Basic WCDMA Elements: Fdma Tdma

Basic WCDMA Elements
Access Technologies
Dedicated Channel: An individually-assigned,
dedicated pathway through a
transmission medium for one
user’s information
FDMA TDMA
"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".
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UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-3
The transmission medium is a resource that can be divided into individual channels
according to different criteria depending on the technology used:
Here’s how the three most popular multiple access techniques divide their channels:
• FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
- each user on a different frequency,
- a channel is a frequency.
• TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
- each user on a different window period in time (“time slot”),
- TDMA usually uses FDMA to divide the frequency band into smaller
frequency channels, which are then divided in a time division fashion
(GSM),
- a channel is a specific time slot on a specific frequency.
• WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
- each user uses the same frequency all the time, but mixed with different
distinguishing code patterns,
- WCDMA usually uses FDMA to divide the frequency band into smaller
frequency channels, which are then divided in a code division fashion
(UMTS),
- a channel is a unique (set of) code pattern(s), and a specific frequency.
UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-3 October, 2000

Duplex Technologies
W-CDMA: FDD or TDD
Code Multiplex &
Power Time Frequency Division
UMTS USER 2
FDD UMTS USER 1

UL DL
Frequency
5 MHz 5 MHz
Duplex Spacing: 190 MHz
Power DL
Time Code Multiplex
UL
UMTS USER 2 &
DL Time Division
DL
TDD UMTS USER 1
UL
666.67 μs
μ
5 MHz Frequency
The possibility to operate in either FDD or TDD mode is allowed for efficient
utilization of available spectrum according to frequency allocation in different
regions. FDD and TDD are defined as follows:
• FDD: A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use
2 separate frequency bands:
- Uplink 1920 MHz - 1980 MHz; Downlink 2110 MHz - 2170 MHz.
- Bandwidth: each carrier is located on the center of a 5 MHz wide band.
- Channel separation: nominal value of 5 MHz that can be adjusted.
- Channel raster: 200 kHz (center frequency must be a multiple of 200 kHz).
- Tx-Rx frequency separation: nominal value of 190 MHz. This value can
be either fixed or variable (minimum of 134.8 and maximum of 245.2 MHz).
- Channel number: the carrier frequency is designated by the UTRA
Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (UARFCN). This number is
sent by the network (for the uplink and downlink) on the BCCH logical
channel and is defined by Nu= 5 * (Fuplink MHz) and ND= 5 * (Fdownlink MHz).
• TDD: A duplex method by which the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are
carried over the same frequency using synchronized time intervals. The carrier
uses a 5 MHz band. The available frequency bands for TDD will be:
1900-1920 MHz and 2010-2025 MHz.
FDD mode is the preferred mode for macro-cellular applications.
TDD mode is the preferred mode for the unpaired part of the spectrum. Because
each time slot can be assigned a different direction, the TDD mode offers a great
flexibility to manage the duplex and asymmetric traffic. The TDD spectrum will be
used for low mobility coverage in urban areas. TDD mode will not be available in
R99. "Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

DS-CDMA Principles (1/2)

Transmission
x(t)
Power spectrum
Data sequence a2Tbit = Ebit
Tbit
+a
-a
Frequency
x Tchip
spreading sequence
1/Tbit
+1 Tchip = Echip
-1
1/Tchip
= +a
transmitted sequence
a2Tchip
-a
1/Tchip
Data Transmitted
Modulation
sequence signal
Spreading sequence generator
Different techniques can be used to obtain the wideband signal in a wideband

system. Thus, these methods can be used classify the different CDMA schemes.
This leads to three types of CDMA: direct sequence (DS-CDMA), frequency hopping
(FH-CDMA) and time hopping (TH-CDMA).
DS-CDMA consists in artificially increasing the modulation rate (chip rate) of the
information signal in order to spread its energy on a wide frequency band without
modifying the data rate. This is done by multiplying each information bit by a series
of chips, as illustrated on the slide.
The number of chips per bit is called the Spreading Factor (SF). It is related to the
service in case of dedicated channels (low SF for services requiring high bit rates).
Tbit = SF × Tchip
For UMTS:
Bit Rate x SF = 3.84 Mcps (Chip Rate)
The following table shows examples of data services and associated Spreading
Factors:
Service Bearer Data Rate (kbps) SF Modulation rate (Mcps)
Speech 30 128 3.84
Packet 64 kbps 120 32 3.84
Packet 384 kbps 960 4 3.84
Note
The bearer data rate corresponds to the bit rate just before modulation (after
channel coding, interleaving, etc.).

DS-CDMA Principles (2/2)

Reception
x(t) Power spectrum
received sequence
+a a2Tchip
Frequency
-a
1/Tchip
x Tchip
spreading sequence Tchip = Echip
+1
-1 1/Tchip
a2Tbit = Ebit
= +a
Tbit
Data sequence
-a
1/Tbit
Received Demodulation Data

signal sequence
Spreading sequence generator
To be able to perform the despreading operation, the receiver must not only know
the sequence used to spread the data signal, but the spreading sequence of the
received signal and the locally generated spreading sequence must also be
synchronized. This synchronization must be accomplished at the beginning of the
reception and maintained until the whole signal has been received.
This synchronization is only possible in downlink.

Channelization Codes - OVSF (1/4)

Code tree generator
C4,0 = 1 1 1 1 Tbit Nchip chip rate**

SF = = =
C2,0 = 1 1 Tchip Nbit bit rate
C4,1 = 1 1 -1 -1 ** the chip rate is fixed at 3.84 Mcps
C1,0 = 1
C4,2 = 1 -1 1 -1 High data rates: low SF
Low data rates: high SF
C2,1 = 1 -1
C4,3 = 1 -1 -1 1
SF = 1 SF = 2 SF = 4 SF = 8 à 512
Perfect synchronization: perfect orthogonality between codes at reception

Imperfect synchronization: non orthogonality between codes at reception
The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes.
They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical channels. They also
increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps. The OVSF codes are defined using a code tree.
In the code tree, the channelization codes are individually described by Cch,SF,k , where SF is
the Spreading Factor of the code and k the code number, 0 ≤ k ≤ SF-1.
A channelization sequence modulates one user’s bit. Because the chip rate is constant, the
different lengths of codes enable to have different user data rates. Low SFs are reserved
for high rate services while high SFs are for low rate services.
The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes (for one
SF) is equal to the number of chips and to the SF value.
The generated codes within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes.
Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the two
codes is a mother code of the other. For example C4,3 is not orthogonal with C1,0 and C2,1,
but is orthogonal with C2,0.
Each Sector of each Base Station transmits WCDMA Downlink Traffic Channels with up to
512 code channels.
Code tree repacking may be used to optimize the number of available codes.
Exercise: Find code Cch,8,3 and code Cch,16,15
OVSF shortage
Scrambling enables neighboring cells to use the same channelization codes. This allows
the system to use a maximum of 512 OVSF codes in each cell. Notice that the use of an
OVSF code forbids the use of the other codes in its branch. This reduces considerably the
number of available codes especially for high rate services. This may lead to an OVSF
shortage. In such a case, secondary scrambling codes are allocated to the cells and enable
the re-use of the same OVSF in the same cell.


Orthogonality
T0 synchronisation no T0 synchronisation
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
Cj Cj
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 * Ck
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 *
Ck
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 =4
=0
+ +
No correlation Small correlation
Orthogonal Non orthogonal
Orthogonality means there is no correlation between codes, so, Ck presence does

not affect Cj energy.
OVSF codes are completely orthogonal for zero delay. For other delay they have
very bad cross-correlation properties, and thus they are suitable only for
synchronous applications.
If the synchronization at To is not respected then there is no orthogonality anymore
==> Cj and Ck interfere.


Transmitted Signal: Downlink Case
USER 1 1 -1 1
*
Code 1: Cch (SF= 8 ) 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
= -1
1
+
USER 2 1 -1 1 1 -1 1
*
Code 2: Cch (SF= 4 ) 1 -1 1 -1
1
= -1
Transmitted
Signal = 0
(fixed Chip Rate)

-2
The different downlink physical channels are spread with different OVSF and added
together synchronously at the BTS.
What are the spreading factors in both cases? Find the name Cch,SF,k of the OVSF
codes used to spread the signals.
Find the shape of the transmitted signal.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
1 1 -1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 -1 1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 -1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
SF = 1 2 4 8


Data Extraction (Reception)
Received 0
Signal
-2
Code 2
* 1
-1
2
= 0
-2
2 2 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 2 2
Soft Bits + + + +
=4 = -4 = 4 = 4 = -4 = 4
USER 2 ? «1» « -1 » «1» «1» « -1 » «1»
UE 2 receives the composite signal (green), multiplies it synchronously with its

dedicated OVSF. If, for a bit period, the mean value found is positive, then the
receiver decides that the transmitter has sent a “1”. If it is negative, it decides that
the transmitter has sent a “-1”.
Does the receiver retrieve the data that was intended for him?
Note that the received signal should be distorted because of interferences.
The channelization code of some physical channels is fixed. For example, the
OVSF code of the primary CPICH is always Cch,256,0. Generally, the channelization
code is assigned by the RNC.
It is important to remember that channelization codes enable multiplexing of users

only in downlink because the uplink is asynchronous.

UMTS Frame Format
Data or control or mixed: 10*2k bits, k from 0 to 6 (UL), from 0 to 7 (DL)
Slot = 0.667 ms = 2560 chips

Slot #0 Slot #1 Slot #j Slot #14
Frame = 15 time slots = 10 ms
Frame #0 Frame #1 Frame #i Frame #4095
System frame = 4096 frames = 40.96 seconds
A time slot is a unit of time which carries chips. Each time slot lasts 0.667 ms and
is made of 2560 chips. The number of bits in a time slot depends on the spreading
factor used. It is equal to 10*2k bits, with k varying from 0 to 6 on the UL path, and
from 0 to 7 on the DL path.
In the first case, it corresponds to a SF ranging from 256 to 4. In the second case,
to a SF ranging from 512 to 4.
A radio frame is a processing unit which consists of 15 time slots. Its duration is
10 ms. It is always made of 38400 chips. This gives us a fixed chip rate of
3.84 Mcps.
The System Frame Number (SFN) is broadcast by the BCCH, and goes from 0 to
4095. It is used for paging and system information scheduling. Other
synchronization counters have been defined, like BFN (Node B frame number, from
0 to 4095), RFN (RNC frame number, from 0 to 4095) and CFN (connection frame
number, from 0 to 255 or 0 to 4095 for PCH).
An hyper frame has been defined for ciphering and integrity procedures. The
hyper frame number (HFN) is a 20 bit long sequence transmitted these procedures.

Scrambling Codes - PN
PN Sequences Properties
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register

Sequence repeats every 2N-1 chips,

where N is number of cells in register
• Excellent auto-correlation properties

• shows 100% correlation when correlated with a unshifted version of itself
• shows no or very little correlation when correlated with a shifted version of itself
• Excellent cross-correlation properties

• shows very little correlation when correlated with another scrambling code
In addition to the OVSF Codes, WCDMA uses pseudo-noise (PN) sequences or

scrambling codes.
A pseudo-noise or pseudo-random sequence is a known sequence that exhibits the
properties of random numbers. So the PN sequence appears as random noise to
everybody except to the transmitter and the intended receiver.
PN sequences are generated using special feedback shift registers. A register
holds a number of bits equal to the number of cells in the register. At every clock
beat, each bit moves one cell down the register and the last cell loops back to the
first. If you watch the bits pass by, you’ll see the same sequence again and again. If
the register has N cells, the pattern is N bits long.
It becomes more interesting if the register is cross-connected at several points so
that the value of the last cell influences the value of several other cells in the shift
register. It generates a self-mutating pattern that keeps changing with a total length
of 2N -1 bits.
Scrambling codes are used to discriminate users in uplink and to discriminate cells
in downlink. Therefore, it is very important that the different codes show very little
cross-correlation between each other, to avoid demodulating too much of another
user’s (or cell’s) signal. It is also important that a code shows very little correlation
when correlated with a shifted version of itself, to limit multi-path interference. The
good auto-correlation function of scrambling codes allows code acquisition at
reception.
The pseudo-random (or pseudo-noise) characteristic of scrambling codes enables
to whiten the spectrum of the signal over a 5 MHz band, meaning that its energy is
spread more or less equally over the entire 5 MHz band.
The scrambling operation is done after spreading by an OVSF code. Scrambling
codes are 38,400 chips long. Each of the 38,400 chips of a frame (after application
of the OVSF code) is multiplied by one scrambling code chip.

Uplink Scrambling Codes
c long,1,n
X25 + X3 + 1
Real valued 225-1 chip

long sequences
X25 + X3 + X2 + X + 1
clong,2,n
Total of 2 24 long scrambling codes

of 38400 chips
All the physical channels in the uplink are scrambled. In uplink, the scrambling code
can be described as either long or short, depending on the way it was constructed.
The scrambling code is always applied to one 10 ms frame. Different scrambling
codes will be allocated to different mobiles.
The figure above explains how long scrambling sequences are constructed. In
UMTS, Gold codes were chosen for their very low peak cross-correlation. Let’s see
how they are constructed.
First, the shift registers are filled up with 25 bits each. For the upper register, these
bits correspond to the representation of the scrambling sequence number n. We
will explain later what this scrambling number corresponds to, but we can say for
now that it stands on 24 bits. So the first 24 shift registers correspond to these 24
bits and the last one is initialized to 1. For the lower register, all the cells are
initialized to 1.
At every clock transition, the bits of each register move one cell down, and the
modulo-2 additions are made. The output sequence of each register is 225 -1 bits
long. The two outputs are summed up (modulo-2) to create the real-valued Gold
sequence. Then, this sequence is NRZ coded (0=“+1” and 1=“-1”) to create the
real-valued long scrambling sequence clong,1,n. The long scrambling sequence
clong,2,n is a 16,777,232 chip shifted version of the first one (which corresponds to the
modulo-2 additions on the figure above).
Finally, a complex addition between the two sequences is made to form the
complex-valued long scrambling sequence clong,n. This sequence is 225-1 chips
long. A scrambling code is obtained by choosing a 38,400 chip long part of this
sequence. There is a total of 2 25-1 possible scrambling code sequences. But since
the scrambling sequence number n used to initialize the upper register is constituted
of only 24 bits, only 2 24 long scrambling codes exist.

Downlink Scrambling Codes
• Possibility of 262,143 different downlink scrambling codes

• Only 8192 different scrambling codes have been defined
Primary scrambling code

Cell #1 Secondary scrambling code #1
Secondary scrambling code #2
8192 ... ...
Cell #512
Secondary scrambling code #15
8192 512 sets of 1 512 primary

scrambling primary and 15 codes divided
codes secondary into 64 groups
codes
The scrambling codes used in downlink are constructed very much like the long
uplink scrambling codes. They are created with two 18 cell shift registers.
First, the two shift registers are filled up. The upper one is filled up with zeros,
except for the first cell which is initialized at 1. All the cells of the lower register are
set to 1. At every clock transition, the bits of each register move one cell down, and
the modulo-2 additions are made. The two 218-1 bit long outputs (x and y) are then
combined to form a Gold code. 218-1 different Gold codes can be formed. After
NRZ coding of the bits, a complex scrambling code Sdl,n of length 38,400 is formed.
218-1 = 262,143 different scrambling codes can be formed using this method.
However, not all of them are used. The downlink scrambling codes are divided into
512 sets, of one primary scrambling code and 15 secondary scrambling codes
each.
The primary scrambling codes are scrambling codes n=16*i where i=0…511. The
15 secondary scrambling codes associated to one primary scrambling code are
n=16*i + k, where k=1…15. For now 8192 scrambling codes have been defined.
Each scrambling code k is associated with a left alternative scrambling code
(k+8192) and a right alternative scrambling code (k+16,384), that may be used in
compressed mode. In that case, the left alternative scrambling code is used if
n<SF/2 and the right one is used if n>SF/2, where Cch,SF,n is the channelization code
used for the non-compressed frames.
There is a total of 512 primary codes. They are further divided into 64 primary
scrambling code groups of 8 primary scrambling codes each. Each cell is allocated
one and only one primary scrambling code. The group of the primary scrambling
code is found by the mobiles of the cell using the SCH, while the specific primary
scrambling code used is given by the CPICH. The primary CCPCH and the primary
CPICH channels are always scrambled with the primary scrambling code of the cell,
while other channels can be scrambled by either the primary or the secondary
scrambling code.

DS-CDMA Codes
• Scrambling codes distinguish cells (DL) and users (UL)
• OVSF (channelization) codes separate different physical channels
transmitted by the same BTS or UE
Scrambling code 1
Scrambling code OVSF code

User 1 signal
OVSF code 1
User 1 signal
Scrambling code 2
OVSF code
OVSF code 2 BTS
User 2 signal
User 2 signal
Scrambling code 3
OVSF code 3
OVSF code
User 3 signal User 3 signal
Downlink Uplink
1 physical channel = 1 spreading code + 1 scrambling code + 1 frequency
A mobile is surrounded by base stations (node Bs), some of them transmitting on

the same W-CDMA frequency. It must be able to listen to only one set of code
channels. Therefore two types of codes have been defined:
Channelization Codes
A user’s data is modulated by a channelization code. The orthogonality properties of
OVSF enable the UE to recover each of his bits without being interfered by other
users. This is true only if the system is synchronous, which is the case in downlink,
but not in uplink. Thus, the OVSF codes are not used to separate users in uplink
and therefore different users can use the same code. But, they can be used to
distinguish the different physical channels of one user.
Scrambling Codes
The scrambling operation is used for base station and mobile sta tion identification.
In downlink, the same scrambling code can be used on different channels in a cell,
but different scrambling codes are used in different cells. One specific set of 16
scrambling codes is allocated to each cell. In uplink, scrambling codes are used to
differentiate users since orthogonality cannot be achieved with the OVSF codes.
Scrambling codes reduce the interference between neighboring cells in downlink
since same channelization codes are used.
It is important to maintain good cross-correlation properties between the different
scrambling codes in order not to decode an interferer.
Once allocated to the mobile users, these codes do not change in the midst of
communication, unless the base station can be notified of the change.
Similar to the reuse of frequency in GSM, scrambling codes are reused.

RAKE Receiver
Take advantage of
multi-path diversity
RX Delay (τn)
Delay τ 1 C(t-τn)
τn
D(t) α +β
(α β ) D(t)
TX β D(t)
C(t) C(t-τ1)
RX Delay (τ1)
Σ
Delay τ 0
τ1 α D(t)
RX Delay (τ0)
BTS
C(t-τ0)
τ0
In a multi-path environment, the original transmitted signal is reflected on obstacles

such as buildings or mountains, and the receiver has to treat several copies of the
signal with different delays. Actually, from each multi-path’s point of view, other
multi- path signals are considered as interference and are partially suppressed after
despreading thanks to the processing gain. However, a further benefit is obtained if
several multi-path signals are combined together using a rake receiver.
The rake receiver has multiple fingers (4 to 8), each for a multi-path component. In
each finger, the received signal is despread by the code which is time aligned with
the delay of the multi-path signal. After despreading, the signals are combined using
either equal gain or maximum ratio combining. This technique provides a more
stable transmission channel.
Rake receivers are used in uplink and downlink. In addition to multi-path
combination it is used by the UE to communicate with several cells (macro-
diversity). A trade-off has to be done between the multi-path gain and the capacity
loss due to the use of multiple channels.
Another receiver, which has been under study for a certain time now, works in a
totally different way. Multi-user detection (MUD) removes the unwanted multiple
access signals through a complex algorithm. Its goal is to cancel the intra-cell
interference.
By doing so, increased capacity and coverage are expected. Also, this would
cancel the near-far problem, but power control would still be needed to limit inter-cell
interference.
This receiver is a bit more complex than the rake receiver.

Interference Sources (1/2)

Uplink
• intracell and intercell interference at the base station receiver comes

from the imperfect orthogonality of the scrambling codes (1 scrambling
code per user).
BTS
It is very important to understand where the main interferences come from in a

UMTS network.
Most of the interference comes from imperfect orthogonality between codes. Two
codes are orthogonal if their cross-correlation function is worth zero (or almost
zero). The cross-correlation function is the degree of similarity between two codes.
If that function is worth zero, the two codes are orthogonal meaning that a UE using
one code will not interfere with another UE using the other code. For perfect
synchronization (downlink), OVSF codes are 100% orthogonal, meaning that their
cross-correlation function is always worth zero. Scrambling codes are not perfectly
orthogonal but have the advantage of bringing a pseudo-orthogonality whether the
system is synchronized or not.
On the uplink, interference mainly come from other mobiles using the same
frequency carrier. This interference is divided into intra-cellular interference
(mobiles in the same cell) and inter-cellular interference (mobiles in other cells).
Intra-cell interference is mainly due to the imperfect cross-correlation (orthogonality)
between uplink scrambling codes. Because that cross-correlation is not worth
exactly zero, a node B always demodulates a small part of the other users’ signal
when trying to demodulate one user’s data. Inter-cell interference is also due to the
imperfect cross-correlation (orthogonality) between uplink scrambling codes. On
dedicated channels, every user is supposed to use a different scrambling code.
Normally, a user in another cell will create less interference, except in special cases
where the mobile is near the border of two cells.
The power control algorithm tries these interferences.
Of course, thermal noise always has to be taken into account.


Interference Sources (2/2)

Downlink
• intracell interference comes from multi-path reception
• intercell interference comes from the imperfect orthogonality of the

scrambling codes
UE2
BTS
4
3 BTS
4 BTS
1
5 2 UE1
BTS
6
BTS
BTS BTS
1&2: direct paths (no interference)
3&5: interfering indirect paths
from other users’ data
BTS
4&6: self-interfering indirect paths
The downlink of a cellular system is synchronous, so perfect orthogonality can be

achieved with OVSF codes. Unfortunately, that is not exactly the case because
multi-paths introduce a form a non-orthogonality.
Downlink interferences are also divided into intra-cell and inter-cell interferences.
Because different cells use different scrambling codes and are not synchronized,
the inter-cell interference comes from the imperfect cross-correlation (orthogonality)
between downlink scrambling codes, like in uplink.
In one cell, the transmissions of a BTS are always synchronized on a chip level.
Therefore, OVSF codes provide a perfect orthogonality for the direct paths, for one
UE. But this orthogonality is lost for secondary paths because delays introduce a
loss of synchronization. But, because scrambling codes have good auto-correlation
properties (almost 0 outside [-Tc , Tc ]), only a small part of the delayed versions of
the signal will be demodulated. Thus, the multi-path components are treated as
interference. This kind of interference also exists for the inter-cell context, but it is
relatively small compared to the interferences mentioned above.
Also, another source of intra-cell interference is introduced when the same
channelization code can be used in one cell, when there is an OVSF shortage. In
that case, the non orthogonality comes from the imperfect cross-correlation
properties of the scrambling codes.
Of course, a small part of the total interference is caused by mobiles (or networks)
functioning at a different frequency.

Eb / No
Eb / No = C / I x processing gain
Power spectrum
a2Tbit = E bit
Eb/No
required
Maximum noise level
gain Available power to share

between users
Unwanted power
from other sources
Echip
In conventional radio technologies (AMPS, TDMA and GSM), the desired signal
must be strong enough to override interferences. The figure of quality is the C/I
(carrier to interference ratio).
Co-channel users are kept at a safe distance by careful frequency planning to keep
the interference at a low level. Nearby users and cells must use different
frequencies.
In WCDMA all users occupy the same frequency band at the same time! The
figure of quality is the Eb/No (Energy per bit to interference spectral density ratio).
At the receiver, as the codes are orthogonal and known, only the power of the
intended user is despread.
After despreading (decoding), correct data recovery requires a given Eb to No ratio
that corresponds to a binary error rate (BER). Under this Eb/No, the noise will
generate too many errors. The noise is mainly generated by the other users
transmitting at the same time and at the same frequency, but using a different set of
codes.
Therefore, in order not to cross this maximal noise level, all the users have to share
the power. In WCDMA the Time-Frequency plane is not divided amongst the mobile
subscribers as done in TDMA or FDMA. So the common shared resource is power.
The despreading process results in a processing gain. The larger the Spreading
Factor, the larger the gain. This means that using a larger Spreading Factor, we can
reduce the power of transmission (and therefore the background noise). Thanks to
this property, spread signals can operate at negative signal to noise ratios (dB
scale), given that the processing gain is high enough.
Example: A narrow-band signal requires an Eb/No of 12 dB to achieve a certain bit
error rate performance. In that case, the spread signal with a processing gain of
20 dB would require a Ec/No of how much?

Eb / No & Power Control
Power spectrum
Eb/No
Power
control
a2Tbit = Ebit
Eb/No
required
Maximum noise level
Unwanted power
from other sources
Power
, Interference , Capacity .
WCDMA interferences come mainly from nearby users. Transmit power on all users
must be tightly controlled so their signals reach the base station at the same signal
level. This way, interferences are controlled and the famous near-far problem is
alleviated.
Power control is also done in downlink to decrease the inter-cell interference.
The Eb/No target is set for every service, and for each environment. Every
constructor tries to have the lowest Eb/No target possible. For example, it could be
worth 6.1 dB for 12.2 kbps speech in downlink, in a dense urban area.

Power Control
1. MS Access_1 with estimated power
2. MS Access_n with increased power Open Loop

UE 3. RNS Response with Power Control Node B

(BTS)
Closed Loop
2. BTS sends Power Control bits 1. RNC sets SIR target
to UE (1500 times/second) for service
3. MS Tx 4. RNC calculates
BLER for Tx
6. BtS continues
Power Control Node B 5. RNC sends new
(BTS) SIR target
UE RNC
Inner Loop
Outer Loop
Power control is very important in WCDMA. Several Power Control procedures

exist.
The initial power control is the OPEN LOOP one, where the UE estimates the
access power level by sending a preamble signature at increasing power. If it gets
no response from the BTS, the UE waits a certain period of time and retransmits a
signature at a higher power level. The UE continues to do so until it receives a
response from the BTS.
When the communication is established, power is controlled by the CLOSED LOOP

algorithm.
The following procedure is called Uplink Power Control.
The RNC sets the target BLER (BLock Error Rate) level for the service. From this
BLER, It derives a SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) target, and sends it to the
BTS.
The BTS estimates an UL SIR, compares it to the target SIR, and decides if the
power of the UE has to be increased or decreased. This is done 1500 times/second
(Inner Loop) to achieve a minimum output power.
The RNC calculates the SIR target once every 10 ms (or more, depending on the
service) and adjusts the SIR target. (Outer Loop).
In order to indicate to the UE to increase or decrease its output power, the BTS
sends TPC (Transmit Power Control) bits.
Downlink Power Control is also used, where it is the UE that sends the TPC bits
to the BTS (the RNC determining the target BLER, and sending it to the UE).

Coverage Limits
Service provided: speech Service provided: Data 144
Example: 2 UEs at the

same distance of the
BTS using 2 data rates
F
Eb/No Eb/No
required required
SF = 128
S
Max Interference level Max Interference level
Transmitted power
Transmitted power
User 2 needs more for the UL &
DL for the same quality as user 1
UE2
UE1
BTS
Speech 8 kbps Data 144 kbps
The higher the SF, the less power is required
For a given noise level, as the processing gain is smaller for high rate user data, the
acceptable path loss is lower and therefore the range of the cell is smaller.
If 2 UEs have the same path loss, the one using the lowest SF will have to transmit
at a higher power level. Its Eb/No target shall not necessarily be higher, but it will
be more difficult to reach due to the lower processing gain.

Interference Versus Service Rate

Low bit rate service
a2T b1 = Eb1 a2T b1 = Eb1

a2T c = Ec
1/Tb 1 2/Tb 1 Frequency 1/Tc Frequency 1/Tb 1 Frequency
High bit rate service
a2T b2 = Eb2 a2T b2 = Eb2
a2T c = Ec
1/Tb 2 2/Tb 2 1/Tc 1/Tb 2

Frequency Frequency Frequency
Eb/No < Eb/No target
As said before, a service necessitating a high bit rate will use a low spreading
factor. On the other hand, a low bit rate service will use a high spreading factor.
Having a high spreading factor is a huge benefit since it provides a high processing
gain and therefore enables to use a lower power of transmission.
High bit rate services will have a low processing gain and will need to increase their
power to reach their Eb/No target. Thus, high bit rate services will need a higher
transmit power to reach a certain Eb/No target than low bit rate services. Therefore,
they will create more interference for other users and the capacity of the cell will be
lower. This is very important for the dimensioning on the radio interface, since the
shared resource is power. Radio resource management will be done by the RNC
and will help operators manage the traffic.
That being said, different services have different Eb/No targets. Normally, a high bit
rate service will need a Eb/No a tad lower than low bit rate services. But high bit
rate services will still create much more interference than services requiring low bit
rates.

Radio Resource Management

Mapping between demanded QoS, subscription type and allocated QoS
QoS demanded by the mobile

QoS QoS QoS QoS
Interactive conversational Streaming Background
Priority Level 1
Gold Preemption Yes
Comes From HLR data
User Max BR
Guaranteed BR
384 kbit/s
144 kbit/s
etc... etc...
Priority Level 2 R A B QoS attributes
Silver Preemption No Traffic class
Maximum bitrate
User Max BR
Guaranteed BR
144 kbit/s
64 kbit/s Guaranteed bit rate
etc... etc... Delivery order
Maximum SDU size
Priority Level 3
Brown Preemption No
SDU error ratio
Residual bit error ratio
User Max BR
Guaranteed BR
144 kbit/s
16 kbit/s Delivery of erroneous SDUs
etc... etc... Transfer delay
Traffic handling priority
etc... Pre-emption Capability
Pre-emption Vulnerability
Queueing
In UMTS, a lot of different services will be available to users. High bit rate services
create a lot of interference on the radio interface and can lower the capacity of the
network. This is why radio resources have to be managed. The goal for the
operator is to maximize its QoS during busy hours and to stimulate traffic and
subscriber satisfaction out of busy hours. A maximum of capacity should be used at
all times.
Radio Resource Management (RRM) is a very important part of the end-to-end
QoS. It will be possible for the operator to manage the traffic on the radio interface
depending on the system load, and on other parameters. This should be done at
call admission, and during the communication.
RRM will be done dynamically and will enable the upgrade and downgrade of a
service from an end-to-end view, thus enabling the intelligent resource management
concept. The upgrade or downgrade should be seamless to the user.
On the radio interface, the upgrade or downgrade will be done using the AMR
control rate algorithm of the RNC for speech, and by reconfiguring the transport and
physical channels for packet services (web browsing, FTP, e-mails, etc.).

Coverage Limits
Cell Radius for a 50% Load
SF = 128
SF = 32
SF = 4
Speech 8 kbps Data 64 kbps Data 384 kbps

BTS
1340 m
2080 m
2670 m
The radius of a cell varies with the Spreading Factor and, as we will see, the
interference level (or the number of active subscribers) in the cell. The figures are
given for a traffic load of 50% of the maximum traffic acceptable in the cell.

Coverage-Capacity Tradeoff
Uplink Limits (1/2)
BS Receiver
Lowest Despread Signal
Eb/No
Maximum Noise Floor
Processing
Gain
Receiver sensitivity (x kbps)
UE1 UE2
UE3
x kbps x kbps x kbps
BTS
Consider UE 1 transmitting at the boarder of the cell. That is to say UE1 transmits at
full power and is received at the minimum power to access the cell (equal to the
receiver sensitivity). After despreading, in order to decode UE1, a noise level lower
than the maximum noise floor fixed by the processing gain and the Eb/No is
needed. As far as the interference generated by users UE2 and UE3 do not cross
this floor, UE1 is correctly decoded.

Uplink Limits (2/2)
BS Receiver
Lowest Despread Signal Eb/No
Eb/No
Maximum Noise Floor
Processing Processing
Gain Gain
Receiver sensitivity (x kbps)
UE1 UE2 UE4

UE3
x kbps x kbps x kbps x kbps
Cell Breathing
BTS
The more loaded the cell is, the smaller it becomes.
The interference generated by UE2 to UE4 cross the maximum noise level. This
increases the BER of UE1. To maintain a good communication quality, UE1 has to
be handed over to another cell. This is called cell breathing.
In a WCDMA system, the cell size depends on the level of experienced interference.
If high interference level is detected by the base station, mobile users near the cell
boundary will be handed over to other neighboring base stations, therefore
decreasing its effective cell size.
The Npole formula gives the theoretical capacity of a cell as a function of the intra
and inter-cell interference, the processing gain, the voice activity factor and the
target Eb/No.

Downlink Limits (1/2)
BS Power Amplifier
50 W
0W
BTS
UE1 UE2 UE3 UE4
BTS
Consider a BTS transmitting with UE1, UE2 and UE3. The further the UE is, the
more power is needed from the BTS to be able to reach it. When UE4 asks for an
access, the BTS doesn’t have not enough power capacity to add the power
intended to UE4 although they are very close from each other.
In that case, UE can be handed over to another BTS (if possible), or the system can
degrade the quality of communication for the other UEs in order for the BTS to be
able to reach it.

Downlink Limits (2/2)
BS Power Amplifier
50 W
0W
BTS
UE1 UE2 UE3 UE4
BTS
In order to satisfy the request of UE4, UE1 is handed over to another cell if that is
possible. If not, the access to UE4 could be denied.

Macro-Diversity
Serving RNC (SRNC) and Drift RNC (DRNC)
Data DL1
Data DL2 Data DL
Data UL1
Data UL
Data UL2
SRNC
Data DL1
Data UL
Data UL1
Node B Data UL
(BTS) Data DL1
Data UL
Data DL
Data DL2 Core
Data UL Network
Data UL2
UE
Data DL2
Data DL2
Data UL2
Node B DRNC
(BTS)
In UMTS a functionality called macro-diversity is possible.

The purpose is to facilitate the handover procedure by allowing a UE to
communicate with more than one cell at a time. Two functions are available:
• Macro-Diversity Combining Function: this function is responsible for
combining uplink transport blocks. It combines the transport blocks coming from
the Node Bs participating to the UE active set into a single flow of transport
blocks.
• Macro-Diversity Splitting Function: this function is responsible for duplicating
downlink transport blocks. It broadcasts the transport blocks to all Node Bs
participating to the UE active set.
When such a functionality is used, and when 2 cells are belonging to 2 Node Bs,
that are belonging to 2 different RNCs, these RNCs have a specific functionality:
• Serving RNC (SRNC): a role a RNC can take with respect to a specific
connection between a UE and UTRAN. There is one SRNC for each UE that
has a connection to UTRAN. The SRNC is in charge of the radio connection
between the UE and UTRAN. The SRNC terminates the Iu for this UE.
• Drift RNC (DRNC): a role a RNC can take with respect to a specific connection
between a UE and UTRAN. A RNC, that supports the SRNC with radio
resources when the connection between the UTRAN and the UE needs to use
cell(s) controlled by this RNC, is referred to a Drift RNC.

Compressed Mode
Measurements done
• inter-frequency power measurements
• acquisition of control channel of other system/carrier
• measurements for the actual handover operation
One frame
(10 ms) Transmission gap available for
inter-frequency measurements
As in the GSM network, a UMTS mobile needs to make measurements on other

frequencies in order to be able to perform an inter-frequency handover. In a UMTS
network, a UE will be able to work on different FDD frequencies, on TDD
frequencies and on GSM frequencies. Thus, it will need to monitor these
frequencies.
The technique used to make these measurements is called compressed mode and
consists of creating a transmission gap in a frame during which inter-frequency
measurements can be done. Compressed mode exists in downlink as well as in
uplink and is commanded by higher layers. It can only be achieved on dedicated
channels.
Three methods can be used for time transmission reduction:
• compressed mode by puncturing (DL only): bits are removed through additional
puncturing during rate matching to create the transmission gap;
• compressed mode by reducing the spreading factor by 2: the SF can be
reduced by 2 to permit the transmission of the information bits in the remaining
time slots of the compressed frame. In that case, the scrambling code could be
different from normal mode;
• compressed mode by higher layer scheduling: higher layers set restrictions in
order to know the maximum number of bits that will be delivered to the physical
layer during the compressed radio frame. The transmission gap can then be
created.
Because the bits of one frame have to be transmitted in a smaller period of time, the
effective number of data transmitted in one frame is reduced. Therefore, in order to
keep the same quality (BER, FER, etc.), the instantaneous transmission power has
to be increased. "Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".
STTD
Physical channel type Open loop mode Closed loop

TSTD STTD Mode
P-CCPCH – X –
SCH X – –
S-CCPCH – X –
DPCH – X X
PICH – X –
PDSCH – X X
AICH – X –
CSICH – X –
b 0 b1 b2 b3 Antenna 1
b0 b 1 b 2 b3
-b 2 b 3 b 0 -b 1 Antenna 2
Channel bits
STTD encoded channel bits for

antenna 1 and antenna 2.
Space-Time Transmit Diversity (STTD) is a special transmission technique that

can be used in downlink. It consists in using two different transmission paths (with
two antennas) to achieve a better quality. It can be used on all or only on a part of
the channels. The same transmission chain (channel coding, interleaving, …) is
done as in the non-diversity mode.
If transmit diversity is used on any downlink physical channel, it shall also be applied
on the P-CCPCH and the SCH that carry common control information.
Open and closed loop transmit diversity can be used. Closed loop diversity is
when there is a feedback from the mobile to indicate quality of reception. It can only
be used for dedicated and shared channels (DPCH and PDSCH). The feedback is
indicated by control bits (FBI bits). Modes 1 and 2 have been defined for closed loop
transmit diversity.
When STTD is used, the pilot sequence may be different for the two antennas. For
example, mode 1 uses different (orthogonal) pilot symbols for dedicated channels,
while mode 2 uses the same pilot sequence for both antennas.
A special sort of transmit diversity can be used for the synchronization channel
(SCH). It’s called Time Switched Transmit Diversity (TSTD).

Questions
1) What technology is more adapted to asymmetrical traffic, TDD or FDD? Why?
2) Give the relation between chip rate, bit rate and spreading fact or:
3) True or false: A high spreading factor is needed for high bit rate services?
4) What is the use of:

• the channelization codes is uplink and downlink?
• the scrambling codes in uplink and downlink?
5) What is the name of the receiver used in UMTS? What is it used for?
6) What is the goal of power control? Why is it so important?
7) True or false: low bit rate services create more interference?
8) What’s the name of the scheme used for measurements before inter-frequency handovers?

Basic WCDMA Elements: Fdma Tdma

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Basic WCDMA Elements: Fdma Tdma

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Basic WCDMA Elements

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-3

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-3 October, 2000

FDD UMTS USER 1

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-4 October, 2000

DS-CDMA Principles (1/2)

Spreading sequence generator

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-5

Different techniques can be used to obtain the wideband signal in a wideband

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-5 October, 2000

DS-CDMA Principles (2/2)

x(t) Power spectrum

Received Demodulation Data

Spreading sequence generator

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-6

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-6 October, 2000

Channelization Codes - OVSF (1/4)

C4,0 = 1 1 1 1 Tbit Nchip chip rate**

C4,1 = 1 1 -1 -1 ** the chip rate is fixed at 3.84 Mcps

Perfect synchronization: perfect orthogonality between codes at reception

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-7

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-7 October, 2000

Channelization Codes - OVSF (2/4)

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-8

Orthogonality means there is no correlation between codes, so, Ck presence does

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-8 October, 2000

Channelization Codes - OVSF (3/4)

(fixed Chip Rate)

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-9

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-9 October, 2000

Channelization Codes - OVSF (4/4)

USER 2 ? «1» « -1 » «1» «1» « -1 » «1»

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-10

UE 2 receives the composite signal (green), multiplies it synchronously with its

Note that the received signal should be distorted because of interferences.

It is important to remember that channelization codes enable multiplexing of users

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-10 October, 2000

UMTS Frame Format

Data or control or mixed: 10*2k bits, k from 0 to 6 (UL), from 0 to 7 (DL)

Slot = 0.667 ms = 2560 chips

Slot #0 Slot #1 Slot #j Slot #14

Frame = 15 time slots = 10 ms

Frame #0 Frame #1 Frame #i Frame #4095

System frame = 4096 frames = 40.96 seconds

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-11

"Confidential information -- may not be copied or disclosed without permission".

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-11 October, 2000

A Tapped, Summing Shift Register

Sequence repeats every 2N-1 chips,

• Excellent auto-correlation properties

• Excellent cross-correlation properties

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN October, 2000 Basic WCDMA Elements 3-12

In addition to the OVSF Codes, WCDMA uses pseudo-noise (PN) sequences or

UMT/TRD/CN/0005 01.02/EN 3-12 October, 2000

Uplink Scrambling Codes

Real valued 225-1 chip

Total of 2 24 long scrambling codes