducts to avoid replacement costs.
o Design zone systems that will allow repairs to be done without disrupting
the entire building.
o Take advantage of financial benefits of historic properties, such as special
use rental or increased rental rates, of restoring lobbies and other
significant spaces previously altered.
Early Planning
During the initial design phase, preservation zones are defined within the individual
preservation management plan, giving a hierarchy of significance to the building's spaces
and features (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary spaces). An understanding of the
building's most important spaces and features is critical to evaluating preservation trade-
offs and preserving character-defining qualities. It is better to install new equipment in
secondary or tertiary spaces, and avoid or minimize intrusions in primary architectural
spaces. Basements and attics are usually good locations for horizontal routing of systems;
212
existing chases such as fireplaces, flues, and utility closets are good for vertical routing of
systems; and use existing penetrations and chases to the greatest extent possible. Be
aware that some basements may contain valuable archeological sites that should not be
disturbed. Also, janitorial closets can be good locations for electrical equipment. Where
possible, use this opportunity to improve on the placement and function of a building's
systems so as to emphasize the building's integrity.
Recommendations
A. HVAC—Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning
Installation of a dropped ceiling in a historically significant room. Notice the detrimental

affects to both the scale and windows of the room.
Photo courtesy National Park Service
Choose a system and/or equipment that is appropriate for the use of the building. For
instance, a museum has different climatic needs than an office building.
General
• Retain original architectural configurations, surfaces, and finishes, such as vaulted

and ornamental ceilings, pilasters, and capitals.
• Retain any existing historically significant features, such as original registers,
radiators, escutcheons, radiator enclosures, etc., by reusing existing ductwork,
vents/air intakes, and janitorial closets.
• If disturbance is unavoidable, the replacement should match the design, color,
texture, and materials of the original.
• Match the finished appearance of the space to the original.
• Ensure that the addition of HVAC systems and other repairs will not corrupt the
building's structural integrity.
213
Distribution System
Ductwork retrofit. The insensitively installed ductwork detracts from the hallway's scale
and obscures the transoms.
• Avoid the need for new ductwork, especially in lobbies, corridors, and other
circulation spaces, by examining ductless alternatives such as split systems and
pipe systems with reuse of existing ducts for ventilation.
• If new ductwork is unavoidable, disturb as little original fabric as possible and
minimize the visual impact.
o Avoid reconfiguring ceilings (e.g. suspended ceilings) to accommodate air
distribution.
o Install in attic or basements first. If service areas are not available,
carefully place in secondary areas, never in primary spaces, away from
window heads.
o Retain full window height so that exterior appearance is unaltered.
o Configure ceilings to avoid obscuring the full height of windows and
interior or exterior transoms.
o Retain decorative millwork and other character-defining features. Rather
than puncturing decorative elements, move the position of the ductwork.
o Configure ductwork to be as flat as possible and to avoid disrupting the
symmetry of the space. Explore zoning using multiple, smaller ducts,
rather than a single, larger profile duct system.
o Avoid running ductwork along or across corridors.
o Where appropriate, step, slope or pocket out the ceiling with sufficient
depth to retain the original appearance of a full, unobscured window from
the exterior.
o In some cases, exposed ductwork may be appropriate, such as in industrial
or other utilitarian buildings, or spaces with vaulted or other decorative
ceilings that would otherwise have to be obscured.
214
Left: A good example of ductwork installation does not obscure windows or

transoms. And Right: A bad example of ductwork installation obscures either windows
or transoms or both.
Photos courtesy National Park Service
Building Envelope
• Retain window operability; install locks and/or stops if required to control tenant
use.
• Use operable windows for natural ventilation during temperate spring and fall
months whenever possible.
o Use weather stripping and insulating doors and windows, instead of
replacing or sealing windows.
• Consider the architect's original energy conservation methods, such as operable
windows, porches, overhangs, etc. Incorporate these features into the overall
energy conservation plan.
o Are weather stripping and storm windows appropriate?
• Retain original ventilation systems, (e.g. attic vents, crawl space, and airflow
patterns).
• Carefully consider insulation options; ensure that the chosen method/materials
will not create condensation in a building's interior.
• Consider the appropriateness of moisture vapor barriers; if chosen, install them
with sensitivity to the historic fabric.
• Maintain good breathability/permeability of the envelope; be mindful of the
original structure's inherent tolerance to moisture.
Equipment
• Install air handlers and other equipment in locations that will least affect building
occupants and activities (e.g. vibration and noise).
• Install wall or ceiling mounted equipment in secondary or tertiary spaces.
• Locate any exterior building equipment adjacent to a secondary or tertiary façade
or landscape, rather than the primary façade or landscape.
o Landscaping is a low cost method of camouflaging new HVAC
equipment.
215
o Remotely locating new equipment may be necessary if there are

archeological or historic landscape features immediately adjacent to a
building.
• Hide roof-mounted equipment from the street or other obvious vantage points (a
site study can indicate good locations).
• A detailed discussion of installing HVAC equipment in historic buildings can be
found in Preservation Brief 24: Heating, Ventilating, and Cooling Historic
Buildings Problems and Recommended Approaches.
B. Information and Communication Technology
Information technology systems are complex and constantly changing. These systems
have exponentially increased the need for easily accessible wiring raceways. Today's
modern office buildings incorporate raised floors that allow easy access to wiring
systems. Although not appropriate for all buildings and spaces, in some historic buildings
this approach can enable retention of ornamental ceilings and features:
• Consider wireless solutions.

• Reuse existing conduit and wiring chases to the greatest extent possible.
• For small and/or highly significant buildings, consider locating computer servers
off-site.
• Design for flexibility of layout.
• Install computer and IT wiring that can easily be reversed.
• Ensure that the wiring and associated equipment are easily accessible so that they
may be periodically replaced and updated.
• Ensure that the addition of information and communication technologies and
other repairs will not corrupt the building's structural integrity.
Computer Rooms
• Locate servers in appropriate climate-controlled tertiary spaces that minimize

intrusion, such as basements or existing windowless rooms.
• Avoid altering doors and windows for climate control.
• Use existing vertical chases to run IT cables.
• For security, retrofit existing doors in a reversible and compatible manner instead
of replacing them.
Wiring Distribution
• Retain decorative millwork and other character-defining features.

• Avoid obscuring or altering decorative cornice and other character-defining
features.
• For ornamental spaces, consider raceways hidden by historic cornices and
mouldings.
• Do not install exposed wiring systems.
216
• Create a maintenance plan with strict standards for installation of new wiring and
equipment. Ensure that copies of wiring diagrams are available to building
managers and external locations.
• Design for flexibility and expansion.
• Do not drill marble, parquet, terrazzo, and other finished flooring. If unavoidable,
drill in corners to minimize impacts and run wiring along baseboards.
• Select high-quality, highest speed, and smallest size cabling to minimize the need
for future intrusive replacements, especially in ornamentally significant spaces.
C. Lighting/Electrical
Historic lighting levels may not be appropriate for current or planned use of a historic
building and the installation of new lighting systems may be necessary. The lighting
levels and equipment should be appropriate to the building's current or planned use while
respecting the original fabric.
Interior Lighting
Preserve and reuse historically significant light fixtures. This rehabilitation project reused
the architect's original lighting scheme and extant fixtures.
• Retain as much original fabric as possible when installing new systems (i.e., do
not needlessly puncture a decorative plaster ceiling or molding, when it may be as
feasible to relocate a fixture or junction box).
• Retrofit existing light fixtures with reflectors to increase light output.
• Conserve and rewire existing fixtures and accessories. Even if original fixtures
will not be electrified and/or used, they should be retained and preserved in situ.
• If original fixtures cannot produce the amount of light required, use alternate light
sources from removable fixtures, such as task lighting and torchiéres.
Inconspicuous sconces or unobtrusive perimeter ceiling lighting are preferable to
eye-catching modern fixtures.
• Retain and reuse original, character defining switch plates and other accessories.
• Use existing electrical chases.
o Install new chases within or behind walls or vertically in secondary or
tertiary spaces.
217
• If using historically sensitive replacements that are wired for modern energy loads
and light output.
o Replicas of original lighting fixtures can be designed to accommodate
energy efficiency and multiple light sources.
• Incorporate the original light color in new lighting plans.
• Ensure that the addition of interior lighting systems and other repairs will not
corrupt the building's structural integrity.
Left: Before—A dropped ceiling drastically affects the architect's original intent and
grand scale of this space. Right: After—The removal of the dropped ceiling restored the
architect's intent and has a much more pleasing and commercially desirable impact.
Exterior Lighting
• Consider landscape features when designing exterior lighting schemes; outside

lighting will have implications on landscape design.
• Consider security and accessibility requirements.
• Mount on existing poles or structures.
• Install in non-intrusive areas and use it to highlight historic features of a building.
• Use accent lighting as an effective way to highlight architectural features.
o Use gentle, raking light rather than large spotlights. Do not flood fa…ades
with excessive light.
• If installing exterior lighting features, such as light poles or lower light sources,
choose historically appropriate options.
• Ensure that the addition of exterior lighting systems and other repairs will not
corrupt the building's structural integrity.
D. Plumbing
218
Some plumbing elements such as this radiator are historic.

Prior to initiating a plumbing upgrade, it is important to ascertain whether these

traditionally utilitarian spaces are in fact historic and must be preserved. If they are not
historic, then rehabilitate them with sensitivity to the surrounding historic building
materials, finishes, and features. However, if plumbing elements are historic, then take
care to preserve them:
• Retain and preserve historically significant configuration, layout, and plumbing

elements, such as bathroom and kitchen fixtures and features.
• When repairing/replacing existing pipes, do not damage adjacent finish materials,
such as floor and wall tiles.
o If new pipes must be installed and are visible, they should be located
inconspicuously and they should complement adjacent finishes.
• Use existing pipe runs in their original location. Otherwise, install them in closets,
service rooms, and wall cavities.
• Avoid primary fa…ades and rooms if pipes must be affixed to the interior or
exterior of a building.
• Do not cut through character defining features, such as moldings, wainscoting,
etc.
• Ensure that the addition of plumbing systems and other repairs will not corrupt
the building's structural integrity.
E. Conveyance Systems
219
All or part of a conveyance system may be historic. For instance, this elevator cab has
several character defining features, such as exotic wood paneling, elegant moldings, and
metal air vents.
Elevators and escalators may also contribute to a building's historic significance. First
ascertain whether these features are historically significant:
• Reuse existing components to maximum extent possible.

• Retain original fixtures, features, and materials; many historically significant
conveyance systems still retain some, if not all, their original elements,
particularly finish elements. Examples are original, exotic wood veneers within
elevator cabs and bronze and brass switch plates, floor indicators, and handrails.
• Combine code requirements and preservation concerns; often original features can
be slightly modified to meet code requirements.
• Ensure that the addition of conveyance systems and other repairs will not corrupt
the building's structural integrity.
F. Structural
When updating a building's structure, it is preferable to retain and repair as much of the
original structural system as possible. However, it may be necessary to add an entirely
new structural system or to strengthen the existing system with modern innovations. For
instance, a new structural system might be installed to accommodate the larger crowds
associated with a museum; whereas originally, the building housed only a small family.
Also, it's important to note that a structural system itself may be historic and may require
sensitivity when altering or repairing it. The Brooklyn Bridge, for instance, is an example
of a structural system that is inseparable from the aesthetic impact. If structural
intervention is necessary:
• When structural systems have historic architectural significance; develop creative

solutions to meet life/fire safety requirements as well as historic preservation
goals.
• Ascertain whether the building's structure or structural components are integral to
the character-defining features of the building: retain as much of the original
structural form and features as possible.
o Replicate the original structural system, if necessary.
• Plan a use for the building that doesn't necessitate an augmented structural
system.
• Consider the 'physics' of a proposed repair (i.e., will the alteration have the same
thermal expansion coefficient as the existing structural system?).
• Carefully remove, catalogue, and store original adjacent features, finishes, and
details for later re-installation. To access the structural system, it may be
necessary to remove existing finish materials.
• Preserve extant features of historic structural systems, such as post and beam
systems and trusses.
220
• Sensitively reinforce structural systems; sister principle structural components

rather then replace them.
• Document any structural features that are too deteriorated to retain.
• When selectively repairing a structural system, replace missing or deteriorated
materials in-kind; examples include replicating cast iron columns.
o If substitute materials are unavoidable, they should convey the same form,
design, and overall visual appearance as the historic feature.
• Use reversible repair and maintenance methods, for instance, spray in urea-
formaldehyde foam would be inappropriate for a historic structural system.
• Ensure that the addition of building systems and other repairs will not corrupt the
building's structural integrity.
Structural elements are an inherent part of the architect's intent; determine which parts, if
any, of a building's structure are historic and rehabilitate appropriately.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Historic Preservation—Apply the

Preservation Process Successfully, Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and
Security Needs, Productive—Integrate Technological Tools, Productive—Design for the
Changing Workplace
Publications
• Preservation Brief 24: Heating, Ventilating, and Cooling Historic Buildings

Problems and Recommended Approaches National Park Service.
• Structural Analysis of Historic Buildings: Restoration, Preservation, and Adaptive
Reuse Applications for Architects and Engineers by J. Stanley Rabun.
221
• Structural Aspects of Building Conservation (McGraw-Hill International Series in

Civil Engineering) by Poul Beckmann and Robert Bowles. McGraw-Hill Text:
March 1995.
• Structural Repair and Maintenance of Historical Buildings III by C.A. Brebbia
and R.J.B. Frewer (Editor). Computational Mechanics:, May 1993.
Accommodate Life Safety and Security

Needs
Overview
This federal courthouse in Tucson, AZ offers an imaginative solution for vehicle barriers:
a row of lush palm trees. These trees provide a structural barrier and welcome relief from
the desert sun in an otherwise spartan plaza.
Most building projects place a higher priority on the protection of building occupants and
assets than on the preservation of cultural resources. However, it is important to address
the protection of the building's historic spaces, finishes, and collections in the design and
implementation of safety and security measures. Because historic buildings are each a
unique case, cost effective, synergistic, performance solutions developed in a
collaborative environment will produce the best results. See also WBDG Whole Building
Approach.
Designers, facility managers, fire, security and code officials, curators, preservation
officials, and building occupants should be involved early on in the planning and design
process. This allows the project team to look at issues holistically and remain flexible to
the challenges of the historic property.
Recommendations
222
Incorporate Life Safety Codes
The primary codes that address life safety are NFPA 101, Life Safety Code; the
International Building Code; and NFPA 914, Code for Fire Protection of Historic
Structures. NFPA 914 addresses performance approaches and equivalencies for achieving
code compliance. Application of these codes should be done in consultation with code
authorities and preservation experts. A number of states have enacted rehabilitation and
historic building codes that may lessen the alteration of historic material. These codes
address the following issues, depending on type of use:
• Egress: Preserve the primary, main, ceremonial entrance experience. Where

existing stairs cannot be brought into compliance without significantly changing
the character of the spaces, additional means of egress should be carefully located
to preserve significant spaces while providing a minimum of two means of egress.
• Fire and Smoke Separation: Design smoke separation to avoid subdividing or
obscuring significant spaces, such as stairways, corridors, entry areas.
• Fire and Smoke Detection: Early detection of heat and smoke is critical to
extinguishing fires with minimum damage to historic resources. Very early
response/detection systems can eliminate the need for suppression systems. See
also Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General
Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001. This publication
provides guidance on location of detection devices unobtrusively.
• Fire Suppression Systems: The purpose of fire suppression systems is to cover all
surfaces evenly. However, this can result in damage to historic finishes. Evaluate
fire loads to determine appropriate protection. Use computer modeling to identify
high-risk areas. Select and locate fire suppression systems to minimize water and
subsequent mold damage to historic fabric. Alternative suppression systems such
as dry systems (where lines are not filled with water), mist systems, and time
delay with alarms prior to activation, help reduce water damage. Halon systems
may be useful in small, contained areas where high-value, water sensitive
collections are present. Careful and sensitive installation of suppression systems is
critical to the preservation of the character of historic spaces. See the WBDG
Secure/Safe—Plan for Fire Protection.
• Operational Considerations: Include operational and management solutions for
life safety and historic preservation when designing the systems. Ensure that staff
and occupants are trained to respond promptly and summon additional resources
in event of an emergency situation.
Integrate Seismic Upgrades
Increased concern about seismic risk has led to more stringent requirements that can
negatively impact historic buildings. Un-reinforced masonry construction, common to
many historic buildings and structures, is particularly susceptible to damage in seismic
events. The challenge of seismic upgrades in historic buildings is to accommodate
strengthening in ways that do not interfere with the building fa…ade or the volume and
features of significant public spaces. For these reasons the input of qualified structural
223
engineers with knowledge of and experience in preservation of historic buildings is

essential. (Refer also to WBDG Seismic Design Principles). Wherever possible:
Coordinate proposed seismic upgrades with other structural improvements such as

strengthening of buildings to prevent progressive collapse as part of anti-terrorism force
protection measures. (Refer also to WBDG Historic—Update Systems Appropriately,
Structural section); and Preservation Brief 41: The Seismic Retrofit of Historic Buildings:
Keeping Preservation in the Forefront by David W. Look, AIA, Terry Wong, PE, and
Sylvia Rose Augustus. National Park Service.
Provide Building Security
A new concept design for security at the Federal Triangle in Washington, DC beautifies
the sidewalk by incorporating barriers into garden walls. This inviting landscape includes
new amenities such as benches and sculptural features.
General building security involves technical, physical, and operational solutions with
appropriate redundancies. Before security measures are designed, a threat/vulnerability
assessment and risk analysis should be conducted to determine the potential threats and
acceptable levels of risk. In regards to historic preservation, wherever possible:
• Integrate security design to minimize visual and other impacts on the historic
fabric of the building. A principle goal of the entry experience is to maintain a
setting that is welcoming to the visitor.
• Seek opportunities to create amenities that are seamless with historic character.
• Seek opportunities to create public spaces that address security measures and
enhance historic character (e.g., standoff distances reduce the need to modify
buildings).
Consider the following issues when designing security against terrorism for a historic
property refer also to WBDG Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats:
• Site Planning: The goal for site planning is to maximize standoff distance for
potential large explosive devices and to provide clear zones adjacent to the
building to facilitate observation of small explosive devices. Care must be taken
to avoid significant alteration to historic landscaping. Impact-engineered site
224
furniture and appropriately designed bollards can enhance both site amenity and
security.
• Architecture
o Replacement of historic windows can frequently be avoided with the
addition of blast-resistant interior storm windows and/or blast curtains to
prevent glass fragmentation hazards (refer also to WBDG Glazing Hazard
Mitigation and Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive
Threats).
o Doors are generally required to open outward, and blast resistant doors
may be required in some situations. Replacement of historic doors can
often be avoided by closing an entrance or providing an additional set of
doors to provide the required protection.
o Materials and products exist that resemble historic materials but may offer
more security.
o Internal layout of spaces is important to provide entry control and
protection of critical resources. If new features are required, they should
comply with code and be compatible with the original design.
o Some historic architectural elements, including ceiling elements and tiles,
light fixtures and equipment, should be secured or reinforced to prevent
injury and loss in security or seismic events.
• Structural: Prevention of progressive collapse is required for buildings of three
stories or more. Building modifications need to consider the threat level,
structural analysis, and review of design alternatives as they relate to preservation
issues. Furring in of exterior walls should be avoided where it impacts historic
finishes or changes the volume and proportions of significant spaces. For
guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update
Building Systems Appropriately.
• Electrical: Electrical issues relate to provision of power and emergency lighting as
well as means of mass notification. Installing emergency generators for existing
historic fixtures can eliminate the need for intrusive secondary lighting systems.
Notification devices and detection equipment should be integrated to avoid
damage or disruption of historic finishes. For guidance on sensitive building
systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC): HVAC systems must be
installed and protected to prevent the entry of external contaminants. They also
should allow for the isolation of contaminants and the exhaust of smoke in
support of building evacuation. In general, make every effort to minimize impact
on the historic fabric of the building. For guidance on sensitive building systems
upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.
Example: Pentagon Renovation Program - Remote Delivery Facility and

Metro Entrance Facility
225
Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility and Metro Entrance Facility, Arlington, VA.
Photo Courtesty of DoD
Pentagon Renovation (PENREN) Goals for Sustainable Construction
• Use resources efficiently

• Minimize raw material resource consumption, including energy, water, land and
materials, both during the construction as well as throughout the life of the
facility.
• Reuse resources
• Use renewable energy sources
• Create a healthy working environment
• Build facilities of long-term value
• Protect and/or restore natural environment
Pentagon Reservation with Metro entrance facility (left) and remote delivery facility with
landscaped parade ground (right foreground)
226
Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility (RDF)
Remote delivery facility with landscaped parade ground
The RDF is a 250,000 square foot shipping and receiving facility adjoining the Pentagon.
The RDF significantly improved the physical security of the Pentagon by providing a
secure consolidated location to receive and screen thousands of items shipped to the
building each day. A landscaped roof provides new green space with indigenous
vegetation and water reuse in what was once an asphalt parking lot. The roof landscaping
also reduces storm water volume on the site and heat loading of the facility. The RDF is
registered as a pilot project with the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED) program. The facility includes a building control
system for energy efficiency and indoor air quality.
The Pentagon was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992. This landmark
protects five contributing architectural features of the Pentagon, including the Mall
Terrace façade. By conforming the one-story receiving facility to the shape of the
existing site, bordered by two highways, it actually improved site lines to the Pentagon's
historic Mall Terrace. The façade of the RDF replicates the look and feel of the original
Indiana limestone used on the exterior of the Pentagon in the 1940s.
Pentagon Metro Entrance Facility (MEF)
The MEF was a congressionally mandated security project to relocate the Pentagon bus
station further from the building and to create a secure screening facility for visitors
entering the Pentagon. Balancing the security needs of the Department of Defense while
creating a welcoming and historically sensitive "front door" to the Pentagon is a difficult
balancing act made possible with sustainable solutions. The design of the MEF uses
landscaped dirt berms to mitigate the potential effects of a blast. Self-cleaning Teflon-
coated fiberglass canopies protect pedestrians from the foul weather and will not
fragment in the event of an explosion (as is the case with glass or other less flexible
materials. The MEF is the first Department of Defense facility to receive Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™) certification from the U.S. Green Building
Council. The following features design and construction features contribute to the LEED
Certification:
• At least 50% of waste was diverted from landfill

227
• Electric vehicle outlets installed

• Vegetation covers half the open space restoring life back to the site
• High reflectance Energy Star roofing installed
• 20% savings in energy consumption
• Over 50% of the building materials were assembled within 500 miles
• Over 50% of the materials contain recycled content
• 21% of wood-based materials were FSC certified
• Permanent CO2 monitoring systems installed
• Registered as a LEED project
The National Capital Planning Commission and Commission of Fine Arts cited the MEF
as an exemplary project. Like the RDF, the façade of the MEF matches the existing
exterior of the Pentagon to complement the appearance of the historic building. The MEF
was subject to review by the Virginia State Historic Preservation Officer and other
governmental review commissions since the Pentagon is a listed National Historic
Landmark. PENREN adhered to the Secretary of Interior's Standards throughout the
design and construction of the project.
Metro entrance facility (fiberglass canopy) with Pentagon security entrance and visitor
screening center (terrazzo structure adjacent to Pentagon building)
PENREN chose finish materials for the security entrance and visitor center that enhance
sustainability of the facility (e.g. terrazzo, certified wood, recycled content ceiling
panels). Designers incorporated skylights to bring natural light into the facility thereby
reducing the use of artificial lighting. The skylights allow visitors and personnel to see
the monumental façade of the Pentagon (restored during the project) when ascending the
escalators from the security area into the Pentagon proper.
LEED points earned on the RDF and MEF projects combine to certify the entire
Pentagon Reservation under the U.S. Green Building Council's pilot program, LEED for
Existing Buildings.
Emerging Issues
Smart Codes
228
Although fire safety improvements—particularly early warning detection and quick

response suppression—help to reduce the risk of devastating historic building losses,
their potential to compromise historic fabric often leads to resistance against egress code
compliance. Fortunately, two important trends are converging to support flexible
approaches to egress code compliance: 1) alternative codes for historic and non-historic
existing buildings and 2) technological advances that compensate for fire safety
deficiencies and offer less intrusive solutions for prescriptive code compliance.
The general intent of life safety codes is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants,
in the event of a fire, to a safe area. The code addresses construction features such as the
a) width, length, and fire resistance of exit paths and b) ability of construction materials
to contain fire and prevent its spread; fire protection features such as smoke detection
devices, alarms, and fire suppression systems; occupancy and operational features such as
emergency evacuation planning; and fire precautions during construction.
Increasing recognition that compliance with prescriptive codes written principally to

guide new construction, onerous enough to discourage investment in older urban areas,
has led states such as New Jersey (New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code [1999]) and
Maryland (Maryland Building Rehabilitation Code) to adopt Smart Codes, or
Rehabilitation codes that provide flexibility to achieve life safety goals without wholesale
building reconfiguration.
In 2000 the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development released an updated
and expanded edition of Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies with the
expressed goal of promoting the preservation and reuse of America's older housing and
building stock. This guide provides fire ratings for a wide variety of materials and
assemblies found in buildings from the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries, as well
as methods for calculating the fire resistance of general classes of archaic materials and
assemblies for which no documentation is available. The 2000 edition also includes an
array of details developed by English Heritage for upgrading the fire resistance of wood
panel doors. The document has found widespread acceptance among code officials and
has been incorporated into numerous state and local building codes, model code
publications, and (U.S.) National Fire Protection Association standards.
In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 914 Code for Fire
Protection in Historic Structures provides alternatives, including performance-based
approaches and operational solutions, for meeting the intent of the NFPA Life Safety
Code within the framework of the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment
of Historic Properties. The intent of NFPA 914 is to ensure prompt escape of building
occupants while minimizing the impact of fire and fire protection on the structure,
contents, and architectural features that give a building its historic character.

Life Safety
229
• 1997 Uniform Code for Building Conservation

• 2003 International Building Code
• Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies, U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development, 2000.
• International Existing Building Code, International Code Council, 2003.
• Massachusetts Building Code Section 780 CMR 3409.0 (2000)—Historic
Building exceptions
• New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code, adopted 1998 & revised 2000. A
groundbreaking performance code written for rehabilitation projects and widely
recognized as a model by code promulgation bodies.
• NFPA 914—Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures, National Fire
Protection Association, 2001.
• Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General
Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001.
• Vermont Department of Labor and Industry's Fire Prevention and Building Code
Compliance for Historic Buildings: A Field Guide
Seismic Upgrades
• California Historic Building Code (2001)

• FEMA 356-Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Buildings, ASCE/FEMA.
• VA Design Manual—Structural Design Manual for Seismic Retrofit Projects,
U.S. Veterans Affairs Administration, 2002.
Security and Anti-terrorism
• Department of Defense:
• UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
• General Services Administration (GSA):
• Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8.
• Department of State:
• Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998. (For Official Use Only)
• National Capital Planning Commission's Urban Design and Security Plan
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Secure / Safe Branch
Publications
230
• Building Security: Handbook for Architectural Planning and Design edited by

Barbara Nadel. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
• The Seismic Retrofit of Historic Buildings: Keeping Preservation in the Forefront,
U.S. Department of the Interior, National Parks Service, Preservation Brief No.
41, 1997.
• Strategic Fire Protection in Historic Buildings by Richard Forrest. From Building
Conservation Website. 1997.
Comply with Accessibility Requirements

Overview
Ariel Rios, EPA Headquarters, Washington, DC. The ramps at this historic federal
building were sensitively designed to provide equal access while preserving the building's
original fabric.
(Photo: GSA)
Most historic buildings were not originally designed to accommodate people with
disabilities and special needs. However, persons with disabilities should experience sites,
landscapes, buildings, and spaces in the same manner as other users whenever possible.
Providing access (exterior and interior) for persons with disabilities in ways that preserve
the character of the historic property is a challenge and requires creativity and
collaboration among the project team members. Compliance is required in these areas,
but the accessibility standards (such as Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)
and American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)) are more
flexible when applied to historic buildings. UFAS and ADAAG provide alternative
solutions that allow retention of original historic fabric (such as narrow corridors).
231
While accessible design is covered in WBDG Accessible Branch, unique issues that must
be resolved in order to provide accessibility in historic buildings will be discussed in this
section.
Recommendations
The following are the primary areas related to accessibility design requiring special care:
Accessible Routes and Clearances
Areas in front of this community center were regraded to allow access to the building via
landscaped ramps. Arlington, VA.
(Photo: Arlington County, VA)
• Preserve the intended entry experience of historic sites and buildings for
everyone.
o Wherever possible, design solutions that use on-grade entrances or low
slope ramps integrated into the site to avoid the requirement for railings at
abrupt level changes.
o As an alternative, consider on-grade entrances or down-grade sloping
ramps that connect to interior elevators.
o This may require locating an accessible entrance elsewhere.
• Exterior accessibility can be accommodated by providing a wheelchair accessible
path from safe and accessible parking to a significant entry to the building,
historic landscapes, or informational exhibits.
• Accessible routes do not have to be altered if they provide adequate turning radius
at intervals.
• Construct new ramps and railings of compatible materials and design.
• Preserve visual symmetry where applicable.
Doors and Hardware
• Provide access without removing character-defining elements such as doors and

hardware. Modifications that limit impact on the historic character of a building
while still meeting code are preferable.
232
• Avoid replacing historic hardware wherever possible. Alternative solutions to

hardware replacement include such techniques as keeping the door open during
normal business hours and electric door openers.
• Avoid widening door openings. Look for alternative routes. Where it is
unavoidable, design new doors and openings to be compatible with the materials
and detailing of nearby historic doors.
Interior Public Spaces
• Preserve the hierarchy and historic character of significant spaces including

entrances, lobbies, atria, primary corridors, and stairs.
• Preserve character-defining features and spatial qualities of ceremonial lobbies.
• Maintain historic primary entrances.
• Avoid detrimental modifications to primary entrances in seeking to meet security
and accessibility solutions.
Program Accessibility
• Alternatives to Physical Access: House museums and significant spaces within

historic buildings may not be adaptable for physical access. In such cases, visual
access and/or program access to such spaces may be adequate alternatives.
Methods include visual presentations, models, and providing exhibits in
accessible spaces.
For more information, refer to the following:

o National Endowment for the Arts, Office for AccessAbility
o Smithsonian Institution Accessibility Design Guidelines for Exhibits
• For accessibility to programs and employment, relocation of these functions to
accessible areas is allowed and avoids major adverse renovations.
Restroom Design
• When restrooms are part of the character of the historic building and cannot be
readily modified due to clearances or level changes, consider adding appropriately
located, accessible, unisex restrooms to eliminate the need for modifying existing
bathrooms with historic finishes.
Signage
• Signage should be integrated into the historic building fabric in ways that preserve
the historic character.
• Avoid altering, removing, and damaging historic signs and finishes.
o Installation: Installation of signage should be carefully executed to avoid
damage to finishes. Avoid penetrating historic material. Free-standing
signage is often an acceptable alternative to mounting signs on historic
fabric.
233
• Serif letters may be used if the font size is large and there is high contrast with the
background. See Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibit Design for more
information.
Vertical Accessibility
Example of a well-designed modification of a historic railing to comply with accessibility

requirements.
(Photo: GSA)
• Either new or existing elevators provide vertical accessibility. Often elevators are
a significant element of the fabric of a historic building. Accommodating required
clearances and control heights are often issues. Consider:
o Call buttons: Although the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards
(UFAS) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility
Guidelines (ADAAG) require call buttons at 42", an ADA modification
can often be sought for buttons up to 54" in height when appropriate side
access is available.
o Stair Railings: In some cases, railings on stairways need to be raised to
comply with accessibility requirements. When this is needed designs
should respect the historic fabric.

• ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities(ADAAG)
Major Resources
234
WBDG
Design Objectives
Accessible, Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Historic Preservation—

Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs, Safe / Secure—Plan for Fire Protection
Federal Agencies

• U.S. Army—Installation Design Standards, Chapter 3, Section 8 - Building
Accessibility - May 2004
• U.S. Army—TI 800-01 Design Criteria, Chapter 7, Provision for Individuals with
Physical Disabilities, Section 4, 20 July 1998
• U.S. Navy—NAVFAC PDPS 94-01, Barrier Free Design Accessibility
Requirements, 26 May 1994 (Revised 1 June 1997)
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office of Fair Housing
which cover multi-family housing. HUD's website also addresses access under
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
(800) 514-0301 (voice)
(800) 514-0383 (TTY)
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Accessibility Program
• General Services Administration (GSA) National Accessibility Program
• U.S. Access Board

• National Center on Accessibility
• Smithsonian Institution Accessibility Program
• Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibit Design
• Guidelines for Universal Design of Exhibits
Publications
235
• Accessibility and Historic Preservation Resource Guide by Judith L. Hayward,

and Thomas C. Jester, compilers. Windsor, Vermont: Historic Windsor, Inc.,
1992, revised 1993.
• Preservation Brief 32: Making Historic Properties Accessible by Thomas C. Jester
and Sharon C. Park, AIA. National Park Service.
Productive
by the WBDG Productive Committee
Overview
The Alternative Workplace Laboratory at the GSA headquarters building in Washington,

DC was designed to maximize flexibility, allowing new occupants to change the space to
fit their group end individual needs.
Organizations, work practices, and the workforce have changed dramatically in the past
two decades. Technological advances, demographic shifts, and continual demands for
innovation have created pressures for the workplace to catch up with the changing nature
of work.
Organizational effectiveness today means using space more wisely. This does not just
mean cutting costs. It means designing for flexibility to enable space to change as work
groups and projects evolve. Wise use of space also means creating the right context for
concentration, learning, communication, and collaboration—the building blocks of
productivity.
It is often hard to quantify the impacts of specific components of the indoor environment
on productivity, because individual and group work effectiveness is tied to many
different factors—including compensation levels, management practices, and
environmental comfort. It is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate individual physical
factors, such as the presence or absence of team rooms, daylighting, natural meeting
236
places, or control over the environment. This problem is exacerbated in the case of white-
collar workers whose "output" is knowledge or insight that cannot be easily quantified.
Nonetheless, an increasing number of studies are beginning to suggest that support for
communication and collaboration as well as for individual cognitive activity are
fundamental aspects of organizational productivity. The GSA agrees and concludes in
The Integrated Workplace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) that "since people are the most
important resource and greatest expense of any organization, the long-term cost benefits
of a properly designed, user-friendly work environment should be factored into any initial
cost considerations."
One way to do such "factoring" is to consider the total life-cycle costs of a workplace
each year. In private sector offices, such costs are typically, in order of magnitude:
• $200 per square foot per year for salaries

• $20 per square foot per year for amortized bricks and mortar costs, and
• $2.00 per square foot per year for energy.
In this situation, an additional $2 per square foot per year for bricks and mortar costs (e.g.
for providing greater flexibility) would pay for itself if it generated a modest 1% increase
in salary "productivity." Note: Design strategies that increase user satisfaction and that
improve individual and group work effectiveness should therefore be considered not as
cost 'extras,' but as productivity investments that enhance an organization's overall
success.
237
Buildings can be more effective, exciting places to work and live by encouraging
adaptability, improving comfort, supporting sense of community, and by providing
connections to the natural environment, natural light, and view.
There are five fundamental principles of productive building designs:
• Promote Health and Well-Being

Indoor environments strongly affect human health. An effective workplace should
be designed to support and enhance the health and well-being of its occupants.
Sustainable design principles help achieve this objective.
• Provide Comfortable Environments
A workplace designed and operated to provide the highest achievable levels of
visual, acoustic, and thermal comforts for its occupants is the underpinning of
worker effectiveness.
• Design for the Changing Workplace
Providing spaces with flexibility, social support, and technology to promote new
ways of working is a cornerstone of change and innovation.
• Integrate Technological Tools
Effectively integrating technological tools and distribution networks required in
today's office environments to enable workers to perform their duties starts first
and foremost with properly designed pathways and spaces.
• Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces
Reliability is one of the greatest concerns for building occupants—it directly
affects their safety, health, and comfort. Workers must be able to rely on building
systems, equipment, and tools that function consistently and are properly
maintained.
Note: Information in these Productive pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-
performance buildings. Also, workplace productivity strategies support sustainable
design principles and should be taken on balance for the longevity of systems considered.

• Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 48, Value Engineering
• Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 52, Solicitation Provisions and Contract
Clauses
• OMB Circular A-131
• Public Law 104-106, Section 4306, Value Engineering for Federal Agencies
Major Resources
WBDG
238
Building / Space Types
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Project Management
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design
(LCCID)
Federal Agencies
• EPA National Center for Environmental Research

• Integrated Workplace Program, U.S. General Services Administration, Office of
Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property
• Workplace 20·20, U.S. General Services Administration
Organizations
• Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture

• The American Institute of Architects
• American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
• International Facility Management Association (IFMA)
• Corporate Real Estate Network (CoreNet)
• National Research Council of Canada—Institute for Research in Construction—A
leading international organization studying the effects of environmental comfort
on occupant productivity
Publications
• The Agile Workplace: Supporting People and Their Work by Gartner,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 22 Industry Sponsors, 2001.
• ASHRAE Workshop on Indoor Environment and Productivity by
ASHRAE.Baltimore, Maryland, June 1992.
• Collaborative Knowledge Work Environments by Judith Heerwagen, Kevin
Kampschroer, Kevin Powell, and Vivian Loftness. Building Research &
Information, 32(6):510-528, 2004.
• Daylighting and Human Performance by Lisa Heschong. ASHRAE Journal, June
2002.
239
• DOE Building Studies by the Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics.
Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, 1994.
• "Environmental Satisfaction, Personal Control and the Positive Correlation to
Increased Productivity" (PDF 170 KB, 16 pgs) White paper by Johnson Controls
Personal Environments.
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Service
Administration (GSA).
• Further Findings from the Office of Environment Survey: Productivity.
Proceedings of Indoor Air '90: Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air
Quality and Climate by Gary Raw and Michael Roys. Toronto, Ontario: 1:231-36,
1990.
• Green Buildings, Organizational Success and Occupant Productivity by Judith
Heerwagen, Building Research & Information, 28 (5/6): 353-367, 2000.
• "Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through
Energy-Efficient Design" (PDF 1.16 MB, 17 pgs) White paper by Rocky
Mountain Institute.
• Healthy Buildings and their Impact on Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air
'93: Sixth International International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and
Climate by David Wyon. Helsinki, Finland: 6:3-13, 1993.
• How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
• Integrated Systems: Increasing Building and Workplace Performance by BOMA
International Foundation. 2000.
Workspace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) by Office of Real Property in the Office of
Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.
• New Adventures in Office Space: The Integrated Workplace - A Planning Guide
by the Office of Real Property and Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S.
General Services Administration. February 2002.
• The New Office: With 20 International Case Studies by Francis Duffy. Antique
Collectors Club, 1997.
• "Relationships Between the Indoor Environment and Productivity: A Literature
Review," ASHRAE Transactions by N. Sensharma, et al. 1998.
• Rensselaer's West Bend Mutual Study: Using Advanced Office Technologies to
Increase Productivity by Walter Kroner, et al. Troy, NY: Center for Architectural
Research, 1992. One of the most carefully documented studies on increases in
productivity as a result of improved environmental quality.
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual by the United States Department of
Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996.
• Total Workplace Performance: Rethinking the Office Environment by Stanley
Aronoff and Audrey Kaplan (eds.). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: WDL Publications,
1995.
240
• Using Office Design to Increase Productivity by Michael Brill, et al, and the
Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation (BOSTI). 1994. A
major study of the relationship between productivity and user satisfaction in 6,000
office buildings throughout the United States during a five-year period.
• Workplace by Design: Mapping the High-Performance Workscape by Franklin
Becker and Fritz Steele. Jossey-Bass, 1995.
Others
• BetterBricks.com
• Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics—Carnegie Mellon University
• Center for the Built Environment—The Contribution of Building Design and
Operation to Productivity, University of California at Berkeley
• The Workplace Forum—DEGW, A private site dedicated to information on
emerging office environments
Integrate Technological Tools

Overview
Integration of information technology and building architecture calls for a robust, global,
and secure infrastructure that will support the growing and evolving demands of business
and government in the 21st century.
To stay in business, organizations have to stay current, purchasing the appropriate server,
database, media, router, and other technologies that sustain their work. They must
leverage these evolving information technologies to match the specifications of their
stakeholders.
Interoperability across building systems—including power, HVAC, lighting, security,

and fire alarm—should enable whole building control and performance optimization.
Assuring flexibility to accommodate the dynamic nature of telecommunications systems
starts first and foremost with properly designed pathways and spaces.
Demands on the building's data pathways will be heavy, and the market will be strong for
high performing buildings having:
• Power supply systems that provide flexible service; reliable, clean power; and can
adjust power delivery to building occupation patterns;
• Wire management systems that enable quick and low-cost reconfiguration;
• Integration of wireless products as they become commercially viable; and
241
• Distributed computing environments that have reliable cooling compatible with

human comfort.
Recommendations
Provide Distributed Data, Power, Security, Voice, Video, and
Environmental Services for Central Communications and
Continuity of Operations
Desktop video conferencing

(Courtesy of MDL Corp.)
• Assure that technological solutions respond to the changing nature of work. See
also WBDG Changing Nature of Organizations, Work, and Workplace.
• Consider wireless and mobile technologies to support the changing nature of
work, including both internal and external ability.
• Provide distributed Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) for clean and reliable
power.
• Merge all low voltage systems, including data and voice, through distributed
Ethernet-IP networks with centralized backup.
• Monitor work environmental conditions with central systems, but maximize local
control by occupants.
• Consider desktop video and Internet-based conferencing to provide on-going
contact for dispersed work groups.
• See also WBDG Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces.
Design Accessible, Modifiable, Vertical Power and Telecom Cores
• Provide modular power panels with appropriate open riser space.

• Consider emerging technologies to provide secure, high-speed access to the
desktop for data, voice, security, and environmental information (e.g., fiber
optics, wireless, copper).
Employ Distributed Modular Cabinets with Plug and Play Interfaces

242
• Provide modular racks and plug-in hardware within office suites versus closets
and hard wiring.
• Design service neighborhoods to meet or exceed current standards.
• Manage wiring under floor or vertically through patch panels.
• House servers, bridges, etc. in environmentally controlled modular cabinets.
Provide Re-Configurable Plenum Systems
Under floor air distribution system installed in a renovated facility.
• Consider overhead cable trays and/or underfloor wire baskets for increased
flexibility and accessibility.
• Optimize plenum real estate. Conduct a multidiscipline "charrette" with structural,
fire, networking, HVAC, interiors to integrate systems.
• Use 3D modeling to facilitate integration.
• Simplify the ease of relocating modular boxes in relation to ceiling, floor, and
carpet tiles.
Design Kit-of-Parts for Efficient, Modifiable Services
• Base capacities on maximum occupancies, but distribute and deliver as needed.

• Select terminal units that provide services—data, power, and voice (and
environment where possible)—in reconfigurable boxes for just-in-time
modifications.
o Provide relocatable modular outlet boxes with flex connectors to respond
to changing densities.
o Bring services to the desktop as required by users.
• Select systems to be compatible with Internet-based applications.
Select IT System and Components for Energy and Material Conservation
• Design for longevity (expandability, disassembly, recyclability), maintainability,

and energy and material efficiency.
• Consider sub-metering of power to address customer requirements for tracking
energy usage.
243
Mobile office for the intelligent workplace—well-applied technology can ensure a leap in
both technical and environmental quality, enabling every worker to have the very best in
environmental conditions.
(Courtesy of Center for Building Performance & Diagnostics, Carnegie-Mellon
University)

• ANSI/TIA/EIA-568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard
• ANSI/TIA/EIA-569 Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunication
Pathways and Spaces
• ANSI/TIA J-STD-607-A Commercial Building Grounding (Earthing) and
Bonding Requirements for Telecommunications
• FIPS PUB 174 Federal Building Telecommunications Wiring Standard
• FIPS PUB 175 Federal Building Standard for Telecommunication Pathways and
Spaces
• TIA TSB72 Centralized Optical Fiber Cabling Guidelines
• TIA TSB75 Additional Horizontal Cabling Practices for Open Offices
• AFH 32-1084 Facility Requirements
• ER 1105-2-100 Planning Guidance Notebook
• MIL-HDBK-419A Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipment
and Facilities, Volume 1 of 2
• MIL-HDBK-1012/3 Telecommunications Premises Distribution Planning,
Design, and Estimating w/Change
• TI 800-01 Design Criteria
• TM 5-683/MO-116/AFJMAN 32-1083 Electrical Interior Facilities
• U.S. General Services Administration:
• GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100
Major Resources
244
WBDG
visited.
Project Management
Tools
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)
Trade Shows
• Comdex—IT trade show

• NeoCon—Trade fair for interior design and facilities management
Publications
• ARCHI-TECH magazine—Bridging the Gap Between Design and Technology

• Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource
Guide for Federal Facility Managers
• High Performance Commercial Buildings—A Technology Roadmap by U.S.
Department of Energy. 1999.
Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of
the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.
Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces

Overview
Reliability is a great concern for building occupants and organizations. Absence of
reliability directly affects personal security and well-being, as well as mission critical
work. As workplaces evolve in response to changes in organizational structure and work
practices, reliability needs to take into consideration the multiplicity of spaces that
245
support individual and group work. This applies to all facilities whether public or private,
institutional or commercial, large or small, regardless of location, circumstance, and/or
purpose. Organizations and their workers are entitled to work places that enable them to
remain productive and in-touch at all times.
People increasingly expect work settings to fully support pursuit of individual, team, and
organizational objectives without operational uncertainty. Building and information
systems that disrupt workflow will not be tolerated. The workforce of the future will
demand workspace and tools that amplify their abilities and help them compete
effectively for the best work. This calls for systems that perform reliably with good
maintenance support.
Building users must be able to rely on facility hardware and software for health, life,
safety, power, data, and voice delivery systems (and related equipment and tools). These
systems need to function consistently and be properly maintained. When the workplace is
supported by high performance systems that require minimal maintenance or downtime
and have back-up capabilities to ensure negligible loss of service, worker productivity
can be improved or maintained.
Recommendations
• Provide freestanding (local) system alternatives for individual user access and
control.
• Maximize interoperability of different manufacturers' systems and products
(including parts interchangeability).
• Provide adequate training and resources to use and/or maintain systems.
• Select systems based on optimum performance, interoperability, and intuitive
operation and maintenance.
• Consider dual-fuel back up for critical building systems, including
fire/emergency, HVAC, lighting, power, data, voice, etc.
• Provide ease of access for maintenance and repair of systems.
• See also WBDG Functional/Operational Branch.
HVAC
• Maximize conditioning through natural means/methods (e.g. operable windows,

natural ventilation, building mass, etc.).
• Consider displacement air supply system that are zoned appropriately for
ventilation purposes (e.g., through raised floor system).
• Provide systems that minimize reliance on building management/maintenance
personnel.
• Provide networked computerized building systems sensors to monitor and manage
control of the following systems: HVAC, energy recovery, lighting, building
access, security, fire suppression, and smoke alarm.
246
• Provide building automation systems that are remotely accessible by facilities

managers to determine problem locations and monitor environmental conditions
without disturbing workers.
Lighting
Workers at the Philip Merrill Environmental Center in Annapolis, Maryland, enjoy

access to daylight and views from all areas of the building.
• Maximize use of daylighting and related lighting control devices (shades, light
shelves, etc.).
• Utilize long-life lamps and quality fixtures.
• Zone power circuits to separate ambient and task lighting.
• Utilize occupancy and light level sensing/control devices to extend lamp life.
• Consider emergency back-up lighting systems (generator, battery, etc.) for critical
function areas.
• Consider emerging lighting technologies such as low voltage lighting systems,
fiberoptics, and light emitting diodes (LEDs) that provide quality lighting with
greater reliability.
Power Supply
• Provide building surge protection to safeguard data systems and critical electronic
equipment.
• Consider Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) or other back-up systems (e.g. solar
power systems).
• Consider distributed power systems for on-site power generation (e.g. fuel cell,
solar, wind, microturbines, etc.).
Telecommunication Systems/Equipment (voice/data)
• Support distributed computing (see also WBDG Productive—Integrate

Technological Tools).
• Update computer hardware and software periodically.
• Provide interchangeable voice/data cabling (category 5+ or higher, plenum rated).
• Consider telecommunication equipment back-up systems (battery power, etc.).
247
• Consider wireless systems, where feasible, to promote internal mobility and

access to emergency services.
• See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.
Security/Safety
• Provide identification/verification systems (such as card key, fingerprints, eye

scans, etc.) to access and/or control IT, data, space, and property.
• Provide hardwired smoke alarms with back-up battery power.
• Provide low power usage emergency egress lights and LED illuminators with
rechargeable battery (back-up gel cell).
• Provide security systems with back-up capability for emergency signals and
communication.
• See also WBDG Secure/Safe Branch.
Emerging Issues
Fuel cell power plant installation at South County Hospital—Wakefield, RI

(Courtesy of UTC Fuel Cells)
Increasing demands for renewable, energy-efficient, and environmentally responsible

back-up power sources have lead to advancements in fuel cell technology, solar, wind,
hydro, and biomass power systems.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)—the integration of all departments and functions

across an agency/company onto a single computer system that can serve all those
different departments' particular needs.
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)—the concept of developing a maintenance

scheme based on the reliability of the various components of the system or product in
question. Implementing a preventative maintenance program using RCM can greatly
reduce the cost of ownership of a product or system.
For most building owners and operators, reliability ranks almost as high as cost as a top
"quality indicator" when selecting building systems and equipment. "Problem prone
equipment," often selected due to lower first costs, reduces system reliability and is
clearly a chief motivator for purchasing quality equipment.
248
Continuous Commissioning—an ongoing process to resolve operating problems, improve

comfort, optimize energy use, and identify retrofits for existing buildings and central
plant facilities. Continuous commissioning ensures that the building and systems operate
optimally to meet the current requirements, which supports worker effectiveness.

ASTM Standard Classifications and Practices
• E 1334 Rating the Serviceability of a Building or Building-Related Facility

• E 1660 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Support for Office Work
• E 1662 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Sound and Visual Environment
• E 1665 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Facility Protection
• E 1666 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Work Outside Normal Hours or
Conditions
• E 1669 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Location, Access, and Wayfinding
• E 1670 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Management of Operations and
Maintenance
• E 1679 Setting the Requirements for the Serviceability of a Building or Building-
Related Facility
• E 1693 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Protection of Occupant Assets
• E 1700 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Structure and Building Envelope
• E 1701 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Manageability
Major Resources
WBDG
visited.
Project Management
Tools
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design
(LCCID)
Publications
249

Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of
the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.
• NASA Reliability Centered Maintenance Guide for Facilities and Collateral
Equipment
• Nature's Power on Demand: Renewable Energy Systems as Emergency Power
Sources by Roberta F. Stauffer. The National Center for Appropriate Technology,
October 1995.
• Reliability-Centered Maintenance, 2nd Edition by John Moubray. Industrial
Press, 2001. ISBN: 0831131462.
Others
• Blame it on Enterprise Resource Planning! by D.V. Jagadish. Indian Express

Newspapers.
• Center for the Built Environment, University of California at Berkeley, The
Contribution of Building Design and Operation to Productivity
• Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics, The Intelligent Workplace,
Carnegie Mellon University
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Supply Chain Management (SCM)
• I.T. Works' Reference Site
Design for the Changing Workplace

Overview
In this electronic/information age, work teams form and reform to meet organizational
needs, technological innovations, and changing business relationships. Buildings and
interior spaces need to be flexible to anticipate and support this changing nature of work.
Within the past few years, designers have sought to create a new generation of "flexible"
buildings and workplace environments within buildings that have infrastructures and
structures that fully support change while sustaining new technologies, and multi-capable
individuals and teams.
The changing nature of work means greater mobility for workers, a multiplicity of
workspaces within and external to buildings, greater use of geographically dispersed
groups, increased dependence on social networks—and greater pressure to provide for all
of these needs and behaviors in a leaner and more agile way. Workplaces have responded
with many new options, including more teaming and informal interaction spaces, more
supports for virtual individual and group work, more attention to integrating learning into
everyday work experience, greater flexibility in work locations, and more focus on fitting
250
the workplace to the work rather than vice versa. Many workplaces are also incorporating
spaces that encourage relaxed engagement with colleagues to reduce stress and promote a
sense of community.
Left: GSA's Public Buildings Service (PBS) workplace renovation incorporates a space
for relaxation that includes an exercise room, lounge area with TV and a pool table. The
space is used for group social events as well as breaks. And Right: The PBS space also
has a daylit café where workers gather at lunch time or for meetings throughout the day.
Recommendations
Design for Flexibility
• Provide flexibility for delivering power, voice, and data.

• Provide distributed, vertical cores, satellite closets, and generous horizontal
plenum spaces with relocatable, user-based services to ensure technical, spatial,
and environmental quality in the rapidly changing electronic office. See also
WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.
• Provide systems that are controllable and adjustable by the users without
burdensome reliance on outside contractors.
• Incorporate sustainable design principles, which can help achieve flexible spaces.
Personal control features include overhead personal air jet diffusers and task lighting,
which can be controlled from the occupant's desktop computer.
Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions
Directorate
251
Support Mobility
• Consider wireless technology and mobile phones to enable workers to move

effortlessly among spaces as their needs change.
• Provide a multiplicity of spaces for individual and group work.
• Provide connections to internal networks and to the Internet throughout the
workplace. See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.
Enable Informal Social Interaction
• Provide multiple places to meet and greet.

• Consider providing informal workspaces in cafeterias.
• When designing cafes and coffee nooks, locate them centrally along well traveled
pathways to encourage use and interaction.
• Design the circulation system with informal communication opportunities in
mind.
Flexible spaces and services support multiple spatial configurations and densities, and
allow for rapid and easy spatial change.
Design for a Variety of Meeting Sizes and Types
• Provide enclosed rooms to support groups of different sizes.

• If open informal spaces are used, make sure that they are separated from
individual quiet spaces.
• Consider sharing meeting spaces among private offices.
• Provide visual display technologies and writing surfaces for group work.
• Consider the use of dedicated project rooms for some types of group work.
Support Individual Concentration
• If open spaces such as pods or bull pens are used, provide attractive acoustically
sound rooms for individual concentration as needed.
• Locate concentration booths close to work spaces.
252
• Zone space for range of quiet and interactive needs.
Support Stress Reduction and Relaxation
• Consider spaces for relaxation and playfulness.
Emerging Issues
Increasingly, compatible and packaged building components are available on the U.S.
market that meet these goals. Several vendors market systems comprising raised floors,
plug and play wire management components, and demountable wall systems as a single
package.
Open controls protocols such as LonTalk and BACNet, which allow communication
between different types of building systems (HVAC, lighting, security, fire alarm, and
power), are being adapted to an increasing number of products. This will enable a wider
range of cost-effective possibilities for user control over a common network.

• ANSI/TIA/EIA-569 Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunications
Pathways and Spaces
• ASTM E 1334 Practice for Rating the Serviceability of a Building or Building-
Related Facility
• ASTM E 1663 Classification for Serviceability of an Office Building for Typical
Office Information Technology
• ASTM E 1679 Practice for Setting the Requirements for the Serviceability of a
Building or Building-Related Facility
• ASTM E 1692 Classification for Serviceability of an Office Facility for Change
and Churn by Occupants
• DG 1110-3-122 Design for Interiors, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• MIL-HDBK 1004/7 Wire Communications and Signal Systems
• MIL-HDBK 1190 Facility Planning and Design Guide
• TM 5-805-13/AFM 88-4, Chapter 9 Raised Floor Systems
• GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P-100
Major Resources
WBDG
253
visited.
Project Management
Tools
Organizations
• Telecommunications Industry Association—The leading U.S. nonprofit trade

association serving the communications and information technology industry
Publications
• Green Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource

Guide for Federal Facility Managers
• High Performance Commercial Buildings—A Technology Road Map by U.S.
Department of Energy, 1999.
Workplace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of
the U.S. General Services Administration, May 1999.
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual, DOE
• USAF Environmentally Responsible Facilities Guide
romote Health and Well-Being

Overview
254
The office of the World Resources Institute utilizes a mixture of elements to provide a
healthy work environment.
(Photo by Alan Karchmer Courtesy of HOK)
Indoor environments strongly affect human health. For example, the EPA estimates that
the concentration of pollutants (like volatile organic compounds) inside a building may
be two to five times higher than outside levels. A 1997 study by W.J. Fisk and A.H.
Rosenfeld (Estimates of Improved Productivity and Health from Better Indoor
Environments. Indoor Air Vol. 7, pp. 158-172) reports that the cost to the nation's
workforce of upper respiratory diseases in 1995 was $35 billion in lost work plus an
additional $29 billion in health care costs. The study estimates that more healthful indoor
environments could reduce these costs by 10%-30%.
Indoor environments also have strong effects on occupant well-being and functioning,
especially attributes such as the amount and quality of light and color, the sense of
enclosure, the sense of privacy, access to window views, connection to nature, sensory
variety, and personal control over environmental conditions. Designing to enhance
psychological well-being will therefore have positive impacts on work effectiveness and
other high value outcomes, such as stress reduction, job satisfaction, and organizational
commitment.
To reap the fiscal, physical, and psychological benefits of healthy buildings, projects
must have a comprehensive, integrated design and development process that seeks to:
• Provide maximum access to natural daylight and views to the outdoors

• Provide superior ventilation
• Control sources of indoor air contamination
• Prevent unwanted moisture accumulation, and
• Enhance the psychological and social aspects of space.
Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
Recommendations
255
Daylight enhances the psychological value of space at Owens Corning World

Headquarters—Toledo, OH
(Courtesy of Owens Corning)
Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight and Views to the Outdoors
• Use a daylighting analysis tool to help guide the design process. See also WBDG
Daylighting.
• Design windows to allow daylight to penetrate as far as possible into a room.
Consider using light shelves (solid horizontal elements placed above eye level,
but below the top of the window) to reflect daylight deep into a room. Design
windows to provide views out from most spaces.
• Design for diffuse, uniform daylight throughout the room. Avoid glare. Avoid
direct beam sunlight in continuously occupied spaces; however sun "spots" in
other, shared or public spaces, are desirable and psychologically beneficial.
• Consider interior (shades, louvers, or blinds) and exterior (overhangs, trees)
strategies to control glare and filter daylight.
• Consider shared daylight through glazed interior walls.
• Integrate daylighting with the electric lighting system. Provide controls that turn
off lights when sufficient daylight exists. Consider dimming controls that
continuously adjust lighting levels to respond to daylight conditions.
• Design floor plate depth to allow access to windows and views.
• Consider the security implications of window, glazing, and door locations. See
also WBDG Designing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats and Retrofitting
Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats.
Provide Superior Ventilation
• Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
• Minimize recirculation while assuring energy efficiency through energy recovery.
See also WBDG High-Performance HVAC.
• Ensure that ventilation air is effectively delivered to and distributed throughout
the 'breathing zone.' Consider individual controls.
• Provide local exhaust for restrooms, kitchens, janitor's closets, copy rooms, etc.
• Consider installing CO2 sensors to provide real time monitoring of air quality.
256
• Consider separating thermal conditioning from ventilation in order to vary

delivery of air volume separate from temperature for better comfort.
• See also WBDG Natural Ventilation.
Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination
• Test the site for sources of contamination: radon, hazardous waste, fumes from
nearby industrial or agricultural uses. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.
• Locate air intakes away from sources of exhaust fumes (e.g. from buses, cars, or
trucks).
• Consider security implications of the location of building air intakes.
• Consider recessed grates, "walk off" mats, and other techniques to reduce the
amount of dirt entering the building.
• Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants
such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Allow adequate time for installed materials and furnishings to "outgas" before a
new workplace is occupied. Assist the process by running the HVAC system
continuously at the highest possible outdoor air supply setting after materials and
furnishings have been installed to adequately "flush out" the facility. (The exact
timing may vary for different materials.)
• Consider "modular zoning" for air distribution in order to avoid cross
contamination.
• Install proper barriers between occupied and construction zones in renovation
projects in order to protect worker health.
Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation
• Design the ventilation system to maintain the indoor relative humidity between
30% and 50%.
• Design to avoid water vapor condensation, especially on walls and the underside
of roof decks, and around pipes or ducts or windows.
• Design buildings with proper drainage and ventilation.
• See also WBDG Mold and Moisture Dynamics and Air Barrier Systems in
Buildings.
Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space
• Design to allow workers to move freely from solitary work to group action as
work requires.
• Provide mobile technologies (phones, computers, wireless connectivity) that
support new work styles and work practices.
• Design to reduce stress and facilitate mental rest breaks.
• Provide workers the means to make meaningful changes in their immediate
environments (e.g. through personalization and control over the immediate
environment to the extent possible).
257
• Provide spatial features that support visual and acoustical privacy but allow
opportunities for informal encounters.
• Provide an interesting visual environment and, at the same time, design for a
balance between visual access and visual enclosure. Provide views of natural
vegetation, indoors or outdoors, when possible.
• Strive to create a 'sense of place' such that the workplace has a unique character
that engenders a sense of pride, purpose, and dedication for individual workers
and the workplace community.

• ASHRAE 129 Measuring Air Change Effectiveness
• ASHRAE Standard 62 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
• ASTM D 6245 Standard Guide for Using Indoor Carbon Dioxide Concentrations
to Evaluate Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation
Major Resources
WBDG
visited.
Design Objectives
Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation,

Secure / Safe, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / Safe—
Provide Security for Occupants and Assets, Sustainable, Sustainable—Use
Environmental Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental
Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Project Management
Tools
Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight

258
• Daylighting Performance and Design by Gregg D. Ander. New York: Van

Nostrand, 1995.
• DOE/EE-0025 Windows & Daylighting
• Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
• Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. IV.7)
Provide Superior Ventilation
• Association of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers

• ASTM International
• UFC 3-440-06N Cooling Buildings by Natural Ventilation
• NISTIR 5329 Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated
Commercial Buildings
Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination
• Carpet and Rug Institute

• Environmental Building News
• EPA Indoor Air Division
• EPA Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in New Residential
Buildings
Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p.119)
• Green Seal
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. I.13; IV.99)
• U.S. Green Building Council LEED®
• USAF Environmentally Responsible Facilities Guide (p. 44)
Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation
• Association of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers

• Desiccant Cooling Technology Resource Guide
• NISTIR 4821 Envelope Design Guidelines for Federal Office Buildings: Thermal
Integrity and Airtightness
Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space
• Architecture as Space, How to Look at Architecture by Bruno Zevi. Edited by

Joseph Barry. New York: Horizon Press, 1957.
• The Changing Concept of Proportion by Rudolph Wittkower. Daedalus (Journal
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences). Vol. 89, pp. 199-215. 1960.
259
• "Design, Productivity and Well-Being: What are the Links?" by Judith H.

Heerwagen. Battelle/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Seattle, WA—paper
presented at The American Institute of Architects Conference on Highly Effective
Facilities, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1998.
• DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors (p.2.1)
• Environmental Design Research Association
• Geometry of Design: Studies in Proportion and Composition by Kimberly Elam.
• A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction by Christopher Alexander,
Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein. Oxford University Press: 1977.
• The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces by William Whyte, 1980. Washington,
DC: Conservation Foundation.
• Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (3rd edition) by
Sigfried Giedion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954.
• Space Versus Place: The Loss and Recovery of Proportionality in Architecture by
Terrance Galvin.
Publications
• HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K.
Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford,
T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 113 KB, 4 pgs) by Satish
ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
• Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow
ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D.
ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
260
Air Decontamination
by Greg Lesavoy, Consultant, and Jordan Peccia, Ph.D., PE, Assistant Professor of
Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yale University
Updated by WBDG Staff
Introduction
Americans spend nine out of ten hours indoors; and indoor air commonly contains higher
concentrations of airborne chemical contaminants and pathogenic microbes than outdoor
air. Biological and chemical terrorism, sick buildings, cruise ship disease outbreaks, toxic
molds, and epidemics of asthma and allergies, all have made the issue of healthy air
critical. Removing biological pathogens and toxic chemical compounds from air—air
decontamination—has been a recognized need for decades and has mostly been
accomplished through ventilation. Airflow and ventilation are already key factors in
worker comfort, health and productivity, building design, and energy efficiency. Air
security is the next frontier, and can also improve the health of the day-to-day air in a
modern facility.
This Resource Page presents both the scientific fundamentals of clean air, vis-à-vis
filtration and UV, and the benefits and obstacles associated with these technologies. It
also briefly discusses a number of other technologies that have been offered as solutions.
This Page was written to provide a general understanding of air decontamination
technologies for practitioners that may be new to this field, as well as provide updated
codes and resources for those who wish to gain more in depth knowledge. Since the field
is in considerable flux, a number of source documents from government and professional
association websites where up-to-the-minute information can be obtained are also
provided.
Description
In the report "Review of Health and Productivity Gains from Better IEQ" written by
William J. Fisk of the Indoor Environment Department at Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, increased indoor air quality could result in the following monetary savings:
• estimated potential annual savings and productivity gains of $6 billion to $14

billion from reduced respiratory diseases;
• between $2 to $4 billion savings from reduced allergies and asthma;
• $10 to $30 billion in savings from reduced sick building syndrome symptoms; and
• $20 to $160 billion can be saved from direct improvements in worker
performance that are unrelated to health.
261
The economic and public health benefits combined with today's interest in protecting the
population from weapons of mass destruction have prompted renewed interest in methods
of removing infectious or allergenic microorganisms from the air we breathe in indoor
environments. Active decontamination technologies such as ultraviolet light (UV) and
high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters have previously been used for germicidal air
cleansing in infectious disease wards and laboratories. However applying these
decontamination processes or other experimental technologies to the high airflow
ventilation systems of modern office buildings presents a new set of challenges. It
requires a fundamental rethinking of many elements of HVAC design, from the location
and security of air ducts, to the integrity and protection of air controls, and the
organization, layout, and construction of the active decontamination components for the
systems themselves.
A. Air Filtration
The simplest solution to disinfecting the air is to capture offending particles in a filter
mesh of some kind. The development of high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters has
made it possible to efficiently clear the air of particles down to 0.3 µm (micrometers) in
size, with smaller particles captured to varying degrees. Viruses are the smallest, ranging
in size from 0.01 µm to 0.4 µm, while fungal spores are at the upper end of the range and
can be larger than 20 µm. Bacteria range in size from 0.5 to 10 µm. Deadly pathogens
like the bacterial Bacillus Anthracis spore powder used in the anthrax cases generally
range from 1 to 6 µm. The relevant size measurement used in aerosol science is the
aerodynamic diameter. This diameter is usually different from the actual particle size of
microorganisms, and accounts for the non-spherical nature of the cells. This parameter is
more useful for predicting aerodynamic behavior of a particle in air.
262
Fig. 1. HEPA filters are made from numerous synthetic fibers that are laid down in
overlapping, random order.
Fig. 2. HEPA filter fibers
The idea is not to restrict particle passage by capturing target pathogens between closely
spaced threads, but to divert and convolute the passageways of airflow. As airflow twists
and turns through the overlapping threads, heavier objects—such as bacteria, spores,
virus particles, or toxins that are in particle form—will not be able to keep up due to their
greater inertia in relation to air molecules. The slower particles will hit the threads and be
stopped. Since the synthetic fibers are designed to be "sticky," these particles lodge into
the filter elements and are captured. Because HEPA filters capture the microorganisms,
health effects caused by live microorganisms (infectious disease), and those effects that
can be caused by live or dead microorganisms, such as allergies, are both mitigated.
HEPA filters are widely used in clean rooms and in portable room air purification units.
There are a number of limitations with HEPA filters that make it essential to combine
filtration with other technologies in order to ensure effectiveness in a ventilation system.
First, HEPA filters will work well (99.97% efficiency) for particles down to about 0.3
µm. Because the aerodynamic diameter of a virus ranges down to 0.01 µm, many viral
agents will not be removed at a high efficiency. Secondly, even a tiny puncture in a filter,
or a manufacturer's bad quality batch, can significantly reduce performance and endanger
an entire building's population. Thirdly, installation quality is of critical importance, and
leaks or poorly fitting frames can destroy the integrity of the filtration system. Finally, the
installation of HEPA filtration in the plenums of major building HVAC systems has a
significant impact both on airflow throughput and energy consumption. Additional costs
to consider are the replacement and disposal of the filters. Handling is especially
important if there are suspected pathogens in the fibers of the filters.
263
Fig. 3. An electrostatic precipitator contains two components, an ionizer and a collector.

The ionizer gives a positive charge to dirt particles in the incoming airstream, which then
adhere to a negatively charged collector. The resultant outgoing air is cleaned and
purified.
Graphic source: Precision Graphics.
Another well-known filtration technology is based on electrostatic precipitation.

Electrostatic filters precipitate particles out of the air by passing contaminated air through
a highly charged field (ionizer). Particles are charged and then captured on electrode
plates with the opposite charge (collector). Three key factors make this a good home
technology but less effective in large buildings: 1) electrostatic systems need to slow the
air flow substantially to allow all particles to be charged—an issue which is possible with
exhaust pollutants but may be impossible to achieve in big HVAC systems; 2) these
filters require large amounts of energy per volume of air decontaminated; and 3) a by-
product of the process, ozone is itself a dangerous pollutant with significant risks. Ozone
will be produced in large quantities in any industrial electrostatic application. Recently,
bacteria and fungi removal has been tested in smaller ozone free electrostatic
precipitators. For the precipitators tested, the maximum removal efficiency was 81%.
Smaller size microorganisms were more difficult to remove, making the use of this
technology more tentative for virus removal.
B. Ultraviolet Irradiation
The ability of UV radiation—a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from 100nm-

400nm—to inactivate biological pathogens has long been known. UV radiation works by
damaging the DNA and other cell components of a microorganism to the point that the
cell cannot replicate. Cells that have been exposed to UV may still be viable, they just
cannot replicate, and therefore they are not infectious. In 1903, one of the first Nobel
Prizes in Medicine was awarded to a doctor from Denmark, Niels Ryberg Finsen, for
recognizing and using the UV bactericidal effect of the sun in treating infectious skin
264
disease. In the 1930s, Westinghouse developed UV bulbs, and since then a great deal of
experimental work has been done to prove their germicidal efficacy. Ultra Violet
Germicidal Irradiation or UVGI generally refers to UV wavelength of 254.7 nm. The
wavelength is near optimal for damaging nucleic acid (DNA, RNA). UV irradiation by
itself does not clean air. The microorganisms are still there, and in the case of some
microorganisms, may still contain the ability to cause noninfectious (e.g. allergenic)
disease. While there is potential for UV to destroy allergenic sites on the surface of a
bioaerosol, this ability has not been documented or quantified.
UV irradiation is commonly used in the disinfection of drinking water. Although to a

lesser extent, UV has also been used in the disinfection of air, mostly in health care
settings. Anecdotal health information as well as laboratory research suggests it is an
effective technology for inactivating airborne viruses, bacteria and their spores. However,
there is a significant difference between addressing disease-causing organisms in a
laboratory setting, and ensuring that deadly biological warfare pathogens are completely
removed from an airstream. Installation, construction, and design of UV systems must be
of paramount importance, and a focus of air decontamination must now include securing
air streams in ducts and HVAC systems from outside infiltration. Since the threat of this
kind of terrorism has only recently been realized, independent scientific investigators
have begun to do fundamental research into the biological decontamination of airstreams
to update this science. In November 2002, a major research study funded in part by the
U.S. Department of Energy titled "Defining the Effectiveness of UV Lamps Installed in
Circulating Air Ductwork" attempted to determine the effectiveness of UV germicidal
radiation in inactivating bacteria and spores in a "typical" HVAC duct environment. The
results are encouraging. The inactivation effectiveness can be very high (greater than
90%) for bacteria, although efficacy is less so for more resistant bacterial and fungal
spores. Viruses were not tested in the study but research in the author's laboratory
indicates that a highly UV-resistant virus (bacteriophage MS2) is less resistant to UV
radiation (in air) than bacterial Bacillus Subtilis spores (regarded as the most resistant
bacteria to UV radiation). Inactivation rates used for the design of UVGI systems should
be determined from experiments where the microorganism has been aerosolized. Rates
derived from agents suspended in water or irradiated on agar plates generally
underestimate the airborne inactivation rate. In many cases, this may provide a desirable
factor of safety. In other cases, it may lead to the expensive over-engineering of a system
or unwarranted increases in operational costs. Laboratory research has also determined
that air temperature, relative humidity, flow rate, lamp design, and ballast engineering
have significant impacts on the effectiveness of these systems. Furthermore, the location
of the decontamination UV array is of crucial importance because of the potential for air
eddies and corners of ducting to allow some of the flow to pass through untreated. HVAC
systems designers and control contractors will have to factor these components into their
plans, and base decontamination systems designs on tested parameters in order to ensure
maximum effectiveness. Because of the constant airflow in modern ventilation systems,
making this work in an HVAC system requires coordination between dampers (in order
to slow the passage of the air enough to allow all particles to receive a sanitizing ray of
UV light) and the UV light itself. While this kind of attention to detail might not be
necessary in installations primarily concerned with improving the day-to-day healthiness
265
of air, in order to control the spread of a deadly bio-terrorist pathogen (such as anthrax or
smallpox) the design of a UVGI system is of critical importance.
Fig. 4. UV germicidal dose required to inactivate 99% of microorganisms at 50% relative

humidity in air. Dose value is for known UV-resistant species of each organism type.
Aspergillis versicolor1 is used for fungi, B. subtilis spores2 for bacterial spores, B.
subtilis3 for vegetative bacteria, and Adenovirus4,5 for viruses.
The effectiveness of UV light as a germicidal agent has resulted in two other techniques
for decontamination. Pulsed UV (PUV) involves pulsing UV lamps at high power at
regular intervals. This technology is being increasingly applied for air and surface
sterilization and decontamination due to the powerful use of advanced UV light lamps
and efficient energy consumption. This is a procedure, which appears to have certain
advantages of very high inactivation rates for most known microorganisms. PUV is also
effective on very hazardous and "hard-to-break" toxic organic compounds and odors from
water, air, or surfaces without producing ozone at a very high speed. These systems use
mercury-free flash lamps that emit pulses at such high energy that the cells are actually
physically destroyed. To have this mechanism work, the rate of the energy deposition
into a microorganism (the fluency rate) must be higher than its rate of cooling to a
surrounding media. In this case, a microorganism undergoes momentous overheating and
disintegration. It is shown that only the Pulsed UV light of a broad spectra can effectively
do this work while Pulsed White Light (PWL) plays no role. Because of this
disintegration action on a microorganism, this pulsed UV sterilization method is named
as the Pulsed UV Disintegration (PUVD). Advantages and limitations of this method are
compared with those of other established sterilization methods. Pulsed UV can sterilize
and disinfect by producing greater than 6 log kills of microorganisms spores and organic
compounds.
266
Fig. 5A. Untreated spores of A. Niger. Fig. 5B. Spores of Aspergillus Niger treated to
two pulses at 33 kw/cm². Note craters around spores formed by sinking of heated spores
into the PET substrate.¹ Fig. 5C. A single spore treated to two pulses of 33 kW/cm². Note
how the spore top was ruptured by an escape of the overheated content of the spore. Note
also the crater around the spore. Fig. 5D. A single spore treated to 5 pulses of 5 kw/cm²
each, open lamp.²
(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)
Fig. 6. (6A) Untreated and (6B) treated Bacillus Subtilis spores. Note the deformation of
the spore and the absence of any cratering around the spore.¹,²
(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)
Another technique that has been suggested in building design is to use the natural UV
component of sunlight to treat air. This process is called passive solar decontamination.
In this scenario, buildings would be constructed with UV transparent walled air passages
that surround the outside of the structure. Filtered air would rise through many stories and
receive lethal UV (solar) doses of natural sunlight as it passed up the columns. After
being decontaminated by sunlight, it would enter the building's HVAC system and be
267
cooled (or heated) and distributed throughout the building. This is an intriguing
possibility, however, because ozone in the earth's atmosphere filters out the most
effective germicidal portion of solar radiation, inactivation rates from sunlight are quite
slow (even in Arizona). In the case of spores, sunlight is not an effective disinfectant.
Indeed, spores have evolved to withstand harsh environments and contain tremendous
DNA repair capabilities.
The EPA has issued several warnings concerning UVGI companies that make
unsubstantiated claims as to the effectiveness of their technology. For example, be careful
of reports by sterilization and decontamination companies making claims such as "the
simultaneous emission of ultrasound or ultrasonic waves and ultraviolet light complement
each other and can effectively sterilize either organic or inorganic items in a non-liquid
environment." No white paper or peer reviews have ever been published confirming these
claims. The public is advised to use proven methods of controlling indoor air pollution.
C. New/Experimental Technologies
A number of other technologies, new or at a more experimental stage, may be useful for
decontaminating air in buildings.
One process is called ozonation. Ozone is piped into an air chamber where it is
thoroughly mixed with air. Ozone reacts with organic particles and pathogens, oxidizing
microorganisms and other chemical toxins. While there may be applications in
decontaminating a room, this technology is not applicable to flow in a ventilation system.
Additionally, ozone generation is energy intensive. Removing the ozone from the
airstream is complex, and involves the use of synthetic catalytic compounds that lose
effectiveness over time as they are saturated with the gas molecules. While there have
been successful water sterilization systems developed using ozone, the process has yet to
be tested on airborne pathogens. The EPA lists ozone as a priority air pollutant and warns
that levels of ozone required to inactivate airborne microorganisms would be in excess of
the current ozone standards. The EPA publication, "Ozone Generators that are Sold as
Air Cleaners: An Assessment of Effectiveness and Health Consequences," states:
"Available scientific evidence shows that at concentrations that do not exceed public
health standards, ozone has little potential to remove indoor air contaminants. If used at
concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone applied to indoor air
does not effectively remove viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants."
Another decontamination technique related to filtration is air purging. This is the process
of flooding a building with clean outside air in order to expunge and dilute contaminated
air. This can be an effective procedure in the aftermath of a biological attack, but requires
vacating the building; opening all windows, doors, and access ways; and then forcing
massive quantities of outside air into the facility. This can be an effective post-incident
response, but does nothing to secure a facility during an attack, or on a day-to-day basis.
Photocatalytic oxidation is another sterilization technology and is based on the

production of several highly reactive short-lived chemical compounds—oxygen-based
268
radicals and ions—that are effective in microorganism disinfection and neutralizing

volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other chemical aerosols. These reactive
compounds are produced by applying short wavelength light (sunlight works well) to
titanium dioxide (TiO2) coatings. Oxidant coatings can be put in paints on walls or used
to coat HEPA filters. The effectiveness of photocatalytic oxidation has been well
documented in publish research. Usually the microorganism is completely destroyed.
While power consumption is low, high enough efficiency for fail-safe bio-terror
applications has not been demonstrated. It is possible that photocatalytic oxidation may
have a place in decontamination systems of the future.
Another chemical filtration technology that has been proposed is the use of activated
carbon (AC) filters. Carbon adsorption operates by virtue of the large surface area of
activated carbon and the tendency for these surfaces to trap and hold onto large organic
molecules. A grain of activated carbon has a tremendous amount of surface area.
Activated charcoal is charcoal that has been treated with oxygen to open up millions of
tiny pores between the carbon atoms. Advances in manufacturing techniques have
resulted in highly porous charcoals that have surface areas of 300-2,000 square meters
per gram. Activated charcoal is good at trapping other carbon-based impurities ("organic"
chemicals), as well as things like chlorine. Many other chemicals are not attracted to
carbon at all—sodium, nitrates, etc.—so they pass right through. This means that an
activated charcoal filter will remove certain impurities while ignoring others. It also
means that, once all of the bonding sites are filled, an activated charcoal filter stops
working. At that point you must replace the filter. AC filters can be a breeding ground for
microorganisms. While carbon adsorption is a common technology in VOC removal from
airstreams its effectiveness in removing biological pathogens in a ventilation application
is not known.
Application
It is hard to imagine a location where healthier, cleaner, safer air would not be desirable.
While biological terrorism may be an isolated occurrence, protecting airflows in
buildings, while greatly improving the health of the occupants from things as simple as
the rhinoviruses that cause colds, makes a great deal of sense. The return on investment
from upgrading air handling systems far outweighs the costs. At a minimum, modified or
newly constructed buildings should be equipped with some type of efficient, low pressure
drop filtration system. Secure rooms, safe havens, and highly vulnerable areas like mail
rooms and lobbies, should be fitted with second and third stage decontamination systems.
At present it appears that UVGI technology when used in conjunction with filtration is an
effective option for building managers to consider for cost effectively offering a level of
protection from airborne microorganisms within the building envelope and interior
systems. When proper measures are chosen for buildings, and integrated into the design
process, the result/performance of any upgrade is dependent on the installation, operation,
and continuing maintenance. The DoD has established "DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism
Standards for Buildings" that require the limitation of airborne contamination within its
buildings. Air decontamination creates a safe and healthy environment for its occupants
and has real economic impact because of its dual use from a security and environmental
269
perspective. When designing buildings, value engineering many times compromises

health and security risks. Current opinion is that guidelines and standards will be
published that will include air decontamination system upgrades or modifications rather
than new requirements to the building codes.
The Worldwide web is an important source of further information on this topic. Web
information provided by government agencies and professional societies is the most
reliable and is usually based on peer reviewed research. Technical peer reviewed research
journals are also reliable sources, and focus more on the fundamental science behind each
technology. Use caution with data presented on websites that are not substantiated by
peer review literature or results from well-documented experiments.

ASHRAE
• Guideline 1 Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems

• Standard 52 Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation
for Removing Particular Matter
• Standard 62 Minimum Acceptable Ventilation Requirements
• Standard 90.1 Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings
Department of Defense:

• FM 3-19.30 Physical Security—Sets forth guidance for all personnel responsible
for physical security.
• NAVFAC MIL-HDBK-1013 series
• Tri-Services Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS)—UFGS, organized
by MasterFormat™ divisions, are for use in specifying construction for the
military services. Several UFGS exist for sustainability and security/safety-related
topics.
• USAF Installation Force Protection Guide
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA):
• FEMA 386-7 Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning

• FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against
Buildings
• FEMA 427 Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to Mitigate Terrorist
Attacks
• FEMA 428 Primer to Design Safe School Projects in Case of Terrorist Attacks
• FEMA 429 Insurance, Finance, and Regulation Primer for Terrorism Risk
Management in Buildings
270
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment - A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist

Attacks Against Buildings
• FEMA 453 Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms
GSA
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100, GSA Mechanical and
Air Handling Requirements, Chapter 5
Other Standards
• American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)—

Provides threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and
biological exposure indices.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
• 29 CFR Part 1910.1000, OSHA Air Contaminants—Examines air contaminants,
permissible exposure limits.
WBDG
Applicable and relevant to all building types and space types.
Design Objectives
Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building

Systems Appropriately, Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces, Productive—
Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments,
Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental
Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope
Design Guide
Project Management
Building Commissioning, Project Delivery Teams, Project Planning and Development,

Project Delivery and Controls
Organizations
271
• The American Institute of Architects (AIA), Building Security Through Design

Resource Center—An AIA resource center that offers architects and others, up-to-
date, in-depth material on building security issues
• American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS)—Locates security specialists and
provides the Crisis Response Resources link to find information related to
terrorism and building security
• American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
• Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA)—Information on
emergency planning and security assessments
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)—Health guidance for CBR
agents
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
• International Facility Management Association (IFMA)—Information on
security-related training courses
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory—Website with advice for safeguarding
buildings against chemical or biological attack
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—Health and
safety guidance, publications, and training information
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• Homeland Security and the Indoor Environment website—Provides many links
and references to security and air issues
• U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)
Publications
• Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation by

the Congressional Research Service. 2005.
• ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory by American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1979. Air cleaners.
Equipment. As cited in reference 16.
• Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers by
EPA.—Provides procedures and checklists for developing a building profile and
performing preventive maintenance in commercial buildings
• Chemical, Biological, Radiological Incident Handbook by CIA.—Unclassified
document describing potential CBR events, recognizing potential CBR events,
differences between agents, common symptoms, and information for making
preliminary assessments when a CBR release is suspected
• Facility Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by GSA.—Establishes
design standards and criteria for new buildings, major and minor alterations, and
work in historic structures for the Public Building Service. Also provides
information on conducting building security assessments.
• Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,
Biological, or Radiological Attacks by NIOSH.
272
• Risk Management Guidance for Health and Safety under Extraordinary Incidents
by ASHRAE Presidential Study Group. 12 Jan 2002.—Draft report provides
recommendations for owners and managers of existing buildings
• TI 853-01, Protecting Buildings and Their Occupants from Airborne Hazards
(DRAFT) by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).—Document presents a
variety of ways to protect building occupants from airborne hazards
Figure 4 Footnotes
1. Douglas VanOsdell and Karin Foarde (2002). Defining the effectiveness of UV

lamps installed in the circulation air ductwork. Air Conditioning and
Refrigeration Technology Institute. Report # ARTI-21CR/610-40030-01.
2. Peccia, J. and M. Hernandez. (2001). Photoreactivation of airborne
Mycobacterium Parafortuitum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67:
4225-4232.
3. Peccia, J., H. Werth, Miller, S. L and M. Hernandez. (2001). Effects of relative
humidity on the ultraviolet inactivation of airborne bacteria. Journal of Aerosol
Science and Technology, 35: 728-740.
4. Jensen, M.M. (1964). Inactivation of airborne viruses by ultraviolet irradiation.
Applied Microbiology, 12: 418-421.
5. Kowalsiki, W.J., Bahnfleth, WP. (2001). UVGI design basics for air and surface
disinfection. IUVA News, 3:4-7.
Figures 5 and 6 Footnotes
1. Wekhof, A., J. Trompeter, O. Franken, (2001). "Pulsed UVB Disintegration

(PUVBD): A New Sterilization Mechanism for Broad Medical-Hospital and
Packaging Applications." Proceedings of the First International Congress on
Ultraviolet Technologies, June 15-17, 2001. Washington DC, USA.
2. SteriBeam Systems GmbH, Phone: (916) 984-6551.
273
Provide Comfortable Environments

Overview
Physical comfort is critical to work effectiveness, satisfaction, and physical and
psychological well-being. Uncomfortable conditions in the workplace—too hot, too cold,
too noisy, too dark, too light, too much glare—restrict the ability of workers to function
to full capacity and can lead to lowered job satisfaction and increases in illness
symptoms.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
• Provide a superior acoustic environment

• Maintain optimal thermal comfort
• Create a high quality visual environment, and
• Provide furniture and equipment that will enhance worker comfort and
performance.
• Provide user controls.
Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
Recommendations
Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment
• Reduce sound reverberation time inside the workplace by specifying sound

absorbing materials and by configuring spaces to dampen rather than magnify
sound reverberation.
• Provide sound masking if necessary.
• Limit transmission of noise from outside the workplace by designing high sound
transmission class (STC) walls between work areas and high noise areas inside
and outside the building.
• Minimize background noise from the building's HVAC system and other
equipment.
• Provide opportunities for privacy and concentration when needed in open plan
offices.
• Enclose or separate group activity spaces from work areas where concentration is
important.
274
Provide Quality Thermal and Ventilation Comfort
• At a minimum, comply with American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air

Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55 Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy.
• Incorporate natural ventilation, if appropriate to the location, and consider
adjusting the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55 to account for the impact.
• Analyze room configurations and HVAC distribution layouts to ensure all parts of
a room are receiving adequate ventilation, especially spaces where teams or
groups meet. Consider providing individual environmental controls in these
rooms.
• Analyze placement, configuration, and type of windows and skylights and provide
adequate, controllable shading to avoid "hot spots" caused by direct sunlight.
• Consider providing a temperature and humidity monitoring system to ensure
optimal thermal comfort performance.
• Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility,
personal comfort control, and energy savings.
• Provide individual air and temperature controls at each workstation.
• Utilize CO2 sensors to assess the air quality of spaces to adjust ventilation.
One solution for providing quality thermal and ventilation comfort is enhanced
ventilation terminal control system with multi-zone VAV box terminal controls and
individual airflow controls (personal air-conditioning).
(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions
Directorate)
Create a High Quality Visual Environment (Including Lighting,

Daylighting, and Visual Interest)
275
Low-glare retrofit lenses, C. D. Howe Building, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions
Directorate)
• Provide as much natural daylight as possible for occupants while avoiding

excessive heat loss, heat gain, and glare.
• Provide views and access to the outdoor environment for all occupants.
• Provide connections to indoor and outdoor nature where possible.
• Integrate natural and electric lighting strategies, and provide controls that
optimize daylighting/electric lighting interaction. Light vertical surfaces/walls to
increase the perceived brightness of the space.
• Balance the quantity and quality of light in all work areas and design for
"uniformity with flexibility." Consider individually controlled task lighting for
each workstation that properly illuminates the task.
• Control or eliminate glare from ceiling lighting and windows.
• Provide individual control of task lighting and, where possible, adjustment of
ceiling light using advanced lighting systems technologies.
• Assure a visually appealing environment through the appropriate and well-

balanced use of scale, colors, textures, patterns, aretwork, and plants.
• Avoid both uniformity and visual chaos.
• See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of Space.
Left: Workplace environments with well balanced color and patterns are pleasant and
appealing. This photo shows an informal work area at the Herman Miller Front Door in
276
Holland, Michigan. And Right: The beige cubicle environment lacking color
embellishment or pattern is, unfortunately, a common site in many work environments.
Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort

and Performance
• Adapt furnishings to the work to be done, not the other way around.
• Specify furnishings that support good posture, body mechanics, and work
techniques for the tasks to be accomplished (e.g. ergonomically designed chairs
and keyboards).
• Provide workstations that allow users to adjust seating, computer equipment
placement, light levels, work surface heights, workspace layout, and ventilation.
• Install glass panels in workstation walls to provide access to daylight and views.
• Design furniture configurations that allow workers variable views for visual
relief.
• For telecommuting workers, the sponsoring organization should assure that the
home office is comfortable, ergonomic, and has the necessary technological tools.

• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy
Major Resources
WBDG
visited.
Design Objectives
Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation,

Secure / Safe, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / Safe—
Provide Security for Occupants and Assets, Sustainable, Sustainable—Use
Environmental Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental
Project Management
277
Tools
Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment
• Acoustical Society of America

• American Speech-Hearing-Language Association
Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p. 123)
• GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100 (p. 3-59)
• Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA
• National Council of Acoustical Consultants
• National Research Council of Canada
• Reference Materials—NIH Design Policy and Guidelines (p. 15)
• TM 5-803-2/NAVFAC P-970/AFM 19-10 Environmental Protection Planning in
the Noise Environment
• UFC 3-450-01 Noise and Vibration Control
Maintain Optimal Thermal Comfort
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers

• Carnegie Mellon Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics
• Federal User's Manual (p. 10-1)
• UFC 3-440-06N Cooling Buildings by Natural Ventilation
• University of California-Berkeley, Center for the Built Environment
Create a High Quality Visual Environment
• Designlights Consortium
• Energy Star®—EPA
• Federal User's Manual (p. 3-1)
Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p.37, p.121)
• Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
• Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
• Light Right Consortium, Battelle/Pacific Northwest Laboratory
• TI 811-16 Lighting Design
Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort

and Performance
278

• EP 385-1-96 USACE Ergonomics Program Procedures
• Occupational Health and Safety Administration
279
Secure / Safe
by the WBDG Safe Committee
Overview
Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—
Washington, DC
The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal
for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern
for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the
design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for
the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb
threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical
emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of
hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes,
etc.).
Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates
—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of
operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the
various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to
consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions.
This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible
perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on
this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the
appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security
requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed,
and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.
280
Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and
physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from
unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of
guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways
and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a
deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When
they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated
into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.
Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four

fundamental principles of multi-hazard building design:

Planning for fire protection for a building involves a systems approach that
enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building
fire safety system package.
Some injuries and illnesses are related to unsafe or unhealthy building design and
operation. These can usually be prevented by measures that take into account
issues such as indoor air quality, electrical safety, fall protection, ergonomics, and
accident prevention.
Each year U.S. taxpayers pay over $35 billion for recovery efforts, including
repairing damaged buildings and infrastructure, from the impacts of hurricanes,
floods, earthquakes, tornados, blizzards, and other natural disasters. A significant
percentage of this could be saved if our buildings properly anticipated the risk
associated with major natural hazards.
Effective secure building design involves implementing countermeasures to deter,
delay, detect, and deny attacks from human aggressors. It also provides for
mitigating measures to limit hazards and prevent catastrophic damage should an
attack occur.
Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other
Emerging Issues
Information Sensitivity
As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks
of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people,
buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges,
because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation
281
can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For
that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any
information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a
critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect
such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable
local, state, and federal laws.
Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements
There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose
conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include
Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access
control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good
communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the
entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure
buidings.
Renewed Emphasis on Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Threats
Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and
designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to
mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and
Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate
them.
Development and Training on Occupant Emergency Plans
Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines
of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of
Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and
property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or
minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-
emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants;
training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and
conducting actual drills.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs

282
Tools
LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool
Publications
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist
• Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series, FEMA 386 Series.
• The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and
Key Assets", The White House. February 2003.
• Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism by the Committee on
the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism, Building Research Board,
• Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA
386-2.
• United for a Stronger America: Citizen's Preparedness Guide (PDF 647 KB, 30
pgs)
• Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and
Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors; Committee on
Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design Criteria, National
Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.
Websites
• The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP)
Secure / Safe
Overview
283
Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—
Washington, DC
The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal
for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern
for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the
design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for
the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb
threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical
emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of
hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes,
etc.).
Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates
—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of
operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the
various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to
consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions.
This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible
perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on
this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the
appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security
requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed,
and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.
Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and
physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from
unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of
guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways
and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a
deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When
they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated
into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.
284
Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four

fundamental principles of multi-hazard building design:

Planning for fire protection for a building involves a systems approach that
enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building
fire safety system package.
Some injuries and illnesses are related to unsafe or unhealthy building design and
operation. These can usually be prevented by measures that take into account
issues such as indoor air quality, electrical safety, fall protection, ergonomics, and
accident prevention.
Each year U.S. taxpayers pay over $35 billion for recovery efforts, including
repairing damaged buildings and infrastructure, from the impacts of hurricanes,
floods, earthquakes, tornados, blizzards, and other natural disasters. A significant
percentage of this could be saved if our buildings properly anticipated the risk
associated with major natural hazards.
Effective secure building design involves implementing countermeasures to deter,
delay, detect, and deny attacks from human aggressors. It also provides for
mitigating measures to limit hazards and prevent catastrophic damage should an
attack occur.
Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other
Emerging Issues
Information Sensitivity
As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks
of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people,
buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges,
because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation
can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For
that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any
information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a
critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect
such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable
local, state, and federal laws.

285
There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose
conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include
Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access
control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good
communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the
entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure
buidings.
Renewed Emphasis on Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Threats
Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and
designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to
mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and
Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate
them.
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines
of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of
Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and
property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or
minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-
emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants;
training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and
conducting actual drills.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs
Tools
LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool
Publications
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
286
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist

• Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series, FEMA 386 Series.
• The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and
Key Assets", The White House. February 2003.
• Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism by the Committee on
the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism, Building Research Board,
• Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA
386-2.
• United for a Stronger America: Citizen's Preparedness Guide (PDF 647 KB, 30
pgs)
• Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and
Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors; Committee on
Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design Criteria, National
Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.
Websites
Plan for Fire Protection

Overview
The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of
any modern technological society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be
designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and automatic fire protection
systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and
extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved
in all aspects of the design in order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human
life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to reduce the potential loss from
fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning for
fire protection in/around a building involves an integrated systems approach that enables
the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety
system package. The analysis requires more than code compliance or meeting the
minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes
are intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do
not necessarily protect the mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new
projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to creatively and efficiently
287
integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other design
strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety.
Recommendations
Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include:
Design Team—It is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire
Protection Engineer with adequate experience and knowledge in fire protection and life
safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in all phases of design,
from planning to occupancy.
Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)—to be utilized by the design
team, including statutory requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's
performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes imposed by insurance carriers
on commerical projects.
Site Requirements—A quality site design will integrate performance requirements

associated with fire department access, suppression, and separation distances and
site/building security.
• Fire department access

o Design buildings with uncomplicated layouts that enable firefighters to
locate an area quickly.
o Provide rapid access to various features such as fire department
connections (FDCs), hose valves, elevators and stairs, annunciators, key
boxes, etc.
o Accommodate the access of fire apparatus into and around the building
site
• Fire hydrants
Coordinate with security measures
Building Construction Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
• Construction type, allowable height, and area

• Exposures/separation requirements
• Fire ratings, materials, and systems
288
• Occupancy types
• Interior finish
• Exit stairway enclosure
Egress Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
• Exit stairway remoteness

• Exit discharge
• Areas of refuge
• Accessible exits
• Door locking arrangements (security interface)
Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the
following elements:
• Detection
• Notification
• Survivability of systems
Fire Suppression Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

289
• Water supply
• Type of automatic fire extinguishing system
o Water-based fire extinguishing system
o Non-water-based fire extinguishing system
• Standpipes and fire department hose outlets
Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following
elements:
• Survivability of systems
• Electrical Safety
• Distributed Energy Resources
Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
• Engineered smoke control systems

• Fireproofing and firestopping
• Atrium spaces
• Mission critical facility needs
EMERGING ISSUES
The terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 have caused design and engineering
professionals to address integrated fire protection and security measures for the building
site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection measures must be
well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another
example is the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic
emergency operations in the event of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR)
event.
A growing movement to "sustainability," including a greater emphasis on life-cycle cost

as an engineering community and building code objective, could potentially require a
new approach to codes and standards.
Performance-Based Design (PBD)
The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners,
designers, special consultants, and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to
achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers
has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide
to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE
Code Official's Guide to Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in
collaboration with ICC).
290

Building codes and fire codes vary across the nation. For federal projects, consult with
the appropriate federal agency or the Contracting Officer. For non-federal projects
consult with the appropriate building code and fire code official, for minimum and
recommended fire safety measures.
Legislation
• OMB Circular A-119—Federal Participation in the Development and Use of

Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities
• P.L. 93-498—Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act, 1974
• P.L. 100-678, Section 21—Public Building Amendments, 1988
• P.L. 102-522—Fire Administration Authorization Act of 1992 (aka Federal Fire
Safety Act)
Federal Guidelines
• DOD: UFC 3-600-01 Design: Fire Protection Engineering for Facilities

• GSA: Facilities Standard for the Public Building Service, P100
• GSA: Fire Safety Retrofitting in Historic Buildings by Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation and General Services Administration. 1989.
• HUD: Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies
• VA: Design Manual: Fire Protection
Other Publications
• Fire Publications - Evacuation, NIST—a compendium of research and position

papers on multi-hazard evacuation theory
Major Resources
Standards and Code Organizations
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

• FM Global
• International Code Council, Inc. (ICC)
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
• Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)
Associations
• American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA)

• Automatic Fire Alarm Association (AFAA)
291
• National Fire Sprinkler Association (NFSA)

• Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)
Laboratories
• NIST Building and Fire Research Lab
Universities
• Oklahoma State University School of Fire Protection and Safety

• University of Maryland Fire Protection Engineering
• Worcester Polytechnic Institute Fire Protection Engineering and Center for Fire
Safety Studies
Others
• NAVFAC Community of Interest for Fire Protection Engineering

• U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Ensure Occupant Safety and Health

Overview
Threats to occupants from indoor air contamination can be studied in Computational

Fluid Dynamics.
Modern buildings are generally considered safe and healthy working environments.
However, the potential for indoor air quality problems, occupational illnesses and
injuries, exposure to hazardous materials, and accidental falls beckons architects,
engineers, and facility managers to design and maintain buildings and processes that
292
ensure occupant safety and health. Notably, building designs must focus on eliminating
or preventing hazards to personnel, rather than relying on personal protective equipment
and administrative or process procedures to prevent mishaps.
Protecting the health, safety, and welfare (HSW) of building occupants has expanded
beyond disease prevention and nuisance control to include mental as well as physical
health (see Productive) and protecting the ecological health of a place (see Sustainable)
through the creation of places that enable delight and the realization of human potential.
Therefore, the design team must engage an integrated approach, including work process
analysis and hazard recognition to develop solutions that provide healthy built
environments, having no undue physical stressors, as well as meeting other project
requirements. In addition, consideration of HSW issues should be an integral part of all
phases of a building's life cycle: planning, design, construction, operations and
maintenance, renovation, and final disposal.
• Provide designs that eliminate or reduce hazards in the work place to prevent
mishaps and reduce reliance on personal protective equipment.
• Prevent occupational injuries and illnesses.
• Prevent falls from heights.
• Prevent slips, trips, and falls.
• Ensure electrical safety from turn-over through Operations and Maintenance.
Modifications must be in conformance with life safety codes and standards and be
documented.
• Eliminate exposure to hazardous materials (e.g., volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and formaldehyde, and lead and asbestos in older buildings).
• Provide good indoor air quality (IAQ) and adequate ventilation.
• Analyze work requirements and provide ergonomic work places to prevent work-
related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD).
• Perform proper building operations and maintenance.
Recommendations
Provide Designs that Eliminate or Reduce Hazards in the Work Place to
Prevent Mishaps
• Provide designs in accordance with good practice as well as applicable building,

fire, safety, and health codes and regulations. See Standards and Code
Organizations.
• Conduct preliminary hazard analyses and design reviews to eliminate or mitigate
hazards in the work place.
• Use registered design professionals and accredited safety professionals to ensure
compliance with safety standards and codes.
• Provide engineering controls in place rather than rely on personal protective
equipment or administrative work procedures to prevent mishaps.
293
• Integrate safety mechanisms, such as built-in anchors or tie-off points, into the
building design, especially for large mechanical systems.
• Design a means for safely cleaning and maintaining interior spaces and building
exteriors.
• Provide for receiving, storing, and handling of materials, such as combustibles,
cleaning products, office supplies, and perishables.
Prevent Occupational Injuries and Illnesses
• Consider work practices, employee physical requirements, and eliminating

confined spaces when designing buildings and processes.
• Design for safe replacement and modifications of equipment to reduce the risk of
injury to operations and maintenance staff.
• Comply with applicable regulatory requirements such as the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. All OSHA standards are available
in the 29 Code of Federal Regulation) (1926—Construction, and 1910—General
Industry).
• Provide proper ventilation under all circumstances, and allow for natural lighting
where possible. See High-Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.
• Mitigate noise hazards from equipment and processes.
• Designate safe locations for installation of RF equipment such as antennas on
rooftop penthouses.
Prevent Falls from Heights
• Provide guardrails and barriers that will prevent falls from heights in both interior
and exterior spaces.
• Provide fall protection for all maintenance personnel especially for roof-mounted
equipment such as HVAC equipment and cooling towers.
• Provide certified tie-off points for fall arrest systems.
Prevent Slips, Trips, and Falls
• Provide interior and exterior floor surfaces that do not pose slip or trip hazards.
• Select exterior walking surface materials that are not susceptible to changes in
elevation as a result of freeze/thaw cycles.
• Provide adequate illumination, both natural and artificial, for all interior and
exterior areas. See Daylighting and Energy Efficient Lighting.
• Comply with all regulatory and statutory requirements such as the Americans
with Disabilities Act. See WBDG Accessible Branch.
Ensure Electrical Safety
• Ensure compliance with the National Electrical Code (NEC).

• Provide adequate space for maintenance, repair, and expansion in electrical rooms
and closets.
294
• Provide adequate drainage and/or containment from areas with energized

electrical equipment.
• Evaluate all areas where ground fault circuit interruption devices may be needed.
• Consider response of emergency personnel in cases of fires and natural disasters.
• Label all electrical control panels and circuits.
• Install non-conductive flooring at service locations for high voltage equipment.
• Specify high-visibility colors for high voltage ducts and conduits.
Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials
• Identify, isolate, remove, or manage in place hazardous materials such as lead,

asbestos, etc.
• Consider use of sampling techniques for hazardous substances in all phases of the
project to include planning, design, construction, and maintenance.
• Consider occupant operations and materials in designing ventilation and drainage
systems.
• Incorporate integrated pest management (IPM) concepts and requirements into
facility design and construction (e.g., use of proper door sweeps, lighting, trash
compactors, etc.) and require the use of IPM be performed by qualified personnel
during all phases of construction and after the facility is completed. This should
include not only interior pest management, but landscape and turf pest
management as well. See Sustainable O&M.
• Provide adequate space for hazardous materials storage compartments and
segregate hazardous materials to avoid incompatibility.
• Substitute high hazardous products with those of lower toxicity/physical
properties.
295
Typical ventilation system design for fume hood systems in laboratories. Air may be
supplied through single- or dual-duct constant air volume (CAV) or variable air volume
(VAV) systems.
Provide Good Indoor Air Quality and Adequate Ventilation
• Consider ventilation systems that will exceed minimum ASHRAE standards.

• Recognize and provide specially designed industrial ventilation for all industrial
processes to remove potential contaminants from the breathing zone.
• Design separate ventilation systems for industrial and hazardous areas within a
building.
• Consider the use of carbon monoxide (CO) monitoring equipment if there are CO
sources, such as fuel-burning equipment or garages, in the building.
• Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants
such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). See Green Products.
• Consider the indoor relative humidity in the design of the ventilation system.
• Avoid interior insulation of ductwork.
• Locate outside air intakes to minimize entrainment of exhaust fumes and other
odors. (e.g., vehicle exhaust, grass cutting and ground maintenance activities,
industrial pollutant sources, cooling tower blow-offs, and sewage ejector pits).
• Ensure the integrity of the building envelope, including caulks and seals, to
preclude water intrusion that may contribute to mold growth.
• Prevent return air plenums/systems from entraining air from unintended spaces.
• Provide air barriers at interior walls between thermally different spaces to prevent
mold and mildew.
Provide Ergonomic Workplaces and Furniture to Prevent Work-Related

Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD)
• Design work places that make the job fit the person. See WBDG Functional
Branch.
• Select furnishings, chairs, and equipment that are ergonomically designed and
approved for that use.
• Design equipment and furnishings reflective of work practices in an effort to
eliminate repetitive motions and vibrations as well as prevent strains and sprains.
• Consider using worker comfort surveys in the design phase to help eliminate
work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
• Accept the principle that one size does not fit all employees. See Accessible—
Plan for Flexibility.
• Consider providing break areas to allow the employees to temporarily leave the
work place.
• Minimize lighting glare on computer monitor screens. Provide task lighting at
workstations to minimize eye fatigue. See Energy Efficient Lighting.
Perform Proper Building Operations and Maintenance

296
Proper preventative maintenance (PM) not only improves the useful life of the systems
and building structures, but it can lend to good indoor air quality and prevent "sick
building" syndromes. See Sustainable O&M Practices.
• Ensure all maintenance and operation documentation, especially an equipment

inventory, is submitted to the building owner/operator prior to building
occupancy.
• Follow manufacturer recommendations for proper building operations and
maintenance.
• Include safety training of operator personnel as part of the construction
contractor's deliverables.
• Require the use of integrated pest management (IPM) for all pest management
services, interior and exterior of the building.
• Require building maintenance personnel to maintain the HVAC air infiltration
devices and condensate water biocides appropriately.
• Monitor chemical inventories to identify opportunities to substitute green
products.
Emerging Issues
During the last week of January 2000, the Department of Labor said that employers
would not be held liable for health and safety violations occurring in the homes of
telecommuting employees. See "Home Office Isn't Liability for Firms, U.S. Decides,"
New York Times, 28 January 2000. The Department of Labor stated that it would not
hold employers responsible for health and safety violations that occur in home
workplaces other than home offices, for example, fireworks being manufactured in the
home or other activities involving the use of hazardous materials.
Potential exposure of building occupants to molds from contaminated HVAC systems,

especially during maintenance and renovation projects, remains a serious concern.
Reaction to exposure can range from negligible to severe among building occupants and
can frequently be very difficult to definitively identify as a causal factor for occupants'
symptoms. Special care must be exercised in HVAC design, especially, to prevent
excessive humidity in system components.
297
Cotton-pleated filters are possible safe, cost-effective alternatives to conventional

fiberglass filters
Fiberglass is used extensively in building construction, especially for insulation and

sound attenuation in HVAC systems. Considerable concern exists regarding the potential
adverse health effects of inhaling fiberglass fibers. A number of studies are currently
investigating the long-term effects of inhalation exposure to fiberglass. At a minimum,
fiberglass exposed to the air stream in an HVAC system will shed particles and serve as a
matrix for collecting dust and dirt that act as a substrate for microbial growth.
Contamination of domestic hot water systems, cooling towers, and condensate pans
continues to result in infections of building occupants on a regular basis. The results of
such infections can range from mild to fatal and affect one or many employees. They
invariably result in employee apprehension and media attention. Mechanical engineers
must be vigilant to avoid system designs that may promote the growth of legionella sp.

• ANSI Z9 Series, Ventilation Standards American National Standards Institute and
American Industrial Hygiene Association
• Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended Paractice American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
• International Building Code International Code Council
• NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code National Fire Protection
Association
• Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act 1970, 29 U.S.C. § 651 et seq.; 29
C.F.R. Part 1903.1 et seq.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910 Code of Federal
Regulations for General Industry (pertains to post-occupancy)
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1926 Code of Federal
Regulations for Construction (pertains to construction phase)
Ensure Electrical Safety

298
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910-Subpart S,

Sections 301 to 309
• UFC 3-560-10N Safety of Electrical Transmission and Distribution Systems
Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials
• AFI 32-1052 Facility Asbestos Management

• ASTM E1368 Standard Practice for Visual Inspection of Asbestos Abatement
Projects
• ASTM E2356 Standard Practice for Comprehensive Building Asbestos Surveys
• ASTM E2394 Standard Practice for Maintenance, Renovation and Repair of
Installed Asbestos Cement Products
• EP 1110-1-11 Engineering and Design Asbestos Abatement Guideline Detail
Sheets
• EPA 20T-2003 Managing Asbestos in Place
• EPA 560/5-85-024 Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in
Buildings
• EPA 560-OPTS-86-001 A Guide to Respiratory Protection for the Asbestos
Abatement Industry
• VA VHA Program Guide 1850.2, Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Provide Good Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and Adequate Ventilation
• ASHRAE Standard 52—Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in

General Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter
• ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy
• ASHRAE Standard 62—Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality: Sets the
minimum acceptable ventilation requirements.
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1—Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings
• UFC 3-410-02N Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Dehumidifying
Systems
• UFC 3-410-04N Industrial Ventilation
• NISTIR 5329 Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated
Commercial Buildings
• OSHA Technical Manual—Section III, Legionnaires' Disease
Provide Ergonomic Work Places to Prevent Work-Related

Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD)
• EP 385-1-96 USACE Ergonomics Program Policy

• Final Rule on Ergonomics Program, 65 Fed. Reg. 68,261 (Nov. 14, 2000),
codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1910.900
Perform Proper Building Operations and Maintenance

299
• ASHRAE Guideline 1—Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems

• VA VHA Program Guide 1850.2, Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Accessible, Functional / Operational, Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being,

Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments, Sustainable
Publications
• Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation

(PDF 82 KB, 19 pgs) by the Congressional Research Service. 2005.
Federal Agencies and Programs
• Consumer Products Safety Commission

• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—The Federal
agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the
prevention of work-related disease and injury. The Institute is part of the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
• National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care
• Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA)
• OSHA Emergency Preparedness/Planning Info
• OSHA eTools and Electronic Products for Compliance Assistance
• OSHA Legionnaires' Disease Design Guidance
Standards and Code Organizations

• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA)
• FM Global
• International Code Council, Inc. (ICC)
• International Conference of Building Officials, Inc. (ICBO)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA)
• Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI)
• Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)
300
Associations and Organizations
• American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE)

• Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
• Institute for Safety Through Design (ISTD)—Established in 1995 by the National
Safety Council's Business and Industry Division, the Institute works toward
improving the design and development of all processes involved in industrial
operations, including equipment, tooling, products, work methods, training,
facilities, systems, and delivery of services.
• International Society for Occupational Ergonomics and Safety (ISOES)
• National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care
• National Safety Council (NSC)—A leading source of safety and health
information in the United States. Also offers Professional Development Seminars
and Technical Sessions.
• Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)
Others
• RiskWorld
Resist Natural Hazards

Overview
Buildings in any geographic location are subject to a wide variety of natural phenomena
such as windstorms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. While the occurrence of
these events cannot be precisely predicted, their impacts are well understood and can be
managed effectively through a comprehensive program of hazard mitigation planning.
Mitigation refers to measures that can reduce or eliminate the vulnerability of the built
environment to hazards, whether natural or man-made. The fundamental goal of
mitigation is to minimize loss of life, property, and function due to disasters. Designing
to resist any hazard(s) should always begin with a comprehensive risk assessment. This
process includes identification of the hazards present in the location and an assessment of
their potential impacts and effects on the built environment based on existing or
anticipated vulnerabilities and potential losses.
It is common for different organizations to use varying nomenclature to refer to the

components of risk assessment. For example, terrorism and foreign military power are
referred to as "threats" by the intelligence community, while hurricanes and floods are
referred to as "hazards" by emergency managers; however, both are simply forces that
301
have the potential to cause damage, death, and injury, and loss of function in the built
environment. Regardless of who is conducting the risk assessment, the fundamental
process of identifying what can happen at a given location, how it can affect the built
environment, and what the potential losses could be, remains essentially the same from
application to application.
Only after the overall risk is fully understood should mitigation measures be identified,
prioritized, and implemented. Basic principles underlying this process include:
• The impacts of natural hazards and the costs of the disasters they cause will be
reduced whether mitigation measures are implemented pre-disaster (preventively)
or post-disaster (correctively). Proactively integrating mitigation measures into
new construction is always more economically feasible than retrofitting existing
structures.
• Risk reduction techniques should address as many applicable hazards as possible.
This approach, known as multi-hazard mitigation, is the most Cost-Effective
approach, maximizes the protective effect of the mitigation measures
implemented, and optimizes multi-hazard design techniques with other building
technologies.
• All mitigation is local. Most mitigation measures, whether structural or
regulatory, fall under the jurisdiction of local government. Additionally,
mitigation initiatives are most effective when they involve the full participation of
local stakeholders.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Design professionals agree that the most successful way to mitigate losses of life,
property, and function is to design buildings that are disaster resistant. This approach
should be incorporated into the project planning, design, and development at the earliest
possible stage so that design and material decisions can be based on an integrated "whole
building approach."
A variety of techniques are available to mitigate the effects of natural hazards on the built
environment. Depending on the hazards identified, the location and construction type of a
proposed building or facility, and the specific performance requirements for the building,
the structure can be designed to resist hazard effects such as induced loads. Later in the
building's life cycle, additional opportunities to further reduce the risk from natural
hazards may exist when renovation projects and repairs of the existing structure is
undertaken. When incorporating disaster reduction measures into building design, some
or all of the issues outlined below should be considered in order to protect lives,
properties, and operations from damages caused by natural hazards.
Earthquakes
Building design will be influenced by the level of seismic resistance desired. This can
range from prevention of nonstructural damage in frequent minor ground shaking to
302
prevention of structural damage and minimization of nonstructural damage in occasional

moderate ground shaking, and even avoidance of collapse or serious damage in rare
major ground shaking. These performance objectives can be accomplished through a
variety of measures such as structural components like shear walls, braced frames,
moment resisting frames, and diaphragms, base isolation, energy dissipating devices such
as visco-elastic dampers, elastomeric dampers, and hysteretic-loop dampers, and bracing
of nonstructural components.
Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tornadoes
The key strategy to protecting a building from high winds caused by tornados, hurricanes,
and gust fronts is to maintain the integrity of the building envelope, including roofs and
windows, and to design the structure to withstand the expected lateral and uplift forces.
For example, roof trusses and gables should be braced; hurricane straps should be used to
strengthen the connection between the roof and walls; and doors and windows should be
protected by covering and/or bracing. When planning renovation projects, designers
should consider opportunities to upgrade the roof structure and covering and enhance the
protection of fenestration. The Additional Resources section of this page includes several
FEMA publications for designing community shelters, constructed to protect a large
number of people from a natural hazard event, and "residential safe rooms" for occupant
refuge during windstorms.
Flooding
Flood mitigation is best achieved by hazard avoidance—that is, proper site selection
away from floodplains. Should buildings be sited in flood-prone locations, they should be
elevated above expected flood levels to reduce the chances of flooding and to limit the
potential damage to the building and its contents when it is flooded. Flood mitigation
techniques include elevating the building so that the lowest floor is above the flood level;
dry flood-proofing, or making the building watertight to prevent water entry; wet flood-
proofing, or making uninhabited or non-critical parts of the building resistant to water
damage; relocation of the building; and the incorporation of levees and floodwalls into
site design to keep water away from the building.
Rainfall and Wind-Driven Rain
One of the primary performance requirements for any building is that it should keep the
interior space dry. All roofs and walls must therefore shed rainwater, and design
requirements are the same everywhere in this respect. For example, roof drainage design
should minimize the possibility of ponding water, and existing buildings with flat roofs
should be inspected to determine compliance with this requirement. Recommendations
for addressing rainfall and wind-driven rain can be found in the International Building
Code (IBC) series.
Differential Settlement (Subsidence)

303
Ground subsidence can result from mining, sinkholes, underground fluid withdrawal,
hydrocompaction, and organic soil drainage and oxidation. Subsidence mitigation can
best be achieved through careful site selection, including geotechnical study of the site. In
subsidence-prone areas, foundations should be appropriately constructed, basements and
other below-ground projections should be minimized, and utility lines and connections
should be stress-resistant. When retrofitting structures to be more subsidence-resistant,
shear walls, geo-fabrics, and earth reinforcement techniques such as dynamic compaction
can be used to increase resistance to subsidence damage and to stabilize collapsible soils.
Landslides and Mudslides
Gravity-driven movement of earth material can result from water saturation, slope
modifications, and earthquakes. Techniques for reducing landslide and mudslide risks to
structures include selecting non-hillside or stable slope sites; constructing channels,
drainage systems, retention structures, and deflection walls; planting groundcover; and
soil reinforcement using geo-synthetic materials, and avoiding cut and fill building sites.
Forest Fires
As residential developments expand into wild land areas, people and property are
increasingly at risk from wildfire. Fire is a natural process in any wild land area and
serves an important purpose; however, if ground cover is burned away, erosion, landslide,
mudflow, and flood hazards can be exacerbated. A cleared safety zone of at least 30 feet
(100 feet in pine forests) should be maintained between structures and combustible
vegetation, and fire-resistant ground cover, shrubs, and trees should be used for
landscaping (for example, hardwood trees are less flammable than pines, evergreens,
eucalyptus or firs). Only fire-resistant or non-combustible materials should be used on
roofs and exterior surfaces. Roofs and gutters should be regularly cleaned and chimneys
should be equipped with spark arrestors. Vents, louvers, and other openings should be
covered with wire mesh to prevent embers and flaming debris from entering. Overhangs,
eaves, porches, and balconies can trap heat and burning embers and should also be
avoided or minimized and protected with wire mesh. Windows allow radiated heat to
pass through and ignite combustible materials inside, but dual- or triple-pane thermal
glass, fire-resistant shutters or drapes, and noncombustible awnings can help reduce this
risk.
Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor,
landslides, or volcanic activity. In the deep ocean, the tsunami wave may only be a few
inches high. The tsunami wave may come gently ashore or may increase in height to
become a fast moving wall of turbulent water several meters high. Although a tsunami
cannot be prevented, the impact of a tsunami can be mitigated through urban/land
planning, community preparedness, timely warnings, and effective response.
304
Emerging Issues
Hazard Mitigation and Sustainability
Unsustainable development is one of the major factors in the rising costs of natural
disasters. Given that hazard mitigation is at the core of disaster resistance, then, many
design strategies and technologies serve double duty, by not only preventing losses but
serving the higher goal of long-term community sustainability. For example, erosion
control measures designed to mitigate flood, mudslide, rainstorm, and other damage to a
building's foundation may also improve the quality of runoff water entering streams and
lakes.
Cost of Mitigation Measures in Retrofits
The cost of incorporating multi-hazard mitigation measures in existing buildings is an

issue of increased importance (for designers, insurers and the public) because a critical
mass of facilities were built before multi-hazard construction measures were incorporated
in modern building codes. Initially, building codes were developed solely to prevent or
reduce the loss of life and property due to fire in buildings.

Regulations, codes, standards, and best practices will guide the design of buildings to
resist natural hazards. For new buildings, code requirements serve to define the minimum
mitigation requirements, but compliance with regulations in building design is not
sufficient to guarantee that a facility will perform adequately when impacted by the
forces for which it was designed. Indeed, individual evaluation of the costs and benefits
of specific hazard mitigation alternatives can lead to effective strategies that will exceed
the minimum requirements. Additionally, special mitigation requirements may be
imposed on projects in response to locale-specific hazards. When a change in use or
occupancy occurs, the designer must determine whether this change triggers other
mitigation requirements and must understand how to evaluate alternatives for meeting
those requirements.
Finally, designers should augment the codes and standards to consider the importance of
nonstructural elements, assets, and mission of the building, i.e., windows, hoods, parapets
and balcony railings, and electrical and mechanical systems, because they may account
for more than 70% of the value of a building.
• International Building Code (IBC)

• Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02—
includes model requirements for dead, live, soil, flood, wind, snow, rain, ice, and
earthquake loads, and their combinations, that are suitable for inclusion in
building codes
305
Many states and municipalities have also adopted supplemental codes to meet local
requirements for multi-hazard protection. Examples of such codes include:
• Miami-Dade County Code

• Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC)
• UBC 1997—1997 marked the end of an era: the final publishing year of the
Uniform Building Code. The 2000 International Building Code is part of the
nation's first-ever single set of comprehensive and coordinated building safety
codes, the 2000 International Code. Many states, such as California, still use
earlier versions of the ICC predecessor codes—UBC, BOCA and SBC.
General Multi-Hazard
• Public Law 106-390, Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000
Earthquake
• Executive Order 12699, Seismic Safety of Federal and Federally Assisted or

Regulated New Building Construction (January 5, 1990)
• Executive Order 12941, Seismic Safety of Existing Federally Owned or Leased
Buildings (December 1, 1994)
• Public Law 95-124, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act (1977) United States
Code Title 42, Chapter 86, Earthquake Hazards Reduction
• Public Law 101-614, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program
Reauthorization Act (1990)
• Public Law 103-374, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act Of 1977, Authorization
and Amendment (1994)
• Public Law 106-503, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Authorization Act (2000)
Hurricane, Typhoon, and Tornado
• Public Law 108-146, Tornado Shelters Act (2003)
Flood
• Public Law 93-234, National Flood Insurance Act (1968)
Rainfall and Wind-Driven Rain
• National Institute of Standards and Technology:

• NISTIR 4821 Envelope Design Guidelines for Federal Office Buildings: Thermal
Integrity and Airtightness
• U.S. Department of Defense:
• UFC 3-440-05N Design: Tropical Engineering
306
• American Lifelines Alliance

• American Planning Association, Growing Smart project
• Applied Technology Council (ATC)—A nonprofit organization dedicated to
developing and promoting state-of-the-art, user-friendly engineering resources
and applications for use in mitigating the effects of natural and other hazards on
the built environment
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Mitigation Division
• Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS)
• Multi-hazard Mitigation Council (MMC)—A program of the National Institute of
Building Sciences (NIBS)
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
• Natural Hazards Center, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado
• U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (For Flood and Seismic Mapping)
Earthquake
• Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC)—Established by the National Institute

of Building Sciences (NIBS) to develop and promote building earthquake risk
mitigation regulatory provisions for the nation
• Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI)
• FEMA HAZUS (Hazards US) modeling
• National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA)

• Protective Glazing Council (PGC)
• Wind Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX
• Wind Load Test Facility, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
Flood
• Association of State Floodplain Managers (ASFPM)

• National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA)
• National Imagery Mapping Agency (For Flood Mapping)
Forest Fires
• Color Country Interagency Fire Management Area

307
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

• The Fire Safe Council
• Firewise
• National Interagency Fire Center
• National Wildfire Programs Database
Publications
• Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States.

Mileti, Dennis S. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1999.
• Federal Emergency Management Agency:
• Mitigation Resources for Success CD-ROM (FEMA 372)
• Planning for a Sustainable Future: The Link Between Hazard Mitigation and
Livability (FEMA 364)
• Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction
• Rebuilding for a More Sustainable Future: An Operational Framework (FEMA
365)
• Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses (FEMA
386-2)
• The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP):
• Guide for an Action Plan to Develop Regional Disaster Resilience. 2006.
Earthquake
• Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC)/National

Institute of Science and Technology:
• Standards of Seismic Safety for Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings
(1994, ICSSC RP 4)
• ICSSC Guidance on Implementing Executive Order 12941 on Seismic Safety of
Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings (1995, ICSSC RP 5)
• How-to Suggestions for Implementing Executive Order 12941 on Seismic Safety
of Existing Federal Buildings, A Handbook (1995, ICSSC TR-17)
• Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Earthquake Damage, A Practical Guide
(1994, FEMA 74)
• Communities at Risk (FEMA 83)
• Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHRP Recommended Provisions (1995,
FEMA 99)
• Abatement of Seismic Hazards to Lifelines: Proceedings of a Workshop on
Development of an Action Plan, 6 volumes:
• Papers on Water and Sewer Lifelines (1987, FEMA 135)
• Papers on Transportation Lifelines (1987, FEMA 136)
• Papers on Communication Lifelines (1987, FEMA 137)
• Papers on Power Lifelines (1987, FEMA 138)
308
• Papers on Gas and Liquid Fuel Lifelines (1987, FEMA 139)

• Papers on Political, Economic, Social, Legal, and Regulatory Issues and General
Workshop Presentations (1987, FEMA 143)
• Guide to Application of the 1991 NEHRP Recommended Provisions in
Earthquake-Resistant Building Design (1995, FEMA 140)
• Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook
(1988, FEMA 154)
• Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings Volume 1:
Summary, Second Edition (FEMA 156)
• Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings Volume 2:
Supporting Documentation, Second Edition (1995, FEMA 157)
• NEHRP Handbook of Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
Buildings (FEMA 172)
• Establishing Programs and Priorities for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings:
Supporting Report (FEMA 173) and Handbook (FEMA 174)
• Financial Incentives for Seismic Rehabilitation of Hazardous Buildings—An
Agenda for Action Volume 1: Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
(FEMA 198); Volume 2: State and Local Case Studies and Recommendations
(FEMA 199); and Volume 3: Applications Workshops Report (FEMA 216)
• Benefit-Cost Model for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Hazardous Buildings
Volume 1: A User's Manual (FEMA 227)
• Home Builders Guide to Seismic Resistant Construction (FEMA 232)
• Development of Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings—Phase 1:
Issues identification and Resolution (FEMA 237)
• Seismic Rehabilitation of Federal Buildings: A Benefit/Cost Model Volume 1: A
User's Manual (FEMA 255) and Volume 2: Supporting Documentation (FEMA
256)
• NEHRP Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings—Commentary (1997,
FEMA 274)
• Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Buildings (FEMA
306/307/308)
• NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings (1998,
FEMA 310)
• Promoting the Adoption and Enforcement of Seismic Building Codes (FEMA
313)
• Case Studies: An Assessment of the NEHRP Guidelines for Seismic
Rehabilitation of Buildings (FEMA 343)
• An Action Plan for Performance Based Seismic Design (FEMA 349)
• Recommended Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel Moment-Frame Buildings
(FEMA 350)
• Federal Emergency Management Agency, Recommended Seismic Evaluation and
Upgrade Criteria for Existing Welded Steel Moment-Frame Buildings (FEMA
351)
• Recommended Post-Earthquake Evaluation and Repair Criteria for Welded Steel
Moment-Frame Buildings (FEMA 352)
309
• Recommended Specifications and Quality Assurance Guidelines for Steel

Moment-Frame Construction for Seismic Applications (FEMA 353)
• A Policy Guide to Steel Moment-Frame Construction (FEMA 354)
• Pre-standard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings
(FEMA 356)
• NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings,
2000 Edition, 2 volumes and maps (FEMA 368 and 369)
• Incremental Seismic Rehabilitation of School Buildings (K-12) (2003, FEMA
395)
• Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects (Dec. 2006, FEMA 454)
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:
• TI 809-4 Seismic Design for Buildings
• TI 809-5 Seismic Evaluation and Rehabilitation for Buildings
• U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs:
• VA Natural Disasters Nonstructural Resistive Design (formerly CD-54)
• Seismic Design Requirements (Structural) (H-18-8)

• Coastal Construction Manual (FEMA 55)
• Homeowner's Guide to Retrofitting (FEMA 312)
• Taking Shelter From the Storm: Building a Safe Room Inside Your House
(FEMA 320)
• Design and Construction Guidance for Community Shelters (FEMA 361)
• FEMA Building Performance Assessment Team (BPAT) Reports for various
hurricanes
• UFC 3-110-03 Roofing
• UFC 3-440-05N Design: Tropical Engineering
Flood

• Design Guidelines for Flood Damage Reduction (FEMA 15)
• Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA 54)
• Installation Guide for Manufactured Housing (FEMA 85)
• Floodproofing Non-Residential Structures (FEMA 102)
• Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood Hazard Areas: A Guidebook for Local
Officials (FEMA 116)
• Repairing Your Flooded Home (FEMA 234)
• Engineering Principals and Practices for Retrofitting Floodprone Residential
Structures (FEMA 259)
• Above the Flood: Elevating Your Floodprone House (FEMA 347)
310
• Protecting Building Utilities From Flood Damage (FEMA 348)

• Design Guide for Improving Critical Facility Safety from Flooding and High
Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings (Jan. 2007, FEMA 543)
• Technical Bulletin series (FEMA TB 1-10)
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:
• Engineering and Design Water Control Management (1982, ER 1110-2-240)
• Life-Cycle Design and Performance of Structures for Local Flood Protection
(ETL 1110-2-361)
• UFC 3-110-03 Roofing
Landslide, Mudslide

• Landslide Loss Reduction: A Guide for State and Local Government Planning
(FEMA 182)
Progressive Collapse
• UFC 4-023-03 Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse

• FEMA Technical Library—Offers many PDF format documents on Disaster
Preparation and Prevention
NOTE: To order FEMA publications that are not available online, request by title or
document number from the FEMA Publications Warehouse at (800) 480-2520
Provide Security for Building Occupants

and Assets
Overview
311
Security measures, such as setbacks, bollards, protective glazing, and structural

hardening, are incorporated into the design of the new Oklahoma City Federal Building,
located north of where the former Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building once stood.
(Designed by Ross Barney + Jankowski Architects and Atkins Benham)
The bombings at New York City's World Trade Center, Oklahoma City's Alfred P.
Murrah Federal Office Building, and Atlanta's Centennial Park, shook the nation, and
made Americans aware of the need for better ways to protect occupants, assets, and
buildings from human aggressors (e.g. disgruntled employees, criminals, vandals, and
terrorists).
A Department of Justice study called "Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities",

conducted in response to a Presidential directive and issued one day after the 19 April
1995 Oklahoma City bombing, produced recommended minimum standards for security
at federal facilities. It divided federal sites into five security levels ranging from Level 1
(minimum security needs) to Level 5 (maximum). The study listed recommendations for
upgrading federal building security, including 52 security standards addressing such
items as parking, lighting, physical barriers, and closed circuit television monitoring.
More recently, the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks demonstrated the country's
vulnerability to an even wider range of threats and reasserted heightened public concern
for the safety of workers and occupants in all Building Types. Many federal agencies
responding to these concerns have adopted an overarching philosophy to provide
appropriate and cost-effective protection for building occupants. That is, while it may be
cost prohibitive to design a facility to a worse case scenario, decision makers should
strive to make smart choices and investments that will lessen the risk of mass casualties
resulting from terrorist attacks.
Some federal agencies have issued their own security design standards. The most
prominent of these are the DOD Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) UFC 4-010-01 DoD
Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings and Interagency Security Committee
(ISC) Security Design Criteria. There are currently no universal codes or standards that
apply to both public and private sector buildings. However, most designers agree that
security issues must be addressed in concert with other design objectives and integrated
312
into the overall building design throughout the process to ensure a quality building with
effective security. This concept is known as multi-hazard design.
Depending on the building type, acceptable levels of risk, and decisions made based on
recommendations from a comprehensive threat assessment, vulnerability assessment, and
risk analysis, appropriate countermeasures should be implemented to protect people,
assets, and mission. Types of attack and threats to consider include:
• Unauthorized entry (forced and covert)

• Insider threats
• Explosive threats: Stationary and moving vehicle-delivered, mail bombs, package
bombs
• Ballistic threats: Small arms, high-powered rifles, drive-by shootings, etc.
• Weapons of mass destruction (chemical, biological, and radiological)
• Cyber and information security threats
Recommendations
Basic to realizing an effective security plan and design is the implementation of
appropriate countermeasures to deter, delay, detect, and deny attacks. Oftentimes the
countermeasures work on the layered defense concept or "Onion Philosophy." This
concept provides for increasing levels of security from the outer areas of the site or
facility towards the inner, more protected areas. Some or all of the issues outlined below
need consideration for effective security design and building operations.
Unauthorized Entry (Forced and Covert)
Protecting the facility and assets from unauthorized persons is an important part of any
security system. Some items to consider include:
• Compound or facility access control

o Control perimeter: Fences, bollards, anti-ram barriers
o Traffic control, remote controlled gates, anti-ram hydraulic drop arms, and
hydraulic barriers, parking
o Forced-Entry-Ballistic Resistant (FE-BR) doors and windows
• Perimeter intrusion detection systems
o Clear zone
o Video and CCTV
o Alarms
o Detection devices (motion, acoustic, infrared)
• Personnel identification systems
o Access control, fingerprints, biometrics, ID cards
• Protection of information and data
o Acoustic shielding
313
o Shielding of electronic security devices from hostile electronic

environment
o Secure access to equipment, networks, and hardware, e.g. satellites and
telephone systems
Insider Threats
One of the most serious threats may come from persons who have authorized access to a
facility. These may include disgruntled employees or persons who have gained access
through normal means (e.g., contractors, support personnel, etc). To mitigate this threat
some items to consider include:
• Implement personnel reliability programs and background checks

• Limit and control access to sensitive areas of the facility
Explosive Threats: Stationary and Moving Vehicle-Delivered, Mail Bombs,

Package Bombs
Explosive threats tend to be the criminal and terrorist weapon of choice. Devices may
include large amounts of explosives that require delivery by a vehicle. However, smaller
amounts may be introduced into a facility through mail, packages, or simply hand carried
in an unsecured area. Normally the best defense is to provide defended distance between
the threat location and the asset to be protected. This is typically called standoff distance.
If standoff is not available or is insufficient to reduce the blast forces reaching the
protected asset, structural hardening may be required. If introduced early in the design
process, this may be done in an efficient and cost-effective manner. If introduced late in a
design, or if retrofitting an existing facility, such a measure may prove to be
economically difficult to justify. Some items to consider include:
• The design team should include qualified security and blast consulting
professionals from the concept stage forward.
• Provide defended standoff with rated or certified devices such as fencing,
bollards, planters, landscaping, or other measures that will stop persons, if
required, and vehicle delivered threats.
• Consider structural hardening and hazard mitigation designs such as ductile
framing that is capable of withstanding abnormal loads and preventing
progressive collapse, protective glazing, strengthening of walls, roofs, and other
facility components.
• Design the facility with redundant egress and other critical infrastructure to
facilitate emergency evacuation and control during an event.
Ballistic Threats
These threats may range from random drive-by shootings to high-powered rifle attacks
directed at specific targets within the facility. It is important to quantify the potential risk
and to establish the appropriate level of protection. The most common ballistic protection
314
rating systems include: Underwriters Laboratories (UL), National Institute of Justice

(NIJ), H.P. White Laboratory, and ASTM International. Materials are rated based on their
ability to stop specific ammunition (e.g., projectile size and velocity). Some items to
consider include:
• Visual shielding, such as opaque windows or screening devices

• Ballistic resistant rated materials and products
• Locating critical assets away from direct lines of sight
Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical, Biological, and Radiological

(CBR)
Commonly referred to as WMD, these threats generally have a low probability of

occurrence but the consequences of an attack may be extremely high. While fully
protecting a facility against such threats may not be feasible with the exception of very
special facilities, there are several common sense and low cost measures that can improve
resistance and reduce the risk from the WMD threat. Some items to consider include:
• Protect pathways into the building

o Control access to air inlets and water systems
o Provide detection and filtration systems for HVAC systems
o Provide for emergency HVAC shutoff and control
o Segregate portions of building spaces (i.e., provide separate HVAC for the
lobby, loading docks, and the core of the building)
o Consider providing positive pressurization to keep contaminates outside of
the facility
• Provide an emergency notification system to facilitate orderly response and
evacuation.
Cyber and Information Security Threats
In today's world, business continuity and mission function rely heavily on the
transmission, storage, and access to a wide range of electronic data and communication
systems. Protecting these systems from attack is critical for most users ranging from
individuals, businesses, and government agencies. Some items to consider include:
• Understand and identify the information assets that you are trying to protect.
These may include personal information, business information such as proprietary
designs or processes, national security information, or simply the ability of your
organization to communicate via email and other LAN/WAN functions.
• Protect the physical infrastructure that supports information systems. For
example, if your computer system is electronically secure but is vulnerable to
physical destruction you may not have achieved an adequate level of protection.
• Provide software and hardware devices to detect, monitor, and prevent
unauthorized access to or the destruction of sensitive information.
315
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of credible attacks and threats. Clearly
defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all
important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of
protecting life and property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out
activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be
accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational
staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing
occupants of appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures;
and conducting actual drills.
Emerging Issues
Balancing Security and Sustainability
Providing for sustainable designs that meet all facility requirements is often a challenge
to the design community. With limited resources it is not always feasible to provide for
the most secure facility, the most architecturally expressive design, or energy efficient
building envelope. From the concept stage through the development of construction
documents, it is important that all project or design stakeholders work cooperatively to
ensure a balanced design. Successful designs must consider all competing design
objectives.
Designing for Fire Protection and Physical Security
Care should be taken to implement physical security measures that allow Fire Protection
forces access with to sites and buildings and building occupants with adequate means of
emergency egress. GSA has conducted a study and developed recommendations on
design strategies that achieve both secure and fire safe designs. Specifically, the issue of
emergency ingress and egress through blast resistant window systems was studied.
Training was developed based on this information and is available at the GSA Public
Buildings Service—Building Security Technology Web site.
316
Integrated security systems can offer more efficient access and control. (Courtesy of
Integrated Security Systems, LTD)
Integrated Systems
In recent years, there has been a general trend towards integrating various stand-alone
security systems, integrating systems across remote locations, and integrating security
systems with other systems such as communications, and fire and emergency
management. For example, CCTV, fire, and burglar alarm systems have been integrated
to form the foundation for access control.

Highly complex security system design is still neither codified nor regulated, and no
universal codes or standards apply to all public and private sector buildings. However, in
many cases, government agencies, including the military services, and private sector
organizations have developed specific security design criteria.
Mandates
• Executive Order 12977, "Interagency Security Committee"

• Interagency Security Committee (ISC) Security Design Criteria—Unites all
Federal protective design requirements (For Official Use Only)
Federal Guidelines
• DOD Security Engineering Manual (For Official Use Only)
• FM 3-19.30 Physical Security—Sets forth guidance for all personnel responsible
for physical security
• NAVFAC MIL-HDBK-1012/3 Telecommunications Premises Distribution
Planning, Design, and Estimating
• UFC 1-200-01 Design: General Building Requirements
• UFC 3-520-01 Design: Interior Electrical Systems
• UFC 4-010-02 DoD Minimum Standoff Distances for Buildings (FOUO)
• UFC 4-023-03 Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse
• USAF Installation Force Protection Guide
• General Services Administration (GSA):
• Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8.
• Other "official use only" documents may be obtained from the Office of the Chief
Architect
• GSA Guidelines for Progressive Collapse
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA):
• Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Mission Critical Facilities
317
• Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Cost Estimates for Physical
Security Enhancements
• Department of State:
• Architectural Engineering Design Guideline (5 Volumes) (For Official Use Only)
• Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998 (For Official Use Only)
• Structural Engineering Guidelines for New Embassy Office Buildings, August
1995 (For Official Use Only)
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA):
• FAA Order 1600.69 Security Risk Management
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA):
• FEMA 386-7 Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning
• FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against
Buildings
• FEMA 427 Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to Mitigate Terrorist
Attacks
• FEMA 428 Primer to Design Safe School Projects in Case of Terrorist Attacks
• FEMA 429 Insurance, Finance, and Regulation Primer for Terrorism Risk
Management in Buildings
• FEMA 430 Site and Urban Design for Security
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment - A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist
• FEMA 453 Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms
Others
• Department of Commerce Administrative Orders:

• Inspector General Investigations, DAO 207-10
• Occasional Use of Public Areas in Public Buildings, DAO 206-5
• Security Programs, DAO 207-1
• Designing for Security in the Nation's Capital by the National Capital Planning
Commission (NVPC). October 2001.
• Guidelines for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,
Biological, or Radiological Attacks by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH).
• Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities by Department of Justice.
Private Sector Guidelines
• Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities by American

Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1997.
• Structural Design for Physical Security, State of the Practice by Edward Conrath,
et al. Alexandria, VA: Structural Engineering Institute of American Society of
Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1999.
Major Resources
318
WBDG
Fenestration Systems—Exterior Doors
Security Centers
• Anti-Terrorism Force Protection (DOD) (Limited access)

• Defense Threat Reduction Agency
• Department of Defense (DOD) Anti-terrorism body—Pentagon's J34
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) All-Hazard Mitigation
Program on Anti-terrorism
• Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center (NFESC), Security Engineering
Center of Expertise ESC66 - E-mail: securityeng@nfesc.navy.mil
• USAF Electronic System Center (ESC), Hanscom AFB
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Electronic Security Center
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Protective Design Center
• U.S. Department of Defense
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security
• The American Institute of Architects (AIA) Security Resource Center

• American Society of Industrial Security (ASIS)
• Battelle Memorial Institute, National Security Program
• Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
• Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Standing Committee on Physical Security and
Hazard Mitigation (Sponsored by National Academies of Science)
• International CPTED Association (ICA)
• National Academy of Sciences
• National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA)
• Postal Security Action Group (PSAG)
• Protective Glazing Council (PGC)
• Security Industry Association (SIA)
• Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)
• U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM)
Trade Journals/Magazines
• Architectural Design for Security and Security and Technology Design by Donald
M. Rochon. June 1998.
319
• Designing for Crime and Terrorism, Security and Technology Design by Randall
I. Atlas. June 1998.
• Government Security
• Security Magazine
• Security Solutions Online: Access Control and Security Systems
• Security through Environmental Design, Security and Technology Design by
Robert Pearson. September 1997.
Training Courses
• FEMA E155—Building Design for Homeland Security
Others
• Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation by

the Congressional Research Service. 2005.
• Creating Defensible Space by Oscar Newman. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development, April 1996.
• National Symposium of Comprehensive Force Protection, Society of American
Military Engineers (SAME), Charleston, SC, Oct 2001. Lindbergh & Associates.
• Protecting Building Occupants from Biological Threats—Website from the
Center for Biosecurity of UPMC that includes useful information about biological
threats to building occupants, practical steps for reducing risk, and costs and
benefits of risk reduction measures, along with a wealth of related materials and
additional resources.
320
Sustainable
by the WBDG Sustainable Committee
Overview
Building construction and operation have an enormous direct and indirect impact on the
environment. As illustrated in the figure below, buildings not only use resources such as
energy and raw materials, they also generate waste and potentially harmful atmospheric
emissions. As economy and population continue to expand, designers and builders face a
unique challenge to meet demands for new and renovated facilities that are accessible,
secure, healthy, and productive while minimizing their impact on the environment.
Systematic Evaluation and Assessment of Building Environmental Performance

(SEABEP), paper for presentation to "Buildings and Environment", Paris, 9-12 June,
1997.
Source: Levin, H. (1997)
Recent answers to this challenge call for an integrated, synergistic approach that
considers all phases of the facility life cycle. This "sustainable" approach supports an
increased commitment to environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an
optimal balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the
mission and function of the intended facility or infrastructure.
The main objectives of sustainable design are to avoid resource depletion of energy,
water, and raw materials; prevent environmental degradation caused by facilities and
321
infrastructure throughout their life cycle; and create built environments that are livable,
comfortable, safe, and productive.
EPA's New England Regional Laboratory (NERL) achieved a LEED Version 1.0 Gold
rating. From conception the project was charged to "make use of the best commercially-
available materials and technologies to minimize consumption of energy and resources
and maximize use of natural, recycled and non-toxic materials." Chelmsford, MA
While the definition of what constitutes sustainable building design is constantly

changing, there are six fundamental principles that nearly everyone agrees on.
• Optimize Site Potential

Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection, including
consideration of the reuse or rehabilitation of existing buildings. The location,
orientation, and landscaping of a building affect the local ecosystems,
transportation methods, and energy use. Siting for physical security has become a
critical issue in optimizing site design. The location of access roads, parking,
vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting must be integrated into the design along
with sustainable site considerations. Site design for security cannot be an
afterthought. Along with site design for sustainability, it must be addressed in the
preliminary design phase to achieve a successful project. See WBDG Balancing
Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.
• Optimize Energy Use
With America's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, concerns for energy security
increasing, and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising, it is
essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable
energy resources in federal facilities.
• Protect and Conserve Water
In many parts of the country, fresh water is an increasingly scarce resource. A
sustainable building should reduce, control, or treat site-runoff, use water
efficiently, and reuse or recycle water for on-site use when feasible.
• Use Environmentally Preferable Products
A sustainable building should be constructed of materials that minimize life-cycle
environmental impacts such as global warming, resource depletion, and human
toxicity. These environmentally preferable materials are defined by Executive
Order 13101 to be "products or services that have a lesser or reduced effect on
322
human health and the environment when compared with competing products or
services that serve the same purpose." As such, they contribute to improved
worker safety and health, reduced liabilities, reduced disposal costs, and
achievement of environmental goals.
• Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a building has a significant impact on
occupant health, comfort, and productivity. Among other attributes, a sustainable
building should maximize daylighting; have appropriate ventilation and moisture
control; and avoid the use of materials with high-VOC emissions. Additional
consideration must now be given to ventilation and filtration to mitigate chemical,
biological, and radiological attack.
• Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Incorporating operating and maintenance considerations into the design of a
facility will greatly contribute to improved working environments, higher
productivity, and reduced energy and resource costs. Designers are encouraged to
specify materials and systems that simplify and reduce maintenance requirements;
require less water, energy, and toxic chemicals and cleaners to maintain; and are
cost-effective and reduce life-cycle costs.
RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

• ASTM E2432—Standard Guide for the General Principles of Sustainability
Relative to Building
• Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs)
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types.
Design Objectives
Information in these Sustainable pages must be considered together with other design
objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high—
Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building Envelope

Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:
323
• 01 10 00 (01100) Summary
• 01 30 00 (01300) Administrative Requirements
• 01 74 19 (01351) Construction Waste Management
• 01 40 00 (01400) Quality Requirements
• 01 41 00 (01411) Regulatory Requirements
• 01 42 00 (01421) References
• 01 50 00 (01500) Temporary Facilities & Controls
• 01 78 53 (01780) Sustainable Design Close-Out Documentation
• 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
• 01 79 11 (01821) Environmental Demonstration and Training
• 01 78 23 (01830) Operation & Maintenance Data
Project Management
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), Construction Waste Management Database, Decision

Support Tools for Green Building, LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID),
Project Planning Tools (PPT), Sustainable Federal Buildings Database
Federal Agencies
• Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum

of Understanding
• Department of Defense
• U.S. Army, ERDC – CERL—Sustainable Design and Development Resource
website
• U.S. Army, U.S. Army Sustainability website
• U.S. Navy—The U.S. Navy uses the WBDG Sustainable Branch as its primary
sustainable development resource.
• U.S. Air Force – AFCEE—Sustainable Development website
• Department of Energy
• Building Technologies Program, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy (EERE)
• High Performance Buildings, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
(EERE)
• High Performance Buildings Database, Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE)
• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE)
• FEMP Sustainable Design and Operations
• FEMP Interagency Sustainability Working Group
• Smart Communities Network—Green Buildings
324
• Environmental Protection Agency

• Green Buildings website
• Greening EPA website
• General Services Administration
• Sustainable Design website
• Sustainable Development Program website, Office of Real Property—This
website has links to tools, publications, presentations and videos developed by
GSA to assist agencies in transforming the way they do business.
• NASA
• Sustainability website
• Greening of the National Park Service website
• Sustainability News website
Publications
• eco-structure Magazine—A bi-monthly magazine dedicated to improving the

environmental performance of buildings and their surroundings.
• e design Online—The journal of the Florida Design Initiative
• Environmental Design & Construction Magazine
• Field Guide for Sustainable Construction by the Pentagon Renovation and
Construction Program Office, Department of Defense. 2004.
• Green Building Costs and Financial Benefits by Gregory Kats. 2003.
• Green Buildings—Guidelines for Creating High-Performance Green Buildings by
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. 1999.
• Greening Federal Facilities Guide by U.S. Department of Energy. 2001.
• High Performance Building Guidelines by New York City Department of Design
and Construction. April 1999.
• Innovative Workplace Strategies by U.S. General Services Administration, Office
of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property. Dec 2003.
• Managing Your Environmental Responsibilities: A Planning Guide for
Construction and Development by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005.
• Minnesota Sustainable Design Guide by Regents of the University of Minnesota,
Twin Cities Campus, College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture.
• Real Property Sustainable Development Guide by U.S. General Services
Administration, Office of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property.
• Sustainable Building Rating Systems Summary
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual by U.S. Department of Energy and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1996.
• Sustainable Development and Society by U.S. General Services Administration,
Office of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property. Oct 2004.
• Sustainable Facilities Guide by U.S. Air Force
325
• Sustainable Federal Facilities: A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life-

Cycle Costing, and Sustainable Development by Federal Facilities Council.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.
• UB High Performance Building Guidelines by the University at Buffalo, The
State University of New York. 2004.
Organizations
• Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC)

• U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)
Rating System
Others
• Building Green from Principle to Practice—Online resource created by the

Natural Resources Defense Council guides building professionals through green
building process, from putting together a business case to design, construction and
marketing.
• FedCenter.gov—FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship
and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of
the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal
Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-
stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information
focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.
• Green Building Program, City of Austin, TX
• Green Building Advisor
• Greener Buildings—A website produced by Green Business Network, a program
of the National Environmental Education & Training Foundation (NEETF), to
help companies understand and address building design, construction, and
operation in a way that aligns environmental responsibility with business success.
• Implement: Seattle's Sustainable Building Tool
Optimize Site Potential

Overview
326
Green roofs can effectively absorb most rainfall events, reverse the urban heat island
effect, and provide wildlife habitat. Chicago City Hall. Chicago, IL.
Photo courtesy of Don Horn.
Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection. The location of a building
affects a wide range of environmental factors—as well as other factors such as security
and accessibility—like the energy consumed by occupants for commuting, the impact on
local ecosystems, and the extent to which existing structures and infrastructures are
utilized. If possible, locate buildings in areas of existing development and consider
renovating existing buildings and historic properties. It is imperative that Federal
agencies maximize the restorative impact of site design and building infrastructure while
meeting the project's other requirements.
Sustainable site planning should consist of a whole system approach that seeks to:
• Minimize development of open space by the selection of disturbed land,

brownfields, or building retrofits;
• Control erosion through improved landscaping practices;
• Reduce heat islands using landscaping and building design methods;
• Minimize habitat disturbance;
• Restore the health of degraded sites by improving habitat for indigenous species
through native plants and closed-loop water systems;
• Incorporate transportation solutions along with site plans that acknowledge the
need for bicycle parking, carpool staging, and proximity to mass transit.
Encourage alternatives to traditional commuting; and
• Consider site security concurrently with sustainable site issues. Location of access
roads, parking, vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting, among others are key
issues that must be addressed.
Recommendations
Minimize Development of Open Space
• Retrofit an existing building

• Use disturbed land/brownfields
327
Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters, Bldg. 33: Formerly a gun turret
plant at the Navy Yard in Washington, DC, this facility was renovated into a 4-story
office building featuring energy efficient envelope, lighting, and HVAC systems as well
as environmentally preferable materials.
Control Erosion Through Improved Landscaping Practices
• Use vegetation, grading, and stabilization techniques to prevent erosion.

• Capture storm water runoff on site, design for storm water retention features on
site like pervious pavement. See also WBDG Acheiving Sustainable Site Design
through Low Impact Development Practices.
• Use vegetated swales and depressions to reduce runoff.
Consider Energy Implications in Site Selection and Building Orientation
• Site buildings to be able to integrate passive and active solar strategies.

• Take advantage of natural ventilation.
• Maximize daylight use.
• Investigate potential impact of future developments adjacent to the site (e.g.,
solar, daylighting, ventilation, etc.).
Reduce Heat Islands Using Landscaping and Building Design Methods
• Maximize the use of existing trees and other vegetation to shade walkways,
parking lots, and other open areas. Ensure that site work and landscaping are
integrated with security and safety design. See also WBDG Balancing
Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives for Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED). Integrate landforms and landscaping into the
site planning process to enhance resource protection.
• In hot, dry climates, like the southwestern states, consider covering walkways,
parking lots, and other open areas that are paved or made with low reflectivity
materials. Ensure that shading devices do not block critical ground level sight
lines for security.
• Finish the facility's roof with light-colored materials to reduce energy loads and
extend the life of the roof, particularly in warm climates; consider incorporating
328
green roofs into the project. Use a roofing product that meets or exceeds Energy
Star standards.
Energy Star® Roof-compliant, high-reflectance, and high emissivity roofing can lower
roof surface temperature by up to 100°F, decreasing the amount of heat transferred into a
building.
Minimize Habitat Disturbance
• Keep land disturbance to a minimum and retain prime vegetation features to the
extent possible.
• Reduce building and paving footprints.
• Limit site disturbance to a minimal area around the building perimeter, including
locating buildings adjacent to existing infrastructure.
• Plan construction staging areas with the environment in mind.
• In northern climates, site parking and pedestrian areas so that they have sun
exposure for assistance in melting the snow or ice.
• Use non-toxic snow and ice removal methods. See also PROACT Fact Sheet on
de-icing.
Restore the Health of Degraded Sites
• Focus on restoration of degraded areas, increasing the existence of healthy habitat

for native species.
• Conserve water use through xeriscaping with native plants. See also WBDG
Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water.
Design for Sustainable Transportation
• Site the building with public transportation access in mind and limit on-site
parking.
• Use porous alternatives to traditional paving for roads and walkways.
• Make provisions for bicycling, walking, carpool parking, and telecommuting; and
provide refueling/recharging facilities for alternative fuel/electric vehicles.
Balance Site Sustainability with Site Security/Safety

329
• Consider installing retention ponds and berms to control erosion, manage

stormwater, and reduce heat islands while also serving as physical barriers to
control access to a building and to deflect the effects of a blast.
• Use native or climate tolerant trees to improve the quality of the site as well as
provide protection by obscuring assets and people.
• Implement erosion control measures to stabilize the soil (e.g., seeding and
mulching, installing pervious paving) and/or to retain sediment after erosion hasd
occurred (e.g., earth dikes and sediment basins). These help to reduce the negative
impacts on water and air quality as well as mitigate potential damage to a
building's foundation and structural system due to floods, mudslides, torrential
rainstorms, and other natural hazards.
• See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.
Emerging Issues
Smart Growth is an issue that concerns many communities around the country. It relates
to controlling sprawl, reusing existing infrastructure, creating walkable neighborhoods,
and locating places to live and work near public transportation. It is more resource-
efficient to reuse existing roads and utilities than build new ones far out from cities in
rural areas. Smart growth preserves open spaces and farm lands and strengthens the
development of existing communities and their quality of life.

• Executive Order 12072, "Federal Space Management"
• Executive Order 13006, "Locating Federal Facilities on Historic Properties in Our
Nation's Central Cities"
• UFC 3-210-10, Low Impact Development
• P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, 2005
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to all building types. Applicable to the following space types, Parking:
Outside/Structured, Parking: Surface
330
Design Objectives
Accessible—Provide Equal Access, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—

Comply with Accessibility Requirements, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Energy
Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally
Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—
Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

• 01 74 19 (01351) Construction Waste Management

• 01 57 19.12 (01353) Noise and Acoustic Management
• 01 57 19.13 (01354) Environmental Management
• 01 41 00 (01411) Regulatory Requirements
• 01 42 00 (01421) References
• 01 50 00 (01500) Temporary Facilities & Controls
• 02 41 13 (02220) Selective Site Demolition
• 31 10 00 (02230) Site Clearing
• 31 31 00 (02360) Soil Treatment
• 32 10 00 (02700) Bases, Ballasts, Pavements
• 32 12 43 (02795) Porous Paving
• 10 81 16.13 (02872) Bat Houses
• 32 90 00 (02900) Planting
Project Management
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool
Minimize Development of Undeveloped Open Space
• Environmentally Green… Economically Green: Tools for a Green Land

Development Program by the National Association of Home Builders Research
Center, July 2001.
• EPA OSWER Directive 9610.17, "Use of Risk-Based Decision-Making in
Underground Storage Tank Corrective Action Programs," March 1996.
• GreenInfrastructure.net—Green infrastructure is a strategic approach to
conservation that addresses the ecological, social and economic impacts of sprawl
331
and the accelerated consumption and fragmentation of open land. This website is
hosted by The Conservation Fund in partnership with USDA Forest Service.
• Maryland Department of the Environment, Brownfields Redevelopment and
Directed Growth
• Smart Growth Network
Control Erosion through Improved Landscaping Practices
• Beneficial Landscaping Guidance by the U.S. Coast Guard Environmental

Management Division (G-SEC-3).
• EPA Low Impact Development website
• Xeriscape.org
Reduce Heat Islands Using Landscaping and Building Design Methods
• Energy Star® Labeled Roof Products, EPA

• Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
• Greenroofs.com
• Heat Island Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Minimize Habitat Disturbance
• International Astronomical Union (IAU) Commission 50's Working Group on

"Controlling Light Pollution"
• International Dark-Sky Association (IDA)—IDA's mission is to preserve and
protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of dark skies through quality
outdoor lighting. IDA has many resources and information on outdoor lighting
and light pollution prevention, including:
• Good Lighting Fixtures
• Outdoor Lighting Regulations
• National Wildlife Federation
• Obtrusive Lighting Guide by Lighting Consultancy And Design Services.
Restore the Health of Degraded Sites
• Xeriscape.org
• USACE Technical Note ERDC TN-05-DRAFT No-Water Urinals, January 2007.
Design for Sustainable Transportation
• Centre for Sustainable Transportation—The Centre for Sustainable Transportation

was founded to provide leadership in achieving sustainable transportation in
Canada.
• Sierra Club, Stop Sprawl Campaign, Transportation Issues
• Zion National Park Case Study by National Renewable Energy Laboratory
As part of redesigning the visitors' experience at Zion National Park, clean
332
running propane buses were designed to shuttle the park's 2.5 million annual
visitors throughout the area. Automobile traffic, which was causing damage to the
air and ecosystem of the park, was minimized. See also Case Study: Zion
National Park.
Smart Growth
• A Smart Growth Reader by the American Planning Association.

• Smart Communities Network, DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Network
• Smart Growth, Environmental Protection Agency
• Smart Growth Network
• Urban Land Institute
Others

of Understanding
• Urban Land Institute
Optimize Energy Use

Overview
333
2004 ASLA Award Recipient

(Photo: Nancy Rottle)
On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and
68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the
primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and
25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is
produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel
dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and
specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising,
it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel
resources in federal facilities.

• Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design

and conservation practices;
• Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating,
photovoltaics, and geothermal;
• Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions
and utility interface requirements;
334
• Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and

optimize system control strategies by using occupancy sensors and air quality
alarms; and
• Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, and
annual reporting.
Recommendations
Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive
Design and Conservation Practices
• Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape
elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.
• Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other
assemblies based on long-term, insulation, and durability requirements.
Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources
• Evaluate the use of common, on-site renewable energy technologies such as

daylighting, solar water heating, and geothermal heat pumps.
• Investigate the use of emerging, on-site renewable energy technologies such as
photovoltaics and wind turbines.
• Evaluate purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources or low
polluting sources such as natural gas.
Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems
• Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR
434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC
3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.
• Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient
lighting.
• Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department
of Energy standards.
• Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation
air in commercial and institutional buildings.
• Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-
generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.
Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies
• Employ energy modeling programs early in the design process.

• Use sensors to control loads based on occupancy, schedule and/or the availability
of natural resources such as daylight or natural ventilation.
335
• Evaluate the use of modular components such as boilers or chillers to optimize

part-load efficiency and maintenance requirements.
• Evaluate the use of Direct Digital Controls.
Monitor Project Performance
• Use a comprehensive, building commissioning plan throughout the life of the

project.
• Use metering to confirm building energy and environmental performance through
the life of the project.
• See also WBDG Facility Performance Evaluation.
Emerging Issues
Roof-mounted PV on carport, North Island Naval Base, San Diego, CA
Sustainability and Energy Security
Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important
component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is
still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and
electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can
contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy
conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the
same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently
invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG
Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a
comprehensive energy security strategy. More

336
• Executive Order 13221, "Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices"

Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing:
Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet
Design Objectives
Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional /

Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive,
Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, , Sustainable—Protect and Conserve
Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance
Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance
Practices
Section 23 28 13: Commercial—Kitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and

Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building
Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building Envelope
• 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete
• 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete
• 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry
• 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection
• 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing
• 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 08 50 00 (08500) Windows
• 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment
• 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment
• 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
337
• 48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment

• 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
• 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators
• 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment
• 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution
• 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
Project Management
Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning
Tools
Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.
Minimize Energy Consumption
• Energy Design Resources

• Energy Star®, EPA
• Energy Star® for New Building Design
• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), DOE
• High—Performance Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy Building
Technologies Program
• WBDG case studies: Center for Neighborhood Technology; EPA New England
Regional Laboratory; NAVFAC Building 33
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

• Photovoltaics Program, Sandia National Laboratory
• Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) and CREST (Center for Renewable
Energy and Sustainable Technology)
• 10 CFR 434 Subpart A

• ASHRAE 90.1
• FEMP Buying Energy Efficient Products
• Lighting Research Center

338
• WBDG: Productive, Functional / Operational—Ensure Appropriate

Product/Systems Integration, Functional / Operational—Meet Performance
Objectives
• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), OE/EE-0157: International Performance
Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)
Others

of Understanding
Optimize Energy Use

Overview

339
On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and
68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the
primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and
25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is
produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel
dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and
specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising,
it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel
resources in federal facilities.

• Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design

and conservation practices;
• Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating,
photovoltaics, and geothermal;
• Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions
and utility interface requirements;
• Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and
optimize system control strategies by using occupancy sensors and air quality
alarms; and
• Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, and
annual reporting.
Recommendations
Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive
Design and Conservation Practices
• Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape
elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.
340
• Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other

assemblies based on long-term, insulation, and durability requirements.
• Evaluate the use of common, on-site renewable energy technologies such as

daylighting, solar water heating, and geothermal heat pumps.
• Investigate the use of emerging, on-site renewable energy technologies such as
photovoltaics and wind turbines.
• Evaluate purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources or low
polluting sources such as natural gas.
• Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR
434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC
3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.
• Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient
lighting.
• Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department
of Energy standards.
• Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation
air in commercial and institutional buildings.
• Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-
generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.
• Employ energy modeling programs early in the design process.

• Use sensors to control loads based on occupancy, schedule and/or the availability
of natural resources such as daylight or natural ventilation.
• Evaluate the use of modular components such as boilers or chillers to optimize
part-load efficiency and maintenance requirements.
• Evaluate the use of Direct Digital Controls.
Monitor Project Performance
• Use a comprehensive, building commissioning plan throughout the life of the

project.
• Use metering to confirm building energy and environmental performance through
the life of the project.
• See also WBDG Facility Performance Evaluation.
Emerging Issues
341
Roof-mounted PV on carport, North Island Naval Base, San Diego, CA
Sustainability and Energy Security
Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important
component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is
still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and
electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can
contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy
conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the
same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently
invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG
Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a
comprehensive energy security strategy. More

Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing:
Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet
342
Design Objectives

Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, , Sustainable—Protect and Conserve
Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance
Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance
Practices

• 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete
• 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete
• 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 08 50 00 (08500) Windows
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators
• 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
Project Management
Tools
Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.
343
Minimize Energy Consumption
• Energy Design Resources

• Energy Star® for New Building Design
• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), DOE
• High—Performance Buildings, U.S. Department of Energy Building
Technologies Program
• WBDG case studies: Center for Neighborhood Technology; EPA New England
Regional Laboratory; NAVFAC Building 33
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

• Photovoltaics Program, Sandia National Laboratory
• Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) and CREST (Center for Renewable
Energy and Sustainable Technology)
• 10 CFR 434 Subpart A

• ASHRAE 90.1
• FEMP Buying Energy Efficient Products
• Lighting Research Center
• WBDG: Productive, Functional / Operational—Ensure Appropriate

Product/Systems Integration, Functional / Operational—Meet Performance
Objectives
• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), OE/EE-0157: International Performance
Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)
Others

of Understanding
344
Protect and Conserve Water

Overview
Within the federal sector, alone, it is estimated that expenditures for water and sewer run
between $0.5 billion and $1 billion annually. Reducing water consumption and protecting
water quality are key objectives of sustainable design. This is critical because
consumption of water in many areas of the country exceeds the ability of the supplying
aquifer to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, federal facilities should
increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site.
Water conservation strategies implemented at the Post Office in Ft. Worth, TX include
landscaping with native, or indigenous, plantings and rainwater catchment basins.
Photo courtesy of Don Horn.
The protection and conservation of water must be considered throughout the life of the
building, and federal agencies must seek to:
• Reduce, control, and treat surface runoff;

• Use water efficiently through ultra-low flow fixtures, elimination of leaks, water
conserving cooling towers, and other actions;
• Improve water quality; for example eliminate lead-bearing products in potable
water;
• Recover non-sewage and gray water for on-site use; and
• Establish waste treatment and recycling centers; and
• Apply the FEMP Best Management Practices for Water Conservation.
Recommendations
Reduce, Control, and Treat Surface Runoff
345
• Use low impact development principles.

o Use vegetated swales and depressions to reduce runoff.
o Reduce and filter surface runoff.
o Use pervious paving materials.
• Use Integrated Pest Management to reduce water pollution from pesticides.
• Consider incorporating green roofs into the project.
• Consider storm water events in the overall management of surface water runoff.
Use Water Efficiently
• Incorporate efficiency in construction specifications.

• Use ultra water-efficient plumbing fixtures and integrate other water-saving
devices into buildings.
• Design landscape for water efficiency through use of native plants tolerant of
local soil and rainfall conditions.
• Meter water usage; employ measurement and verification methods; comply with
the Department of Energy's International Performance Measurement and
Verification Protocol (IPMVP) for water use.
• Install water-conserving cooling towers designed with delimiters to reduce drift
and evaporation.
• Reduce evaporation through scheduled irrigation at dawn and dusk.
• Eliminate leaks; caulk around pipes and plumbing fixtures; conduct annual checks
of hoses and pipes.
Protect Water Quality
• Install water quality ponds or oil grit separators as storm water runoff filtration
systems.
• Eliminate materials that are lead-polluting.
• Use non-toxic bathroom and kitchen cleaning products.
Recover Non-Sewage and Gray Water for On-Site Use
• Use non-sewage wastewater.

• Use roof water and groundwater for on-site activities.
• Use groundwater from sump pumps.
Design Waste Treatment and Recycling Programs
• Use biological waste treatment systems to treat waste on-site.

• Use gray water, roof water, and groundwater for on-site activities.
Apply the FEMP Best Management Practices for Water Conservation
Part of a water management plan includes identifying opportunities for water

conservation at a facility. Some are construction related and some are O&M related. Per
346
the requirements of Executive Order 13423, FEMP recommends implementing at least

four of the following ten Best Management Practices (BMPs) for water conservation at
federal facilities.
BMP #1—Public Information and Education Programs

BMP #2—Distribution System Audits, Leak Detection, and Repair
BMP #3—Water Efficient Landscaping
BMP #4—Toilets and Urinals
BMP #5—Faucets and Showerheads
BMP #6—Boiler/Steam Systems
BMP #7—Single-Pass Cooling Systems
BMP #8—Cooling Tower Systems
BMP #9—Miscellaneous High Water-Using Processes
BMP #10—Water Reuse and Recycling
The International Storm Water Best Management Practices (BMP) Database, developed
under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, contains best
management practices, and study references for the effective design of storm water
management systems.
Emerging Issues
Dry Fire Hydrants
One of the synergistic technologies for achieving water conservation and fire safety is a
dry fire hydrant. Dry hydrants are non-pressurized suction pipe systems that are
permanently installed in ponds or lakes and use the untreated water, instead of municipal
water, to fight fires. Utilized in areas that lack conventional fire protection; areas that
cannot handle the large volumes of water due to antiquated systems; or during peak use
seasons when there is low water pressure, dry hydrants allow fire departments to be much
more efficient by providing close water sources to fire risks. Since dry hydrants are
installed below frost line and do not require electricity, they are capable of supplying
water in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes and tornadoes when electricity
lines are knocked down, or during extreme cold or hot weather where conventional
hydrant pipes can freeze or break. Also, dry fire hydrants help to save precious drinking
water and conserve energy by using rainwater that does not need to be processed to be
used for fighting fires. More

• Clean Water Act
347
• UFC 3-210-10, Low Impact Development

• UFGS 01 57 23, Temporary Storm Water Pollution
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high water users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospitals, Research Facilities, Clinic / Health Unit, Laboratory:
Dry, Laboratory: Wet
Design Objectives

Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use,
Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor
Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers
• 31 25 73 (02635) Stormwater Management by Compost

• 32 90 00 (02900) Planting
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 22 40 00 (15400) Plumbing Fixtures
Project Management
Tools
Standards Tool
Federal Agencies
348

of Understanding (PDF 149 KB, 10 pgs)
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA):
• Office of Water (OW)
• Office of Wastewater Management (OWM)
• National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
• Water Use Efficiency Program
Publications
• Beneficial Landscaping Guidance (PDF 1.5 MB, 35 pgs) by the U.S. Coast Guard
Environmental Management Division (G-SEC-3).
• EPA NPDES General Permit for Storm Water Discharges From Construction
Activities—Fact Sheet (PDF 461 KB, 38 pgs).
• EPA Permitting Stormwater Discharges from Federal Facility Construction
Projects—Fact Sheet (PDF 108 KB, 3 pgs).
• EPA Storm Water Management for Construction Activities: Developing Pollution
Prevention Plans and Best Management Practices (PDF 4.2 MB, 39 pgs) by U.S.
EPA. 1992.
• FEMP Product Energy Efficiency Ratings (PEER) by U.S. Department of Energy.
Pages for water efficient fixtures include faucets, showerheads, urinals.
• High Performance Building Guidelines by New York City Department of Design
and Construction. April 1999. Chapter on Water Management (PDF 182 KB, 6
pgs)
• Minnesota Sustainable Building Guidelines by Regents of the University of
Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, College Design, Center for Sustainable Buidling
Research. Section on Water
• The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting (PDF 1.9 MB, 88 pgs) by Texas
Water Development Board.
Organizations
• American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association (ARCSA)

• USACE Technical Note ERDC TN-05-DRAFT No-Water Urinals (PDF 94 KB, 2
pgs), January 2007.
• U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC):
Rating System
Others

349
• Green Seal—Standards for environmentally responsible products including water
efficient fixtures
• International Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) Database—
Developed under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
BMP Database contains best management practices, and study references for the
effective design of stormwater management systems.
• Low Impact Development, EPA
• Smart Communities Network—Water Efficiency, DOE
• Strategic Computing Complex (SCC)—case study on the WBDG
• Water Efficiency, Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)
• Water Wiser—The Water Efficiency Clearinghouse
Use Environmentally Preferable Products

Overview
The composition of materials used in a building is a major factor in its life-cycle
environmental impact. Federal facilities must lead the way in the use of environmentally
preferable products and processes that do not pollute or unnecessarily contribute to the
waste stream, do not adversely affect health, and do not deplete limited natural resources.
As the growing global economy expands the demand for raw materials, it is no longer
sensible to throw away much of what we consider construction waste. Using a "cradle-to-
cradle" approach, the "waste" from one generation can become the "raw material" of the
next.
Executive Order 13101, "Greening the Government Through Waste Prevention,

Recycling, and Federal Acquisition," directs Federal agencies to use recycled content (see
EPA's Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines and Environmentally Preferable
Purchasing (EPP) Program.) When developing specifications, product descriptions and
standards, agencies must consider a broad range of environmental factors including:
waste prevention, recyclability, the use of recycled content, environmentally preferable,
and bio-based products, life-cycle cost, and ultimate disposal.
During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a
350
• Renovate existing facilities, products, and equipment whenever possible, such as

historic structures or used furniture;
• Evaluate the environmental preferability of products using the cradle-to-cradle,
life-cycle assessment (LCA) approach;
• Maximize the recycled content of all new materials, especially from a post-
consumer perspective;
• Specify materials harvested on a sustained yield basis such as lumber from
certified forests;
• Encourage the use of recyclable assemblies and products that can be easily "de-
constructed" at the end of their useful lives;
• Limit construction debris, encourage the separation of waste streams, and
encourage recycling during the construction process;
• Eliminate the use of materials that pollute or are toxic during their manufacture,
use, or reuse; and
• Give preference to locally produced products and other products with low
embodied energy content.
Recommendations
Renovate Existing Facilities, Products, and Equipment
• Use reconditioned products and equipment, such as furniture, whenever

economically feasible and resource efficient.
• Evaluate if components of existing buildings or facilities, such as windows or
metal door frames, can be incorporated in any new construction. Ensure that the
windows and doors meet the new facility's security and energy requirements.
Evaluate Environmental Preferability Using LCA
• Consider trade offs among multiple environmental impacts (e.g., global warming,
resource depletion, indoor air quality) when determining environmental
preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather than simply shifting
problems from one impact to another. Employing LCA Tools like ATHENA and
BEES can simplify the process and give more credible results. See WBDG
Energy Analysis Tools.
• Consider trade offs among life-cycle stages (i.e., raw materials acquisition,
manufacturing, transportation, installation, use, and waste management) when
determining environmentally preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather
than simply shifting problems from one life-cycle stage to another.
Maximize the Recycled Content of All New Materials
• Use EPA-designated recycled content products to the maximum extent practicable

—required under the 42 USC §6962, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of
1994, Section 6002.
351
• Purchase environmentally preferable products as described in EPA's

Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) Program, which promotes Federal
Government procurement of products and services that have reduced impacts on
human health and the environment over their life cycle.
• Follow the EPA's five guiding principles established to help Executive agencies
identify and purchase environmentally friendly products and services.
o Environment + Price + Performance = EPP. Include environmental
considerations as part of the normal purchasing process.
o Pollution Prevention. Emphasize pollution prevention as part of the
purchasing process.
o Life-Cycle Perspective/Multiple Attributes. Examine multiple
environmental attributes throughout the product and service's life cycle.
o Comparison of Environmental Impacts. Compare environmental impacts
when selecting products and services.
o Environmental Performance Information. Collect accurate and meaningful
environmental information about environmental performance of products
and services.
• Within an acceptable category of product, use materials and assemblies with the
highest percentage available of post-consumer or post-industrial recycled content.
• Within an acceptable category of product, evaluate the use of materials and
assemblies with low embodied energy content.
Specify Materials Harvested on a Sustained Yield Basis
• Use timber products obtained from sustainably managed forests, certified through
third-party agencies.
• Evaluate the substitution of bio-based materials or products, such as agricultural-
fiber sheathing, for inert or non-recycled alternatives.
Encourage the Use of Recyclable Assemblies and Products
• Within acceptable levels of performance, evaluate the use of de-mountable or de-

constructable products and assemblies.
• Establish a waste management plan in cooperation with users to encourage
recycling.
• Investigate providing locations at the project site for organic waste composting.
Limit Construction Debris
• Require the development and implementation of a plan for sorting construction

waste for recycling.
• Use products and assemblies that minimize disposable packaging and storage
requirements.
Eliminate the Use of Materials that Pollute or are Toxic During Their
Manufacture, Use, or Reuse
352
• Within an acceptable category of product, use materials and assemblies with the
lowest level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). See WBDG Evaluating and
Selecting Green Products.
• Eliminate the use of asbestos, lead, and PCBs in all products and assemblies. See
WBDG High-Performance HVAC.
• Eliminate the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) as refrigerants in all HVAC systems.
• Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies whose manufacture does not pollute
or create toxic conditions for workers. See also WBDG Secure/Safe—Ensure
Occupant Safety and Health > Provide Good Indoor Air Quality and Adequate
Ventilation and > Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials.
Give Preference to Locally Produced Materials with Low Embodied

Energy Content
• Evaluate the use of locally produced products to stimulate local economies and
reduce transportation burdens.
• Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies that require minimum "embodied"
energy for raw materials acquisition, manufacture, transport, installation, and use.
Emerging Issues
Balancing Sustainability and Security/Safety
To ensure that security strategies are appropriately implemented for the desired level of
protection, designers are encouraged to conduct threat/vulnerability assessments and risk
analysis. To prevent unnecessary use of resources in a project, include only the security
measures identified by assessment and analysis. Evaluate the cost of comparable security
measures before making your final decision. For high-risk and critical facilities, the
increased use of materials and products is inevitable. In such cases, designers and
builders are encouraged to specify and use environmentally preferable products to the
maximum extent feasible. For example, as part of the Pentagon renovation work after the
9/11 terrorist attacks concrete rubble from damaged parts of the building were crushed
into gravel and reused as aggregate under concrete slabs. More
Preferring Bio-based Products
Section 9002 of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (Public Law 107-
171, May 13, 2002) confers Federal purchasing preference to bio-based products on the
basis of five criteria: environmental performance, cost performance, bio-based content,
technical performance, and availability. In support of this legislation, a Federal rule is
under development specifying that the USDA will establish a new "USDA Certified Bio-
based Product" label. To qualify for the label, bio-based products must be evaluated for
life-cycle environmental and cost performance by the NIST BEES tool.
353

• ASTM E 2129—Standard Practice for Data Collection for Sustainability
Assessment of Building Products
• ISO 14040 Series—Life-Cycle Assessment Standards
• DOD Green Procurement Program (GPP)
• Green Procurement Requirements Overview
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives

Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—
Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality,
Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Section 07 41 13:Metal Roofing, Section 07 92 00: Joint Sealants, Building Envelope

Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building Envelope
Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers
• 01 67 00 (01611) Environmental Product Requirements

• 01 74 13 (01740) Progress Cleaning
• 01 78 23 (01830) Operation & Maintenance Data
• 05 05 00 (05050) Common Work Results for Metals
• 06 05 73 (06070) Wood Treatment
• 06 10 00 (06100) Rough Carpentry
• 06 16 00 (06160) Sheathing
• 06 20 00 (06200) Finish Carpentry
• 06 60 00 (06600) Plastic Fabrications
• 06 90 00 (06700) Alternative Agricultural Products
354
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants

• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board
• 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling
• 09 51 00 (09510) Acoustical Ceilings
• 09 65 00 (09650) Resilient Flooring
• 09 65 16.13 (09654) Linoleum Flooring
• 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting
• 09 72 00 (09720) Wall Coverings
• 09 90 00 (09900) Painting & Coating
• 10 21 13.19 (10170) Plastic Toilet Compartments
• 10 14 00 (10400) Signage
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 12 48 13 (12482) Entrance Floor Mats and Frames
• 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furniture
Project Management
Tools
Construction Waste Management Database, LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG

Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool
• U.S. Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI) Database—Created by NREL and partners, this

publicly available database allows users to objectively review and compare
analysis results that are based on similar data collection and analysis methods.
Use Green Products
• Choose Green Report—Various product recommendations by GreenSeal

• Environmental Design & Construction Magazine
• Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers—The Guide provides model
language that is intended to assist users in achieving green building goals as may
be determined by the individual agency and project. It is being developed by EPA
with the Federal Environmental Executive and the Whole Building Design Guide.
• Green Building Resource Guide by John Hermannsson. Taunton Press, 1997.
• Green Procurement Program (GPP), Defense Logistics Information Service
• Green Products Network
355
• GreenSage.com—An online source for green and sustainable building materials

and furnishings.
• GreenSpec™—The Environmental Building News Product Directory
• GSA Federal Supply Service Environmental Products and Services Guide
• Guide to Resource Efficient Building Elements by Tracy Mumma. Missoula, MT:
National Center for Appropriate Technology's Center for Resourceful Building
Technology, 1997. eGuide version of book available online.
• oikos® Green Building Source—Green product information
• PATHNET.org—Excellent repository of building materials, case studies, and
innovative techniques
• A Sourcebook for Green and Sustainable Building, City of Austin Green Builder
Program
Renovate Existing Facilities, Products, and Equipment
• Case study: NAVFAC Building 33
Evaluate Environmental Preferability Using LCA
• BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability), NIST—BEES

measures the environmental performance of building products by using the life-
cycle assessment approach specified in ISO 14000 standards.
• Environmental Impact Estimator, Athena Institute—The Estimator lets designers
assess the environmental implications of industrial, institutional, office, and both
multi-unit and single-family residential designs: new construction or renovation.
• Environmental Resource Guide by The American Institute of Architects (AIA),
Joseph A. Demkin (Editor). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
Maximize the Recycled Content of All New Materials
• Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG), EPA

• Environmentally Preferable Purchasing Program (EPP), EPA
Specify Materials Harvested on a Sustained Yield Basis
• Forest Certification Resource Center

• Forest Stewardship Council United States (FSC)
• Scientific Certification Systems (SCS)
• SmartWood (SW)
• Sustainable Forestry Initiative, American Forest & Paper Association
Limit Construction Debris
• California Integrated Waste Management Board

• Case study: EPA New England Regional Laboratory
• Construction and Demolition Debris, EPA
356
• Construction Waste Management Database, GSA—The Database contains

information on companies that haul, collect and process recyclable debris from
construction projects. Created in 2002 by GSA's Environmental Strategies and
Safety Division to promote responsible waste disposal, the Database is a free
online service for those seeking companies that recycle construction debris in
their area.
• Municipal Solid Waste Management, EPA
• National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center—Construction
Waste Management
• Public Works Technical Bulletins, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:
• PWTB 200-1-23 Guidance for the Reduction of Demolition Waste Through
Reuse and Recycling
• PWTB 200-1-27 Reuse of Concrete Materials From Building Demolition
• PWTB 420-49-30 Alternatives to Demolition for Facility Reduction
• PWTB 420-49-32 Selection of Methods for the Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling
of Demolition Waste
• Residential Construction Waste Management: A Builder's Field Guide by Peter
Yost and Eric Lund. National Association of Home Builders Research Center,
January 1997.
• WasteSpec: Model Specifications for Construction Waste Reduction, Reuse, and
Recycling by Triangle J Council of Governments.
Others

of Understanding
• U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC):
Rating System
Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality

(IEQ)
357
Overview
The Thoreau Institute of Sustainability at the Presidio—San Francisco, California
In the struggle to build cost-effective buildings, it is easy to forget that the ultimate
success or failure of a project rests on its indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Healthy,
comfortable employees are invariably more satisfied and productive. Unfortunately, this
simple, compelling truth is often lost, for it is simpler to focus on the first-cost of a
project than it is to determine the value of increased user productivity and health. Federal
facilities should be constructed with an appreciation of the importance of providing high-
quality, interior environments for all users.
During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a
• Facilitate quality IEQ through good design, construction, and operating and
maintenance practices;
• Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views and the integration of
natural and man-made elements;
• Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of personal control over
temperature and airflow;
• Supply adequate levels of ventilation and outside air to ensure indoor air quality;
• Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi through heating, ventilating, air-
conditioning (HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling indoor
humidity, and building envelope design that prevents the intrusion of moisture;
• Avoid the use of materials high in pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or toxins;
• Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing material
and equipment isolation;
• Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products;
• Create a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration
of natural and artificial light sources; and
• Provide quality water.
358
Note: IEQ encompasses indoor air quality (IAQ), which focuses on airborne
contaminants, as well as other health, safety, and comfort issues such as aesthetics,
potable water surveillance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, and electromagnetic
frequency levels.
Recommendations
Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design, Construction, and O&M
Practices
Acceptable IEQ is often easiest to achieve if "source control" is practiced, not only during
building construction, but also over the life of the building. For example, the designer
may select building products that do not produce noxious or irritating odors; and design
exterior entrances with permanent entryway systems to catch and hold dirt particles. The
Operations & Maintenance (O&M) and cleaning staff can also avoid creating IEQ
problems by choosing less noxious materials during repair and cleaning activities. While
HVAC systems may be designed to isolate operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from
other occupancies, the O&M staff ensures that pressure differentials are maintained to
avoid the undesirable flow of contaminants from one space to another. See also WBDG
Sustainable O&M Practices.
Value Aesthetic Decisions
• Appreciate the importance of providing windows in all occupied spaces for view
and natural ventilation. See also WBDG Aesthetics and Productive—Promote
Health and Well-Being.
• Design spaces around basic human needs, ancient preferences, and connections to
the patterns of nature and the mind. See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of
Space.
• Demand that individual buildings or facilities are consciously integrated into their
natural and man-made context. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site
Potential.
Provide Thermal Comfort
• Use ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human

Occupancy as the basis for thermal comfort. See also WBDG Productive—
Provide Comfortable Environments.
• Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility,
personal comfort control, and energy savings.
• Understand moisture dynamics as a key criteria in the selection of wall and roof
assemblies. See also WBDG Air Barrier Systems in Buildings.
• Evaluate the benefit of specifying high-performance windows to increase mean
radiant temperature (MRT).
359
Supply Adequate Levels of Ventilation and Outside Air
• Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
• Implement a construction management program that ensures key ventilation
components are protected from contamination during construction.
• Commission HVAC systems to ensure they operate and perform as designed. This
will ensure that adequate ventilation rates have been achieved prior to initial
occupancy. HVAC system should be installed with filters with a Minimum
Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 7.
• Investigate the use of separate outside air and conditioned air distribution systems.
A good description of various types of heating and ventilation systems can be
found at: WBDG High-Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.
• Ensure fresh air intakes are located away from loading areas, exhaust fans, and
other contamination points.
• Ensure parking lot/garage usage cannot generate pollutants that affect fresh air
intake or pedestrian traffic. Prevent vehicles idling near the facility during normal
operations.
• Consider installing loading dock purge fans.
• Investigate the use of a permanent air quality monitoring system. ASHRAE
acceptable level of carbon dioxide (CO2) for an indoor office environment is 1000
ppm ("normal" CO2 outside level is about 300 to 400 ppm). Carbon monoxide
(CO) levels in office environments should be below 2 ppm. OSHA regulates
levels of CO for industrial locations.
• Coordinate ventilation and air filtration with chemical, biological, and
radiological concerns and locate outside air intakes so they do not conflict with
physical security requirements. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.
• During operation, replace filters on periodic basis.
Prevent Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Other Fungi
Prevention of mold and fungi is dependent upon effective HVAC and building envelope
design and construction. The HVAC system must be able to control interior humidity
conditions over a wide range of outdoor conditions. The system must be designed to have
the capacity to dehumidify at the 1% Humidity Ratio and mean coincident dry bulb
temperature, and control interior humidity at both extreme and low load conditions. The
building envelope must be carefully designed to prevent intrusion of water and to dry if
intrusion should occur. It must also incorporate barriers that control vapor and air
infiltration.
• Carefully consider the envelope of the building to prevent moisture infiltration.

• Investigate immediately when there is a moisture condition, either from a leak or
flood.
• Ensure the number of spores in the indoor air is less than the outdoor air. It is
recommended that there should be less than 700 spores in a cubic meter of air.
360
Limit Spread of Pathogens
For health care facilities:
• Implement proper maintenance procedures to prevent nosocomial infections.

• Consider removing restroom doors to reduce the chance of acquiring infections.
Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants
• Limit the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in such products as cleaners,
paints, sealants, coatings, and adhesives. See also WBDG Evaluating and
Selecting Green Products.
• Avoid products containing formaldehyde, i.e., carpet, wall panels, cabinetry.
• Remove asbestos-containing material or contain it in a manner that precludes the
possibility of future exposure.
• In areas where it is prevalent, include measures to control and mitigate radon
buildup.
• Create safe, convenient, and secure storage spaces for housekeeping chemicals.
See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
• If an area in an occupied building is being renovated, consider isolating and
negatively pressurizing the construction area if work is being performed that
would result in dust, fumes, or odors. If conditioned air is required due to high
end finishing work, the air should be directly exhausted to the exterior
environment and not returned to the fan.
• Ensure office equipment installed emit minimal odors or pollutants.
Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort
• Minimize noise through the use of sound-absorbing materials, high sound

transmission loss walls, floors, and ceilings, and equipment sound isolation. See
Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition, section on Acoustical Design for
more information. See also WBDG Productive—Provide Comfortable
Environments.
• Consider sound masking systems. These systems introduce an unobtrusive
background sound that reduces interference from distracting office noise. Note
that some level of HVAC "noise" can serve as a background white noise source,
eliminating the need for sound masking systems.
• Avoid the use of small diameter ducts with high velocity airflow.
Control Disturbing Odors through Contaminant Isolation and Product

Selection
• Directly exhaust copying and housekeeping areas, and provide added return air
grills in these areas. This will help limit lower atmosphere ozone generation,
commonly associated with duplicating and printing processes. Ozone acts as a
power oxidant. It can attack surfaces of certain elastomers, plastics, paints, and
361
pigments; and aid in sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals. Possible health
hazards caused by ozone include eye and mucous membrane irritation as well as
chronic respiratory disease.
• Minimize disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products.
• Ensure maintenance procedures are in place to remove all trash and recyclables
from the building on a regular basis rather than storing them within the building
for prolonged periods of time.
• Prohibit smoking in all areas of the building. Environmental Tobacco Smoke
(ETS) is a known carcinogen.
• In special cases where smoking is permitted, e.g., federal judge's private
chambers, ensure that the spaces:
o Have lower pressure than adjacent areas;
o Comply with ASHRAE Standard 62 for proper ventilation;
o Are isolated from the return air system of surrounding areas to prevent
pollutants from spreading to other areas.
Create a High—Performance Luminous Environment
• Use daylighting for ambient lighting wherever feasible.

• Supplement natural light with integrated, high-performance ballasts, lamps,
fixtures, and controls.
• Substitute magnetic fluorescent lamps with high-frequency electronic ballasts to
reduce flickering.
• Reduce direct glare from both natural and man-made sources in the field of view
—particularly in spaces with highly reflective surfaces, such as visual display
terminals (VDTs).
• Use task/ambient systems that provide reduced levels of diffuse, general
illumination, and supplement with task lighting. Most people do not need lighting
in excess of 300 lux (a unit of illumination).
• Use light color on walls and locate windows properly.
Provide Quality Water
• Comply with EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) for the levels of various
metals and bacteria in potable water systems.
• For newly installed or temporarily suspended domestic water systems, follow
"start-up" procedures by flushing all down stream outlets.
• Conduct periodic 'maintenance flushing' to proactively control drinking water
issues.
• Control domestic water temperature to avoid temperature ranges where
legionellae grow: keep domestic water temperatures above 140°F (60°C) in tanks
and 122°F (50°C) at all taps (faucets and showers).
• Design cooling tower and building air intake placement so air discharged from the
cooling tower or evaporative condenser is not directly brought into the facility's
air intake.
362
• Consider a closed loop system instead of an open system to reduce the potential of
exposure at the cooling tower.
Be Aware of Exposure to Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF)
Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) are generated by forces associated with electric
charges in motion, and by microwaves, radio waves, electrical currents, and transformers.
EMF are thought to cause cancer, however there is insufficient evidence to prove this.
There are no federal standards limiting occupational or residential exposure to EMF at
this time, only various U.S. and International voluntary occupational exposure guidelines.
Nevertheless, facility designers and managers should consult the following resources to
find out the latest scientific research and recommendations on dealing with EMF
exposure:
• EMF RAPID—Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information

Dissemination Program
• World Health Organization (WHO), Electromagnetic fields (EMF) website
Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements
Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, building owners and occupants have placed greater
emphasis on facility security and safety. However, security and safety measures must be
considered within a total project context, including the project's environmental goals.
Several indoor environmental quality strategies, such as dedicated ventilation systems
and tight building envelopes, can be employed to help designers achieve an integrated,
high performance facility. See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability
Objectives.

• ASHRAE Guideline 1—Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems
• ASHRAE Standard 52—Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in
General Ventilation for Removing Particular Matter
• ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy
• ASHRAE Standard 62—Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality—Sets the
minimum acceptable ventilation requirements.
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1—Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings
• UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
• Air Force: Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for
Prevention of Mold in Air Force Facilities.
363
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially for Child Development
Centers, Training Facility, Federal Courthouse, Health Care Facilities, Libraries, Office
Building, Auditorium, Conference / Classroom, Courthouse: Courtroom, Library (Space
Type), Office
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive,

Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use,
Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable
Products, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

• 01 57 19.11 (01352) Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Management

• 01 67 00 (01611) Environmental Product Requirements
• 01 74 13 (01740) Progress Cleaning
• 05 05 00 (05500) Common Work Results for Metals
• 06 05 73 (06070) Wood Treatment
• 06 10 00 (06100) Rough Carpentry
• 06 16 00 (06160) Sheathing
• 06 60 00 (06600) Plastic Fabrications
• 06 90 00 (06700) Alternative Agricultural Products
• 07 10 00 (07100) Dampproofing & Waterproofing
• 07 55 63 (07530) Vegetated Protected Membrane Roofing
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 08 50 00 (08500) Windows
• 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board
• 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling
364

• 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting
• 09 72 00 (09720) Wall Coverings
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furiture
Project Management
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Pages Matrix, LEED®-DoD

Antiterrorism Standards Tool
Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design and O&M Practices
Federal Agencies and Laboratories

of Understanding
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Indoor Air Quality website
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL), Indoor Environment Department
website
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA):
• OSHA, Indoor Air Quality website
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE)
• Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
• U.S. Green Building Council:
Rating System
365
Design and Analysis Tools
• IAQ Building Education and Assessment Model (I-BEAM) Computer Software—

I-BEAM is computer software for use by building professionals and others
interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings. I-BEAM updates and
expands EPA's existing Building Air Quality guidance and is designed to be
comprehensive state-of-the-art guidance for managing IAQ in commercial
buildings. I-BEAM contains text, animation/visual, and interactive/calculation
components that can be used to perform a number of diverse tasks.
• Multizone Modeling website, NIST—Contains software tools for performing
multi-zone analysis (e.g. CONTAMW), information on the applications of multi-
zone modeling, multi-zone modeling case studies, and references to multi-zone
modeling publications.
Others
• Aerias—Online resource dedicated to promoting better human health and better

business through IAQ awareness.
• "Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers" by
U.S. EPA and National Institute for Safety and Health.
• High Performance Building Guidelines, City of New York Department of Design
and Construction, 1999.
• Indoor Air Quality Information Clearinghouse
• Direct inquiries: Phone (800) 438-4318; Fax: (703) 356-5386; e-mail:
iaqinfo@aol.com.
• Lessons Learned: High Performance Buildings. "Indoor Environmental Quality"
by John J. Leitner and William Esposito, Jr., CIH, Ambient Group, Inc. New
York, NY: Earth Day New York, 2000.
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual (DOE/EPA)
Value Aesthetic Decisions
• WBDG: Aesthetics, Productive
Provide Thermal Comfort
• WBDG: Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments

366
• MOIST 3 software—Computer software that predicts the one-dimensional

transfer of heat and moisture, allowing users to investigate the effects of various
parameters on the moisture accumulation within layers of the construction.
MOIST can also be used to generate guidelines and practices for controlling
moisture.
Supply Adequate Levels of Ventilation and Outside Air
• WBDG: Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being

• EPA Document #402-K-93-007, April 1995.
• Fact Sheet: Ventilation and Air Quality in Offices by EPA Office of Air and
Radiation (6607J). EPA Document #402-F-94-003, revised July 1990.
Biological, or Radiological Attacks by Department of Health and Human
Services. May 2002.
• Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building
Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks by
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. April 2003.
• The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality by EPA Office of Radiation and
Indoor Air (6604J) and United States Consumer Product Safety Commission.
• NAVFAC White Paper on Carbon Monoxide
• UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
Prevent Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Fungi
• Air Force: Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for
Prevention of Mold in Air Force Facilities.
• Indoor Environmental Standards Organization (IESO)—IESO is a non-profit
organization that provides a national forum for the development and publication
of voluntary consensus standards for the assessment of indoor environments.
IESO also offers certification programs to promote awareness and compliance to
the established standards. The IESO Standards of Practice, Volume 1 for the
assessment of indoor air quality includes seven standards on two topics: Mold
Sampling and Assessment of Mold Contamination.
• OSHA, Molds & Fungi website
Limit Spread of Pathogens
• WBDG: Health Care Facilities
Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants
• Cleaning Products Pilot Project (CPPP), EPA (PDF 388 KB, 25 pgs)
• Environmentally Preferable Purchasing, EPA
• Greenguard Environmental Institute Certified Products
367
• GreenSeal Product Recommendations

• Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) IAQ Product Certification Program
Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort
• WBDG: Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments

• Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition
Create a High—Performance Luminous Environment
• WBDG: Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide

Comfortable Environments
• IESNA RP-5 Recommended Practice of Daylighting
• Windows and Daylighting Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Provide Quality Water
• EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

• NAVFAC Information on Legionella or Legionnaire's Disease
Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements
• WBDG: Secure / Safe—Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets

• Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building
Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks
Biological, or Radiological Attacks by Department of Health and Human
Services. May 2002.
Publications
• IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
• Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow
ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D.
ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
368
Optimize Operational and Maintenance

Practices
Overview
No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can
only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. The use of toxic
cleaning products can deteriorate indoor air quality; failure to test sensor control points
can compromise energy efficiency; and poor training can lead to early system failures.
Buildings must be operated and maintained with the security, safety, health, comfort, and
productivity of their occupants in mind, and with an understanding of the next
generation's need to reuse and recycle building components.
Throughout the building's life cycle, operations and maintenance should seek to:
• Train building occupants, facilities managers, and maintenance staff in

sustainable design principles and methods;
• Purchase cleaning products and supplies that are resource-efficient and non-toxic;
• Use automated monitors and controls for energy, water, waste, temperature,
moisture, and ventilation;
• Reduce waste through source reduction and recycling to eliminate disposal off-
site; and
• Minimize travel by supporting telecommuting programs and enabling
teleconferencing.
Recommendations
Train Building Occupants, Facilities Managers, and Maintenance Staff in
Sustainability Principles and Methods
• Implement a comprehensive, preventive maintenance program to keep all building

systems functioning as designed. See WBDG Reliability-Centered Maintenance
(RCM).
• Provide operations support to facilities managers and maintenance crews to
answer questions and offer additional information.
Employ Environmentally Preferable Landscaping Practices
• Landscape with native, or indigenous, plants.

369
• Develop a Pest Control Plan, which includes information about: materials and
equipment for service; method for monitoring and detection; service schedule for
each building or site; any structural or operational changes that would facilitate
the pest control effort; and commercial pesticide applicator certificates or
licenses.
• Where unavoidable, use non-toxic outdoor fertilizers and pesticides.
• Consider composting/recycling yard waste.
• Minimize site disturbance. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential.
• Use landscaping products with recycled content as required by EPA's
Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) for landscaping products.
• See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
Purchase Cleaning Products and Supplies that are Resource-Efficient and

Non-Toxic
• Use cleaners that biodegrade rapidly.

• Look for products that are concentrated, using less packaging for more power.
• Use integrated pest management (IPM) practices in facilities and landscaping to
reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides. IPM has been mandated on federal
property since 1996 by Section 136r-1 of Title 7, United States Code, and is cited
in Title 41 of the Code of Federal Regulations (102-74.35) as a required service
for agencies subject to the authority of the General Services Administration
(GSA).
• Use non-toxic pest control for indoor spaces and plants. See also WBDG
Evaluating and Selecting Green Products.
• Keep air ducts clean and free of microorganisms through a structured program of
preventive maintenance.
Use Automated Monitors and Controls for Energy, Water, Waste,

Temperature, Moisture, and Ventilation Monitors and Controls
• Use schedule, occupancy, or luminance sensors to control lighting and other

functions.
• Use timers for heating/ventilation/air conditioning (HVAC) equipment.
• Turn off the lights, computers, and equipment when not in use.
• Enable power-down features on office equipment (e.g., Energy Star® computers).
• Turn off computer monitors when not in use.
Reduce Waste Through Source Reduction and Recycling
• Start a comprehensive recycling program with source separation and occupant

incentives.
• Use on-site composting of organic materials.
• Adopt green meeting practices.
370
Support Practices that Encourage Sustainable Transportation or Minimize

Travel
• Install sufficient bike racks to meet demand.

• Designate shuttle/bus stops in safe and accessible areas close to the facility.
• Provide sufficient parking spaces for carpools/vanpools.
• Support teleconferencing and videoconferencing through proper operations and
maintenance of communication systems.
• Support telework (aka telecommuting) programs by providing hotelling spaces
(flexible and well-equipped office spaces that teleworkers can use when they
come into the office) and properly operating and maintaining telework centers.

Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems

Appropriately, Productive, Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces, Productive
—Design for the Changing Workplace, Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being,
Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant
Safety and Health, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy
Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally
Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality

371
• 01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data

• 32 90 00 (02900) Planting
• 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board
• 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling
• 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting
• 09 72 00 (09720) Wallcoverings
• 10 21 13.19 (10170) Plastic Toilet Compartments
• 12 48 13 (12482) Entrance Floor Mats and Frames
• 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furniture
• 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators
• 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
Project Management
Tools
Standards Tool
Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

of Understanding
372
• Pennsylvania Green Building Maintenance Manual by the Commonwealth of

Pennsylvania in partnership with Green Seal and Department of General Services'
Property Management.
• Operations and Maintenance—Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)
• U.S. Green Building Council, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED®) Green Building Rating System—Existing Buildings.
Train Building Occupants, Facilities Managers, and Maintenance Staff in

Sustainability Principles and Methods
• IFMA Certification Program for Facility Managers—Maintenance and operations

management is one of eight competency areas evaluated in becoming a Certified
Facility Manager. An ideas exchange among facility managers is available on an
advertising-supported web page.
Employ Environmentally Preferable Landscaping Practices
• Beneficial Landscaping Guidance by the U.S. Coast Guard Environmental

Management Division (G-SEC-3).
• GSA Integrated Pest Management Program
• GSA Landscape Management Program
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Food Production Fact Sheet by EPA.
Purchase Cleaning Products and Supplies that are Resource-Efficient and

Non-Toxic
• Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP), EPA

• Includes several Cleaning Products Pilot Projects on cleaners listed under
"Solvents."
• Green Seal
• South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD)
• U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Supply Schedule – GSA Schedule
073—Schedule 073 (Food Service, Hospitality, and Cleaning) offers a variety of
cleaning equipment and accessories, and cleaning products (including
biodegradable products) for daily cleaning-products that keep facilities clean in an
environmentally friendly manner. Also available are office recycling containers
and waste receptacles, outdoor recycling containers, and industrial trash storage
containers.
Use Automated Monitors and Controls for Energy, Water, Waste,

Temperature, Moisture, and Ventilation Monitors and Controls
• Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers by
U.S. EPA and National Institute for Safety and Health.
373
Reduce Waste Through Source Reduction and Recycling
• EPA Office of Solid Waste

• Green Meetings, EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
• GSA Recycling and Waste Reduction Fact Sheet
• Planning Environmentally Aware Events, EPA Office of Solid Waste
• Waste News.com
Support Practices that Encourage Sustainable Transportation or Minimize

Travel
• E-Commutair, the Teleworking Impact Estimation Tool from the Consortium on

Green Design and Manufacturing, University of California, Berkeley
• Interagency Telework/Telecommuting website, GSA/OPM
• Public Law 106-346, Section 359—Congressional Federal Telework Mandate
2001 (Part of the Department of Transportation Appropriations Act of 2001), 23
October 2000.
• The Telework Coalition (TelCoa)
Publications
374
Architecture
by Julie Gabrielli, NCARB, LEED and Amy E. Gardner, AIA
University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation
Introduction
The modern profession of architecture echoes with its origins, its rich history, and the
fast-paced changes of the 21st century. Through antiquity, architecture and construction
were united by the cultural intentions of a "Master Builder," who balanced art, science,
materials, form, style and craft to achieve his vision.
Roger K. Lewis illustrates that architects balance ideas, form, and function.
(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)
"The regulated profession of architecture is relatively new. Yet there have been architects
for as long as societies have built, with little distinction between designers and builders.
In ancient, traditional cultures and languages, the same word was used for both architect
and builder. Construction was an integrated craft in which the master mason or master
carpenter knew how to design, to assemble labor and materials, to estimate costs, to
manage the construction process, and to erect structures from foundation to roof."
(Roger K. Lewis, p.149, from Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession)
Beginning in the seventeenth century, with the rise of professionalism, the discipline of
architecture became increasingly specialized. With the nineteenth century expansion of
scientific knowledge, the evolution of other technically oriented disciplines such as
375
engineering, and the corresponding introduction of more complex construction systems,

the discipline of architecture became more focused on questions of basic functionality
and aesthetics. In pursuit of professional status, architects wanted no longer to be
perceived as craftspersons. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the profession made
conscious efforts to distance architects from contractors.
This specialist role now forms the basis of most widely accepted modern definitions of
architectural practice. For instance, the United States Department of Labor defines
architects as licensed professionals who transform space needs into concepts, images, and
plans of buildings to be constructed by others. Still, echoes of the "Master Builder"
remain, as architects are usually responsible for orchestrating and coordinating the work
of many disciplines during the design phases. It is not unusual for architects also to be
involved in the early stages of project feasibility, to help clients define a program, choose
the site, and otherwise decide on highest and best uses.
Description
Legal and Cultural Definitions
The discipline of architecture has both legal and cultural definitions. In the United States,
all states have regulations that govern conditions of licensure, registration, use of the title
"architect" and the provision of professional services, succinctly summarized by The
American Institute of Architects. Each state or jurisdiction creates its own requirements
for each of these aspects of the discipline. While legal definitions mandate the ways in
which the profession is responsible for safeguarding the health, safety, and welfare of the
public, cultural definitions characterize the ways in the discipline responds to social,
aesthetic, and ethical aspects of making cities, buildings, and landscapes. A "whole
building" approach must necessarily incorporate both sets of disciplinary definitions.
Architect's Role
376
Sometimes beauty and functionality are in tension, as seen by Roger K. Lewis. (Courtesy
Roger K. Lewis)
Today, the required legal, technical, and cultural knowledge base has such breadth and
depth that it is no longer in the best interest of the project for one discipline to hold,
implement, and be responsible for all building-related knowledge, as did the Master
Builder of old. Professional malpractice concerns have led liability insurance companies
to encourage, even implicitly force, architects to limit activities to design. For example,
"construction supervision" became "construction observation," moving the architect
further away from the risks associated with construction activities.
According to some industry analysts, such as Carl Sapers, the architect's role has been
further limited by the idea that buildings are commodities, consisting of assemblies of
standard materials and systems best understood by their suppliers and constructors. New
forms of project delivery, including "design/build", "bridging", and "construction
management", come out of a belief that architects are no longer able to stay abreast of
complex information in order to lead the design process on the owner's behalf. (Carl
Sapers, "Toward Architectural Practice in the 21st Century," in Harvard Design
Magazine, Fall 2003/Winter 2004)
However, this standardized approach to efficient building design is not necessarily

synonymous with the requirements for whole building design. Integrated, high-
performance design requires both efficiency and innovation. It requires a design process
in which the users, owners, and project participants are all integral team members.
The Composite Master Builder
An innovative approach to efficiency: a prefabricated structure for an ecologically-

sensitive site. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist
(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation.)
With whole building design, the project team can be guided once again by a collective
vision. This structure, along with the process by which the design team works together,
has been termed byBill Reed as the "Composite Master Builder". The term recasts the
377
historical single Master Builder as a diverse group of professionals working together

towards a common end. The intention is to bring all of the specialists together, allowing
them to function as if they were one mind. The process avoids, as Mario Salvadori says,
the "reciprocal ignorance" of the specialists in the design and building field.
The cast of specialists is potentially quite large, and depending on the complexity of the
project, can include:
• site professionals, such as planners, civil and environmental engineers, and

landscape architects;
• design team members such as programmers, architects, and interior designers;
• building systems experts, such as structural, mechanical, fire protection, and
building science and performance engineers;
• construction professionals, including cost estimators, project managers,
tradespeople, and craftspeople;
• owners, including financial managers, building users, and operations and
maintenance staff; and
• local code and fire officials.
A cast of specialists worked together to design building systems using the building
section as a tool. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist
(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)
The Team Needs a Leader
The legal obligations of the profession, comprehensive training in holistic problem-

solving, and an understanding of broad cultural concerns make architects ideally suited
for the leadership of design teams.
Architects in the United States have historically been bound by comprehensive legal
requirements and responsibilities for the building design. They are legally obligated to
safeguard the public health, safety, and welfare. This presumes that architects maintain at
minimum a clear overview of the project team's work. Arguably, the most effective way
to discharge this public duty is to oversee and coordinate the work of the project team.
378
The profession emphasizes comprehensive training in the arts and sciences, as well as a
holistic approach to design problems. Architectural education teaches both abstract and
concrete problem-solving. Its core skills are learned and re-learned, in an iterative process
that incorporates history, theory, technology, and other social and cultural factors.
Architects are both specialists and generalists, which ideally enables them to
communicate effectively with other specialists while maintaining the "big-picture" view
of the project goals.
In addition to health, safety, and welfare considerations, buildings incorporate the culture
that created them. The built environment is both "mirror and lamp", shaping while acting
as a repository of cultural meaning. As Churchill said, "We shape our buildings;
thereafter they shape us." With their knowledge of the arts and culture, architects hold a
comprehensive understanding of the project context and can help the design team move
beyond mere problem-solving.
Education, Training, and Process for Whole Building Design
Holistic building design comes out of a comprehensive understanding of the project

context. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist.
As leaders and participants in the design process, architects need to understand and work
collaboratively with other disciplines. To this end, architects need to pursue education
and training throughout their professional careers. Many excellent examples of
interdisciplinary design studios exist in the United States. These studios involve students,
faculty, practicing design and engineering professionals, and even clients and regulatory
officials. Some studios participate in service-learning projects to build structures for
deserving clients. Everyone involved—students, professionals and members of the
community—benefits from the process itself, as well as the cross-pollination of ideas and
techniques. Examples include Studio 804 at the University of Kansas School of
Architecture and Urban Design, and Architecture 600/611 Comprehensive Studio and
Advanced Technology at the University of Maryland's School of Architecture, Planning,
and Preservation.
Continuing education is a lifelong endeavor for practicing architects and is mandated in

many jurisdictions, as well as by The American Institute of Architects (AIA). Typically,
379
this education involves technical training, management courses, legal and liability issues,
and learning about new materials and products. The practice of seeking out training in the
various aspects of leadership of an integrated design team, such as workshop facilitation,
is not yet common. However, critical skills are needed to assume this role, which was
addressed in a recent article in Environmental Building News. Current practitioners of
integrated design, such as Terry Brennan of Camroden Associates, observe that architects
have the intention to become cooperative but lack the skills. "The lead designer must be
skilled in nurturing and giving form to the collective vision, rather than expressing his or
her own vision. Not all architects are comfortable with this role, which is more akin to
that of a midwife than to that of an individual artist." (EBN, November 2004, "Integrated
Design" feature article)
Project charrettes for the Kingman Island Environmental Education Center establish early
and regular interaction among design team members.
In daily practice, early and regular, structured interaction of the "Composite Master
Builder," is critical to establishing a project vision and maintaining momentum
throughout the design and construction process. Activities might include charrettes,
workshops, peer review, and post-occupancy review.
The whole team interaction focuses on collaborative, integrated problem solving, to

address issues such as:
• accessibility
• aesthetics
• cost-effective solutions
• functional and operational considerations
• preservation of cultural artifacts
• productive environment for users
• safety and security
• environmental sustainability.
Emerging Issues
Evolution of Building Types
380
Roger K. Lewis' view of emerging issues

The context of architectural practice is always evolving. Beginning with the subject of
buildings themselves, the cataloguing of building types is a practice as old as the
discipline. It is common to see evolution of building and program types, and adaptive
reuse of waning types, as a mirror of a culture. Building types evolve in response to
cultural change—new programmatic needs, recent events that challenge norms of an
equitable accessibility as well as secure facilities and environments, and changes in
practice to accommodate a diverse populace. Department stores, train stations, shopping
malls, airports, high-rise apartment buildings, living machines, and recycling centers have
changed our building and urban landscapes.
Smart Growth, Cities, and Landscapes
Evolutions in current architectural practice also include a re-commitment to community

and public service, and an abiding interest and concern for our cities and landscapes.
Both find articulation in "smart growth" initiatives, inventive real estate investment and
development schemes, urban redevelopment, and trends in the historic preservation of
cities and buildings. Additionally, cultural preservation is seen as equally important to
building fabric preservation and conservation. Sustainable design takes these concerns
further in advocating a beneficial relationship between the built and natural
environments.
381
Left: Cultural preservation and resource conservation in action at the Bradley residence,
designed by Amy E. Gardner AIA.
(Photo by the authors)
And Right: In the Brown residence designed by Julie Gabrielli, sustainable design takes a
"cradle-to-cradle" view, combining antique timbers with 21st century technologies—a
"wondrous hybrid".
In fact, the tilt towards a sustainable practice might well be thought of as an expected
standard of practice, encompassing issues such as those connected to planning, zoning,
and building codes; building science and performance; energy sources, management, and
use; material resource management, science, and invention; and broad concepts of waste
and renewal of natural and technical systems. Discussions of these concepts is
persuasively argued by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in Cradle to Cradle.
Impact of Technology
Globalization of practice, especially as it relates to changes in the workforce, labor, and

practice, has the potential to dramatically change the discipline. The outsourcing of
design and drawing labor overseas; the robotic manufacturing of building components
and materials; and the use of sophisticated three-dimensional computer programs to
design buildings raise questions and challenge current modes of project delivery. Trends
in computer-aided building design and manufacturing figure prominently in any
discussion of project delivery methods.
382
Norman Foster's Swiss Re Headquarters in London demonstrates sophisticated building

technologies developed through advanced modeling systems.
A significant current trend in computer programs for building design and documentation,
for example, is the move towards Building Information Modeling. The initial purpose of
computer drawing systems was to automate two dimensional drafting. It did so through
representing three dimensional building elements with an assemblage of two dimensional
symbols such as lines. However, Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an object-
oriented CAD system, in which two-dimensional symbols that stood for building
elements are replaced by three-dimensional objects with embedded information, capable
of representing elements of construction. This allows for multiple views to be generated,
for multiple building systems to be coordinated, for materials and quantities to be known
and referenced to each other, all during the design and documentation phases of a project.
These qualities allow for a degree of interconnectedness during design and
documentation phases not readily achievable in two-dimensional CAD systems.
Industry experts predict that BIM will revolutionize not only the delivery of design and
documents, but also the relationship between design team members, owners, and
construction entities and the relationship between design and construction activities.
However, Ken Sanders, FAIA, observes in the September 2004 issue of Architectural
Record: that "the critical path isn't BIM, but rather process innovation squarely focused
on people, partnerships, shared expertise, and timely decision making." Nevertheless
changes in the way that design teams conceive, develop, and communicate information
about buildings are positioned to have a dramatic impact on the practice of architecture.
Project Delivery Methods
Architectural projects can be executed through a variety of project delivery methods.

Prior to the twentieth century, there was a single project delivery method—the architect
won a commission, produced drawings for design and construction, pulled labor and
materials lists together, and oversaw the building of the project. As architects moved the
discipline towards a profession and away from a craft, different project delivery methods
383
developed to accommodate the changing relationship between architects and

craftspeople.
Currently, three project delivery methods dominate in the United States: design-bid-build,
design-build, and construction management. In order to assist owners and the
construction industry by establishing accepted definitions of project delivery methods,
the AIA and the Associated General Contractors of America jointly created a document
entitled "Primer on Project Delivery", offering information on these methods for owners
and architects. However, each method may be summarized to capture a flavor of the
intent. Design-bid-build is a method by which project delivery is separated into three
distinct phases: a project is designed and documented with drawings and specifications,
competitively bid to multiple general contractors, and then built by the general contractor,
guided by a contract with the owner of the project. Design-build is a project delivery
method in which a single entity (for example a general contractor in a joint venture with a
design team including architects and engineers) holds a single contract with an owner for
both the design and construction of a project. Finally, the construction management
method is a process that involves the coordination and management of the entire process
via a single entity—from site survey through occupation. It encompasses the evaluation,
selection, and management of all contractors, as well as the administration of the project
budget relative to the implementation of design.
Project Management within the Architect's Office
Project management is also a significant term within architectural practice. In the

execution of a project, the work of all disciplines and relationships needs to be
orchestrated—architectural design, the coordination of other design disciplines, team
members' design and drawing work, client relationships, time and fee tracking, to name a
few. This orchestration is achieved through the architectural project manger, a conductor
of sorts. The goals of project management include the orchestration and integration of an
overlapping set of issues including project scope, schedule and budgets, development of
the design, management of the delivery team throughout the various phases of the project
from inception to initial occupancy.
Contracts
Both project delivery methods and internal project management roles are evolving in a
manner commensurate with evolutions in digital technologies, building technology, and
construction case law. Similarly, contracts evolve following events in construction and
professional case law. Currently, more than 90 documents authored by The American
Institute of Architects constitute an industry standard for contracts and project
administration forms—according to the AIA, "a significant body of case law concerning
contracts for design and construction is based largely on the language of AIA standard
forms."
Conclusion
384
The changing context of architectural practice points to challenges to and opportunities

for whole building design. Evolutions such as BIM have the potential to facilitate—or
further complicate—integrated work. Areas of evolution should be carefully analyzed for
potential avenues for integrated rather than episodic action, allowing the objectives of
whole building design to be met in a holistic fashion.

History of Building Codes
Roger K. Lewis captures the complexity and magnitude of code requirements.

Since at least the Code of Hammurabi in the 18th Century BC, there have been codes
governing the design and construction of buildings. While Hammurabi had rather onerous
requirements for quality (for instance, if the owner is killed by a building, its builder is
sentenced to death), many subsequent codes were established in reaction to dramatic
events such as fires, earthquakes, and floods. Some codes, such as the Code of Napoleon,
18th Century AD, provided for loss replacement as a sort of insurance policy. Still other
codes established rules for materials or systems: the Lord Mayor of London in 1189
required party walls between buildings, and the Charlestown General Assembly in 1740
required brick and stone for exterior walls.
Until recently, most building codes have been prescriptive, effectively casting design
professionals in the role of negotiators between the owner's ideas and the realities of
codes. High-performance, integrated building design recently started leading design
teams away from this "just barely legal" approach. As a tool to aid in this process, the
new performance-based building codes give the design team more flexibility in meeting
requirements.
385
1. List of Codes
The international Code Council (ICC) was formed from the joining of publishers of
National and Standard Building Codes, Building Officials and Code Administrators
International, the Southern Building Code Congress International, and the International
Conference of Building Officials. The result of their merging was the International Code
Series—part of the U.S.'s first unified comprehensive and coordinated building codes.
A. U.S. Code Organizations:
• International Code Council (ICC)

• International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), member of ICC
• Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), member of ICC
• International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
• Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
B. Codes:
• Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines (ADAAG)

• CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code
• International Code Series:
• International Building Code (IBC)
• International Energy Conservation Code (IECC)
• International Fire Code (IFC)
• International Fuel Gas Code (IFGC)
• International Mechanical Code (IMC)
• International Plumbing Code (IPC)
• International Property Maintenance Code (IPMC)
• International Residential Code (IRC)
• National Building Code (BOCA NBC)
• National Fire Protection Association codes (NFPA)
• National Electric Codes (NEC)
• Uniform Building Code (UBC)
2. List of Standards and Organizations
Many of these organizations have voluntary standards for quality assurance. Others
publish standards that are referenced by the LEED Green Building Rating Guide, for
meeting requirements of various credits.
• American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA) (formerly the National Forest
Products Association)
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• APA - The Engineered Wood Association (APA)
386
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE)
• Architectural Woodwork Institute (AWI)
• American Wood Council (AWC)
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)
• Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
• Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
• Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
• International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)
• National Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
• National Institute of Building Sciences - Construction Criteria Base (CCB)
• Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory
(FPL)
• U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
3. Federal and Non Government Databases for Standards and

Regulations
• Whole Building Design Guide—Mandates/References

• Whole Building Design Guide—Construction Criteria Base
Major Resources
Professional Associations
• Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ASCA)

• American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS)
• National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB)
• National Architectural Accrediting Board, Inc. (NAAB)
Related Organizations
• Architecture Research Institute, Inc.

• Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA)
• Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA)
• Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU)
387
• Department of Energy (DOE):

• Energy Sources
• Energy Efficiency
• National Association of Homebuilders (NAHB)
• National Association of the Remodeling Industry (NARI)
• National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA)
• Urban Land Institute (ULI)
• Links to Other Organizations through NCARB
Bibliography
Resources are central to a knowledge-based practice of architecture.

History/Theory
• A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, 2nd edition by Spiro Kostof and
Greg Castillo. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995.
• A History of Architectural Theory: From Vitruvius to the Present by Hanno-
Walter Kruft. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994.
• Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968 by Harry
Mallgrave. New York, NY: Cambrige University Press, 2005.
• Sir Banister Fletcher's History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher. New
York, NY: C. Scribner's Sons, London, UK: B.T. Batsford, 1945.
388
Building Science, Technology, Materials, and Assembly
• Architectural Graphic Standard by Charles George Ramsey, Harold Reeve

Sleeper, John Ray Hoke, 10th Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• The Architect's Studio Companion, 3rd Edition by Edward Allen and Joseph Iano.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
• Building Envelope by Randall Stout and Michael Garrison. Washington, DC:
NCARB, 2004.
• Building Systems Integration Handbook, Reprint Edition by Richard Rush.
Newton, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1991.
• Building in Wood: Construction and Detail by Götz Gutdeutsch, et al. Basel,
Boston: Birkhauser, Ed. Detail, 1996.
• Building Skins: Concepts, Layers, Material by Christian Schittich. Basel, Boston:
Birkhauser, 2002.
• Concrete Construction Manual by Friedbert Kind-Barkauskas, et al. Basel,
Boston: Birkhauser, Ed. Detail, 1993.
• EEBA Builders' Guides by Joe Lstiburek and Betsy Pettit. Canada: EEBA, 2001.
• Façade Construction Manual by Thomas Herzog, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
Ed. Detail, 2004.
• Glass Buildings: Material, Structure and Detail by Heinz Krewinkel. Basel,
Boston: Birkhauser, 1998.
• Glass Construction Manual by Christian Schittich. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser, Ed.
Detail, 1999.
• Glass in Building by David Button and Brian Pye. Boston, MA: Butterworth
Architectural Press, 1993.
• Moisture Control Handbook by Joe Lstiburek and John Carmody. New York, NY:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.
• Laminated Timber Construction by Christian Muller. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
2000.
• Roof Construction Manual by Eberhard Schunk, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
Ed. Detail, 2003.
• Masonry Construction Manual by Günter Pfeifer, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
Ed. Detail, 2001.
• Steel Construction Manual by Helmut Schulitz, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
Ed. Detail, 2000.
• Timber Construction Manual by Thomas Herzog, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,
Ed. Detail, 2004.
• Wood Reference Handbook: A Guide to the Architectural Use of Wood in
Building Construction Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Wood Council, 1993.
Sustainable Building Environments
• American Building: The Environmental Forces that Shape It by James M. Fitch,

with William Bobenhausen. New York, NY: University Press, 1999.
• Architectural Expression of Environmental Control Systems by George Baird.
New York, NY: E&FN Spon Press, 2001.
389
• Architecture and the Environment: Bioclimatic Building Design by David Lloyd

Jones. Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1998.
• The Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment by Reyner Banham.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
• Climate and Architecture by Jeffrey Ellis Aronin, New York, NY: AMS Press,
1979.
• Climatic Building Design by Donald Watson and Kenneth Labs, New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, 1993.
• Cradle to Cradle by William McDonough and Michael Braungart. New York,
NY: North Point Press, 2002.
• Daylighting Performance and Design, 2nd Edition by Gregg D. Ander. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
• Daylighting for Sustainable Design by Mary Guzowski. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, 2000.
• Detailing Light by Jean Gorman. New York, NY: Whitney Library of
Design/Watson-Guptill, 1995.
• Design with Climate by Victor Olgyay. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
1963.
• Design With Nature by Ian McHarg. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1992.
• Ecological Design by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan. Washington, DC:
Island Press, 1996.
• Eco-Tech by Catherine Slessor, London: Thames and Hudson, 2001.
• Environmental Tradition: Studies in the Architecture of Environment by Dean
Hawkes. London, UK: E&FN Spon Press; New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996.
• A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology by Ken Butti
and John Perlin. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.
• Green Development by Alex Wilson, Jenifer L. Seal, Lisa A. McManigal, L.
Hunter Lovins, Maureen Cureton, and William D. Browning. New York, NY: J.
• Man, Climate and Architecture, 2nd Edition by Baruch Givoni. New York, NY:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.
• Reshaping the Built Environment by Charles Kibert. Washington, DC: Island
Press, 1999.
• Sun, Wind & Light, 2nd Edition by G.Z. Brown and Mark DeKay. New York,
NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001.
• Sustainable Architecture: Principles, Paradigms and Case Studies by James
Steele, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
• Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism by Dominique Gauzin-Muller. Basel,
Boston: Birkhauser 2002.
• The Technology of Ecological Building by Klaus Daniels. Basel, Boston:
Birkhauser, 1997.
• Thermal Delight in Architecture by Lisa Heschong. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1979.
390
Practice
• Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession by Roger K. Lewis. Cambridge,

MA: MIT Press, 1998.
• Architect's Essentials of Contract Negotiation by Ava Abramowitz. New York,
• Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice by Joseph Demkin. New York,
• Architectural Practice: A Critical View by Robert Gutman. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1988.
• Architecture: Chapters in the History of the Profession, Reprint Edition by Dana
Cuff and Spiro Kostof. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.
• Architecture: The Story of Practice by Dana Cuff. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1992.
• In the Scheme of Things: Alternative Thinking on the Practice of Architecture by
Thomas Fisher. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.
• A Theory for Practice: Architecture in Three Discourses by Bill Hubbard.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
Digital Technologies
• Advanced Building Simulation Malkawi, Ali, and Augenbroe, Godfried, Eds.

New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2004.
• Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing Kolarevic, Branko Ed.
New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2003.
• Performative Architecture: Beyond Instrumentality Kolarevic, Branko and
Malkawi, Ali, Eds. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2004.
• Digital Tectonics Leach, Neil, et al, Eds. London, UK: Wiley-Academy Press,
2004.
Webliography
Building Science, Technology, Materials, and Assembly

a. General:
• Building Envelopes.org
• Building Science Corporation
• DOE: Building Energy Codes
• ebuild
• HUD User: Building Technology
• Toolbase Services
• Whole Building Design Guide—Mandates/References
• Whole Building Design Guide—Construction Criteria Base
b. Materials:
391
• American Concrete Institute (ACI)

• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• Architectural Woodwork Institute (AWI)
• APA - Engineered Wood Association (APA)
• Canadian Wood Council
• Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)
• Hardwood Information Council
• Natural Building Resources
• Structural Board Association (SBA)
Sustainable Building Environments

a. General:
• BuildingGreen.com
• Built Green
• Center for the Built Environment
• Center for Resourceful Building Technology
• Development Center for Appropriate Technology
• DOE: Building Energy Codes
• Eco-Home™ Network
• Green Building Alliance
• Green Matrix
• Greener Buildings
• Greenroofs.com
• High-Performance Buildings Research
• Institute for the Built Environment
• NAHB Research Center: Guide to Developing Green Builder Programs
• OIKOS: Green Building Source
• Sustainable Buildings Industry Council
• Sustainable Sources
b. Sustainable Design Guidelines:
• Green Building Challenge

c. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy:
• Alternative Energy Store

• American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy
• Energy and Environmental Building Association (EEBA)
• EnergyStar
• GreenGoat
• HomePerformance.com
392
• RReDC Energy Tidbits

• The Source for Renewable Energy
d. Recycling:
• GreenGoat
• Recyclers' World
• ReDo: Reuse Development Organization
• Steel Recycling Institute
Journals
• AIArchitect
• Architecture
• Architecture Week
• Architectural Digest
• Architectural Record
• Architectural Review
• Archis
• Building Design and Construction
• Detail
• Dwell
• Ecotecture.com
• Environmental Design and Construction
• Fine Homebuilding
• Harvard Design Magazine
• Metropolis
• Residential Architect
• Traditional Building
• Wood Design and Building
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias
• Almanac of Architecture & Design Library 2005 by James P. Cramer, and

Jennifer Y. Evans, eds. Atlanta, GA: Greenway Communications, 2004.
• Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged
Reprint of the 1901-1902 Edition by Russell Sturgis. New York, NY: Dover,
1989.
• Dictionary of Architecture & Construction, 3rd Edition by Cyril Harris, Ed. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
• Encyclopedia of Architecture: Design, Engineering & Construction by Joseph
Wilkes and Robert Packard. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989.
• Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture by Dennis Sharp. New
York, NY: Whitney Library of Design, 1991.
393
• Multilingual Dictionary of Architecture and Building Terms by Chris Grech. New

York, NY: Brunner-Routledge, 1998.
Design and Analysis Tools
• Energy-10
• IES "Virtual Environment" (IES (USA) Limited)
• REScheck (U.S. DOE Building Energy Codes Program, Residential Compliance)
• TRNSYS - (TRaNsient SYstem Simulation Program)
• VisualDOE (Architectural Energy Corporation)
Training
Education and Continuing Education
See: Professional Organizations above
Acknowledgements
–Credit and gratitude to Roger K. Lewis FAIA for wisdom, insight, and the use of his
cartoons
–Credit and gratitude also to George Holback AIA for the ideas in the section on the the
History of Building Codes
394
Tools
Welcome to the Tools section of the Whole Building Design Guide. These pages offer
information on a variety of desktop or Web-based tools used in the building industry.
Browse Alphabetically
Browse by Category
Code Compliance
Cost-Estimating
Design & Analysis
Energy Analysis
Life-Cycle Costing / Assessment
Life-Cycle Management / Maintenance
Professional & Construction Services
Program & Project Management
Specification Aids
Browse by Agency Use
Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (AFCESA)

Army Corps of Engineers (COE)
Department of Energy (DOE)
Department of Interior (DOI)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
General Services Administration (GSA)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC)
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

WBDG Hospitals &amp; Care Homes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

WBDG Hospitals &amp; Care Homes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

1

Whole Building Design Guide

Health Care Facilities

Last updated: 03-14-2007

• AIA Academy of Architecture for Health (AAH)—Contains AAH newsletters,

• American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota—The

• Architectural Record—Monthly journal with a building types study section

• Journal of Healthcare Design—Published from 1988-1998, contains presentations

Last updated: 04-21-2008

VAMC Bay Pines, FL

The basic form of a hospital is, ideally, based on its functions:

• bed-related inpatient functions

Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

An efficient hospital layout should:

• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between

Flexibility and Expandability

• Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout

Cross-section showing interstitial space with deck above an occupied floor

• Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with

For an in-depth view see WBDG—Therapeutic Environments.

Cleanliness and Sanitation

Hospitals must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:

• Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space

All areas, both inside and out, should:

A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of

Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.)

• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures

Security and Safety

• Protection of hospital property and assets, including drugs

Relevant Codes and Standards

• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical

• American Hospital Association—Information generally focused on financial and

Nurses Association, and Healthcare without Harm to educate healthcare

• Medical and Dental Space Planning: A Comprehensive Guide to Design,

• SpaceMedGuide-A Space Planning Guide for Healthcare Facilities—a popular

Last updated: 04-22-2008

Floor Plan of Missouri Veterans Home—St. James, Missouri

Homelike and Therapeutic Environment

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

The nursing home design should:

• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between

Cleanliness and Sanitation

Security and Safety

Design to address security and safety concerns of nursing homes includes:

• Use of non-reflective and non-slip floors to avoid falls

• Control of access to hazardous spaces

Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic homelike environment. It is also a

• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures

Relevant Codes and Standards

• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical

• American Health Care Association—This organization represents the long-term

• American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota—The

• Contemporary Environments for People with Dementia by Cohen and Day.

Project Planning, Management and

• Project Delivery Teams—Contains guidance on assembling and effectively

• DOE Project Management Process (PDF 28 KB)

• VA Project Managers Handbook

• Construction Project Administration by Edward R. Fisk. New York, NY: John

• Construction Industry Institute (CII)—A consortium of public and private facility

• Project Planning Tools (PPT)—A web-based resource that produces automated,

• Architectural Practices—A free resource for architects, engineers, contractors,

• University of Maryland Project Management Program—Provides project

WBDG Hospitals & Care Homes

WBDG Hospitals & Care Homes