SITE GEOLOGY

Geological investigation

- commonly conducted in the agency focus on siting and designing engineering practices, ranging from high-
hazard classification earth fill dams to farm ponds and animal waste storage or treatment structures.

The main objects of geological investigations for most engineering projects are to determine:

I. The geological structure of the area;

ii. The lithology of the area;

iii. The ground water conditions in the region;

iv. The seismicity of the region;

Geophysical investigation

- Involve simple methods of study made on the surface with the aim of ascertaining subsurface detail. This is
achieved by measuring certain physical properties and interpreting them mainly in the terms of subsurface
geology.

- Geophysical surveys have been applied for subsurface characterization from beginning of the site
investigations, decades ago. Geophysics can be used to examine rock structures which are hidden to naked
eye.

Geophysics makes use of the physical properties of the Earth, such as

■ magnetism

■ electrical conductivity

■ density

■ elasticity

■ radioactivity

SITE INVESTIGATIONS

Site Investigation is the process of collecting information, assessment of the data and reporting potential
hazards beneath a site which are unknown.

-is required to determine the engineering properties of soil and rock and how they will interact with a
planned development. The purpose of site investigation is to establish parameters for foundation and
substructure design; and to assess the potential contamination risks to humans, property and the
environment.

SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESS

Table Study - it includes ordnance map, geological data, previous projects.

Site Visit - it includes layout sketch, existing services, access to site, nearest town.

Site Report - it includes detail report consisting geological report, soil data.
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATION

■ To determine the stratigraphy of the site.

■ To gather the information needed to carry out the risk assessment.

■ To access the general suitability of the site.

■ To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.

■ To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock.

■ To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground and
other local conditions.

■ To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for disposal of water or surplus
material.

■ To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and man made changes in conditions and the
results arising from such changes.

■ To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures.

■ To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be unsafe.

■ To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on foundation
material.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION BEFORE SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

Before actual field investigation is started, the information should, whenever possible, be collected
on:

1. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;

2. Characteristics of the structure;

3. Starting date;

4. Intended construction method;

5. The estimated period of construction;

6. The probable soil condition at the site, by geological, geotechnical or aerial analysis;

7. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to the site, as well as other facts available through local
experience.

SOIL INVESTIGATION

-Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform or extremely variable and will largely determine the
complexity of the problems to be faced in both design and construction of the foundations.

DEPTH OF SITE INVESTIGATION

The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone of soil or rock affected by the
changes caused by the building or the construction will be adequately explored.

IMPORTANCE OF SITE INVESTIGATION

■ A thorough investigation of the site is an essential preliminary to the construction of any civil
engineering works.

■ Site investigations are an essential procedure when drafting plans for an upcoming construction
project.

■ Site investigations are also helpful as it can help you come up with solutions that will mitigate

the impacts of ground-related disasters like earthquakes.

Methods of Geological Investigations

All important civil engineering projects like dams, reservoirs, tunnels, roads, bridges and buildings are
constructed on rocks or on soils. It is, therefore, essential that the engineer should have the fullest knowledge
possible of the strata or soil through which works of construction are to be carried out or on which these have
to rest. When the geological characters of the site or of alignment are not properly investigated or
interpreted, the structures might involve considerably higher costs. Not only that, their stability might be in
question. Many a dam disasters, foundation failures in buildings, collapse of bridges and tunnels were, on
subsequent study, found to be closely related to ignorance of geological conditions that existed in and around
these structures.

In present day civil engineering construction, it is almost mandatory to decide about the location, design and
construction of all major structures and after all geological characters of the area have been investigated and
recorded to the last possible detail.

Objects

The main objects of geological investigations for most engineering projects are to determine:

i. The geological structure of the area;

ii.The lithology of the area;

iii.The ground water conditions in the region;

iv.The seismic factor of the region;

The geological structure of the area, which also includes topography and geomorphology, is determined by
conducting extensive and intensive geological surveys. These surveys would reveal the entire topographic
details (i.e. existence of hills, slopes, valleys, plains, and plateaus), occurrence of folds, faults and major
unconformities and joint systems and geomorphic details of water bodies like rivers, lakes, springs, drainage
systems, and the like.

The lithological details as revealed by these investigations would include the type of rocks that make up
different parts of the area, on the surface as also up to and even beyond a desired depth, their textures, major
structures and physical and engineering properties like hardness, strength, modulus of elasticity, rigidity,
porosity and permeability.

The groundwater conditions are of great significance in all major engineering structures. The relative
position of water table with respect to the project must be thoroughly established and all variations in it
during different periods in a year should be fully ascertained. Whether a proposed project would be much
above the local and

regional water table, or below it or would intercept it in some areas shall determine to a great extent, the
ultimate design and stability of the structure and hence its cost.

The seismic factor has become a parameter of great concern during last sixty years or so. Many cities, towns
and villages in different countries of the world have been devastated by earthquakes. In some cases, areas
hitherto declared seismically safe, witnessed serious seismic activity resulting in catastrophes. For any type
of civil engineering construction in a region its seismicity has also to be studied critically.

Methods of Geological Investigation

These may be divided into two main groups: the surface investigations and the subsurface investigations.

A. Surface Investigations

These include preparation of topographic maps (if these are not already available) using the normal mapping
techniques. In fact all field surveys begin with the preparation (or availability) of topographic maps showing
elevation contours relative to some datum.

Aerial surveys and preparation of photogeological maps are the latest methods of surface investigations. The
entire area involving an engineering study is photographed using sophisticated cameras and controls from
low flying aeroplanes. These maps are then interpreted to provide sufficiently accurate geological details of
the area surveyed. Photogeology is now a branch of geology in its own right and is fast acquiring an
important place. Its scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the globe through satellites. Imageries
obtained from satellite surveys and aerial surveys, when interpreted properly, provide useful details
regarding rock outcrops on the surface with possibilities of estimating their subsurface configuration.

Hydrogeological surveys to obtain hydrogeological details of the area are also conducted partly on the
surface with a view of recording following details that are of immense help in the later studies:

I.Drainage pattern of the area and discharge;

II.Location and discharge details of springs and other leakage points;

III.Location of wells and measurements of water levels after intervals to note aberrations in behaviour with
time;

IV. Precipitation and evaporation details.

All surface surveys, however carefully carried out, can give only superficial details. These could broadly be
classed as preliminary surveys and have necessarily to be followed by well-planned subsurface investigations
which would provide fairly accurate idea about the subsurface geological conditions at the most critical
locations.

B. Subsurface Explorations

These are accomplished by following two broad methods: direct subsurface explorations
and indirect subsurface explorations. The direct methods involve examination of rocks or materials of the
underground by digging of drill holes, trial pits, adits, shafts, galleries and exploratory tunnels. In such
explorations, both the underground areas are reached for direct examination and testing or samples are
obtained which are examined and tested in the laboratory. The indirect methods of subsurface explorations
are used extensively and involve application of geophysical techniques for obtaining fairly accurate idea of
subsurface geology.

Methods
1. Intrusive Methods

• Drilling, sampling and in-situ testing

• Test pit excavation
• Trenching
2. Non-intrusive methods

• Seismic velocity profiling

• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
• Electromagnetic and resistivity surveys

EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

Exploration is a complete sequence of activities. It ranges between searching for a new prospect
(Reconnaissance) and evaluation of the property for economic mining (Feasibility study). It also includes
augmentation of additional ore reserves in the mine and whole of the mining district.

• SURFACE GUIDE

• TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

• GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

• EXPLORATION ACTIVITY

SURFACE GUIDE

Most of the mineral deposits portray surface signature like favorable stratigraphy and host rocks,
weathering effects of metallic and nonmetallic mineralization, presence of earlier mining and smelting
remnants, shear zone, lineaments, etc., that can be identified by experienced eyes. If the features are recorded
properly during geological traverses in the field followed by exploration, a new deposit may be discovered.

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

An accurate topographic map is essential for long-term and short-term purposes of any type of
projects. This is more relevant during all stages of mineral exploration, mine development, mining and
related activities. The simplest way of topographic surveying is carried out by a tape and a compass with low
level of accuracy. The accurate topographic surveys are carried out using Electronic Total Stations (ETS) to
capture three-dimensional (3D) observation data (x, y, z) on site. The data is processed using commercial
software to generate Digital Terrain Model (DTM). The DTM is capable to produce contours, volumes,
sections and 3D wireframe view and plots. The underground mine survey is routinely cross-checked by
closing the survey from and to the known surface station.

. GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
 The first work in mineral exploration is the preparation of a high-quality geological map. The
precision and scale of map depends on the stages of exploration, technical infrastructure and finance
available for the program.

EXPLORATION ACTIVITY

The geological exploration can be divided in to three broad groups, namely regional scale, district scale
and deposit scale. The overall activities can be identified as:

• Regional Scale

• District Scale

• Local Scale

• Exploration Components

Regional Scale

• Survey of existing literature, examination of aerial photographs, satellite imageries, acquisition of

geophysical data, if any, and geological maps of prospective region, understanding the stratigraphic setting
and structural architecture, synthesis of all available data and concepts and submission of RP. The resource at
this stage is of preliminary nature.

• The work plan includes preparation of organization plan, exploration scheme with fund allocation and
budgeting and time schedule to achieve specific objective.

• The task encompasses aerial geophysical and broad geochemical survey, ground check, wide space soil and
rock chip sample collection, pitting trenching, few scout drilling to establish existence of mineralization and
demarcation of priority and ranking of targets.

• Investment decision for next phase.

District Scale

• Submission of Prospecting Lease, designing the exploration scheme with respect to work component,
technology, type of exploration method, time and fund requirement (refer Table 1.2).

• Geological mapping of the target areas, recognition of surface signatures like presence of weathering and
alterations, identification of host rock, structural settings and control.

• Ground geophysics and geochemistry, pitting, trenching, data synthesis and interpretation for reinforcing
the drill targets. Drilling continues to delineate proved, probable ore reserves and possible resources.

• Baseline environment plan.

• Investment decision and next phase.

. Local Scale

• Detail geological mapping of host rock and structure controlling the mineralization, close-spaced surface
directional drilling to compute reserve with high confidence, pitting, trenching and entry to subsurface for
level development, underground drilling for precise ore boundary, reserve of higher category, metallurgical
test work and environmental baseline reports.

• Scoping study, Pre-feasibility study and Feasibility study.

• Submission of ML application along with Environment Management Plan.

• Ore production, mineral processing, extraction of metal or salable commodity.

• Cash inflow-out flow.

Exploration Components

• The various exploration components that can be summarized as: Sampling: soil, pitting, trenching, grab,
chip, channel, directional drilling, sample reduction, check studies.

• Optimization of drilling.

• Preparation of cross-section, longitudinal vertical section, level plan, 3D ore body modelling, estimation and
categorization of reserves and resources.

• Environment Management Plan.

• Sustainable development in mining.

SEISMIC AND ELECTRICAL METHODS

The basic principle of all seismic methods is the controlled generation of elastic waves by a seismic source
in order to obtain an image of the subsurface. Seismic waves are pulses of strain energy that propagate in
solids and fluids. Seismic energy sources, whether at the Earth’s surface or in shallow boreholes, produce
wave types known as:

• Body waves, where the energy transport is in all directions, and

• Surface waves, where the energy travels along or near to the surface.

A geophysical prospecting method based on the fact that the speeds of transmission of shock waves through
the Earth vary with the elastic constants and the densities of the rocks through which the waves pass. A
seismic wave is initiated by firing an explosive charge (or by equivalent artificial sources) at a known point
(the shot point); records are made of the travel times taken for selected seismic waves to arrive at sensitive
recorders (geophones). There are two main subdivisions of seismic operations: the reflection method and the
refraction method. The seismic method has been applied to a lesser extent to elucidate mining problems,
partly due to its high cost. It has been used to investigate the base of drift deposits, and drift-filled channels
have been successfully outlined.
Reflection seismology (or seismic reflection) is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles
of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method
requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a
seismic vibrator, commonly known by the trademark name Vibroseis. Reflection seismology is similar
to sonar and echolocation. This article is about surface seismic surveys; for vertical seismic profiles, see VSP.

Reflections and refractions of seismic waves at geologic interfaces within the Earth were first observed on
recordings of earthquake-generated seismic waves. The basic model of the Earth's deep interior is based on
observations of earthquake-generated seismic waves transmitted through the Earth's interior (e.g.,
Mohorovičić, 1910).[1] The use of human-generated seismic waves to map in detail the geology of the upper
few kilo meters of the Earth's crust followed shortly thereafter and has developed mainly due to commercial
enterprise, particularly the petroleum industry.
Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle (see refraction) governed by Snell's Law. Used in the fields
of engineering geology, geotechnical engineeringand exploration geophysics, seismic refraction
traverses (seismic lines) are performed using a seismograph(s) and/or geophone(s), in an array and an
energy source. The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of seismic waves on geologic layers and
rock/soil units in order to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure.
The methods depend on the fact that seismic waves have differing velocities in different types of soil (or
rock): in addition, the waves are refracted when they cross the boundary between different types (or
conditions) of soil or rock. The methods enable the general soil types and the approximate depth to strata
boundaries, or to bedrock, to be determined.

Instrument that use in Seismic Method;

*Geophone
*Seismic cable
*Seismograph/Seismogram

Electrical geophysical prospecting methods detect the surface effects produced by electric current flow in the
ground. Using electrical methods, one may measure potentials, currents, and electromagnetic fields that
occur naturally or are introduced artificially in the ground. In addition, the measurements can be made in a
variety of ways to determine a variety of results. There is a much greater variety of electrical and
electromagnetic techniques available than in the other prospecting methods, where only a single field of force
or anomalous property is used. Basically, however, it is the enormous variation in electrical resistivity found
in different rocks and minerals that makes these techniques possible (Telford, et al., 1976).

The electrical geophysical methods are used to determine the electrical resistivity of the earth's subsurface.
Thus, electrical methods are employed for those applications in which a knowledge of resistivity or the
resistivity distribution will solve or shed light on the problem at hand. The resolution, depth, and areal extent
of investigation are functions of the particular electrical method employed. Once resistivity data have been
acquired, the resistivity distribution of the subsurface can be interpreted in terms of soil characteristics
and/or rock type and geological structure. Resistivity data are usually integrated with other geophysical
results and with surface and subsurface geological data to arrive at an interpretation.
Electrical methods can be broadly classified into two groups: those using a controlled (human-generated)
energy source and those using naturally occurring electrical or electromagnetic energy as a source. The
controlled source methods are most commonly used for shallow investigations, from characterizing surficial
materials to investigating resistivities down to depths as great as 1 to 2 km, although greater depths of
investigation are possible with some techniques and under some conditions. The natural source methods are
applicable from depths of tens of meters to great depths well beyond those of interest to hydrocarbon
development.

Possible applications of electrical methods for the development geologist range from the investigation of soil
contaminants and the monitoring of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects to reservoir delineation and the
evaluation of geological stratigraphy and structure. The application of electrical methods has been primarily
confined to the onshore environment. The offshore use of some techniques is possible, particularly for
permafrost delineation and shallow marine geotechnical investigations.

DIRECT PENETRATION OF SEISMIC AND ELECTRICAL METHODS

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

- The standard penetration test is an in-situ test that is coming under the category of
penetrometer tests. The standard penetration tests are carried out in borehole. The test will
measure the resistance of the soil strata to the penetration undergone. A penetration impirical
correlation is derived between the soil properties and the penetration resistance.

Tools for Standard Penetration Test

The requirements to conduct SPT are:

 Standard Split Spoon Sampler

 Drop Hammer weighing 63.5kg

 Guiding rod

 Drilling Rig.

 Driving head (anvil).

Procedure for Standard Penetration Test

-The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler. Once the drilling is done to
the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the sampler is placed inside the bore hole.

-By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate of 30 blows per
minute, the sampler is driven into the soil.

-The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted. Further it is driven by 150
mm and the blows are counted.
-Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of blows recorded. The
number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken into consideration.. The number of blows recorded
for last two 150mm intervals are added to give the standard penetration number.

2. Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

- is an in-situ test that is used to identify the soil type. In this test a cone penetrometer is pushed into
the ground at a standard rate and data are recorded at regular intervals during penetration. A cone
penetration test rig pushes the steel cone vertically into the ground. The cone penetrometer is
instrumented to measure penetration resistance at the tip and friction in the shaft (friction sleeve)
during penetration.

Difference between CPT and SPT

 - DCP is similar to CPT in that a metal cone is advanced into the ground to continuously characterize
soil behaviour. However, unlike in CPT, where the cone is driven into the ground at a constant rate by
varying amounts of force, in DCP, the cone is driven by a standard amount of force from a hammer,
and how far the cone moves with each blow is used to determine the soil density and properties at
that level.

 In DCP testing, the pushing force is applied by manually dropping a single or dual mass weight (called
the hammer) from a fixed height onto the push cone unit. The resulting downward movement is then
measured. Unlike CPT systems, basic DCP equipment is hand-portable and may be limited to test
depths of 3-4 feet: this makes it a good choice for shallow testing applications such as road bed
construction and maintenance. Since DCP is essentially hand-powered, it is cheaper and more
portable than CPT equipment, but the possibility of human error makes it trickier to obtain
consistent and accurate data.

CORE BORING

Core boring is a sampling technique or method used to research mineral resources in the subsoil by
boring wells in order to analyze the ground, used to drill through the hard rock formation and for other
digging activities for civil engineering purposes.

It is also called as DIAMOND CORE DRILLING which this term comes from the “diamond bit” used
during the process. This bit is delivers faster and highly accurate result.

EQUIPMENTS IN CORE BORING

• DRILL RIG

The machine used in core drilling

• DRILL STRING

The string attached from the machine to the barrel.

• CORE BARREL

The equipment used to form the boring. It consists of a hardened steel rod with a tough cutting bit,
possessing commercial diamond or tungsten carbide chips. The core barrels are regularly 5 to 10 cm in
diameter and about 30 to 300 cm long.
 TYPES OF BARREL

a. Single tube core barrel - It is suitable only for hard massive rocks. The simplest type of core
barrel.
b. Double tube core barrel - It is suitable for use in medium and hard rocks, and gives
improved core recovery in soft friable rocks.
• CORE

In core boring a cylinder shaped sample of rock or ice is extracted. The diameter of a core
sample should be at least three times the nominal maximum size of aggregate. When there is little mortar
bonding the concrete across the diameter of the core, you are likely to wind up with rubble, rather than a
solid sample. Core samples must be properly labelled, oriented, and stored for future observation. Written
records are also required to maintain consistency in the historical data.

WAYS OF CORE DRILLING

1. CONVENTIONAL DRILLING - The entire drill string needs to be pulled out of the bore hole for
each drilling cycle to collect the core samples.
2. WIRELINE DRILLING - A piece of equipment called an overshot is sent down the hole to release
and retrieve the inner tube.

CORE DRILLING CYCLE/PROCESS

1. ACTUAL DRILLING
2. RETRIEVING THE CORE SAMPLES
3. RESUMING

After collection of sample, the core rock is sent to laboratory. In the laboratory, rock type, texture,
orientation of rock formation are found. Compression test and permeability test are performed on core
sample to know about the compressive strength.

The depth of recovered sample must be properly recorded. Based on depth of recovery, the recovery ratio can
be found. The expression for computing the recovery ratio is given below.

SERIES OF TEST BORING MEASURES

 • Determine if the soil is suitable to be used as a base area for the structure.
• Test the quality of the soil
• Determine presence of underground water
• Determine presence of a rock formation
• Define if an underground obstruction exists (old foundation)

A test pit can be dug up to about 10 ft deep and 10 ft wide if an obstruction is noted as an issue.

CORE LOGGING

CORE- A cylindrical section of rock, or fragment thereof, taken as a sample of the interval penetrated by a
core barrel and brought to the surface for the examination and for analysis.
All drill hole data gathering is called LOGGING.

CORE BOX
After the core has been recovered from the core hole and the core barrel has been opened, the core
should be placed in core box.
Core boxes should be stored in well ventilated, weather-proof rooms with concrete floors and should
preferably place in racks rather than in stacks. Provision must be made for space around the racks in order to
reach individual boxes for re-examination.

Format & required data for final geologic log

Organization of the log- log forms divided into five basic sections.
• A heading block
• A left-hand column for notes
• Center column for indexes
• Additional notes
• Water tests and graphics

Heading-Identifying information, feature, hole number, location, coordinates, elevation, bearing and plunge
of holes, dates started and completed, and the names of the persons responsible for logging and review.

Data required for “Drilling Notes” Column-These data are field observations and information provided by
the driller on the Daily Drill Reports.

General information-This includes headers and data for the hole purpose, the set-up or site conditions,
drillers, and drilling/testing equipment used.

Drilling procedures and conditions-Data should include methods, conditions, driller’s comments, and
records for water losses, caving, or casing.

Hole completion and monitoring data-Include hole completion, surveys, water levels, drilling rates or time,
and reason for hole termination.

Center columns of the drill log-The center column may be modified to portray additional data such as hole
completion, various indexes, alphanumeric descriptors, or laboratory test data.

DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS

1. Rock name – (rock type) may include geologic age and stratigraphic unit name.
 2. Lithology (composition/grain size/texture/color) – mineralogical description. It is important to
maintain a simple but accurate rock classification. The rock type and lithology characteristics are
essentially used to differentiate the rock units encountered.

3. Bedding/foliation/flow texture – description of thickness of bedding, banding, or foliation

including the dip or inclination of these features.

4. Weathering/alteration – the degree and depth of weathering is very important and should be
accurately detailed in the general description and clearly indicate on the drill log.

5. Hardness

• Very soft or plastic – can be deformed by hand.

• Soft – can be scratch with fingernail.

• Moderately hard – can be scratch easily with a knife.

• Hard – difficult to scratch with knife.

• Very hard – cannot be scratch with a knife.

6. Discontinuities – These include shears, joints, fractures, and contacts. Discontinuities control or
significantly influence the behavior of rock masses and must be described in detail.

GEOLOGICAL CONDITION NECESSARY FOR CONSTUCTION OF DAMS, TUNNELS AND BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION

This paper will tackle the geological conditions necessary for construction of dams, tunnels and

building. The first section will center on the importance of geology in planning major construction under the

engineering field through real-life illustration of the famous leaning tower of Pisa. Next, the second section

focuses on the definition, description, and purpose of geological conditions, tunnels, dams, and building.

Furthermore, the classifications of the mentioned structures are also discussed. Lastly, the different

geological conditions needed for building such structures will be discoursed.

Importance of geology in engineering construction

The local geology of an area is truly important when planning a major construction. Why is this so? A

detailed and accurate knowledge inventory of geology is an important part of construction and hazard

analysis in order to locate and map landslides points, faults, and folds. For instance, earthquakes are an
unavoidable natural hazard, but proper planning and a well-informed and well-prepared public can reduce

their impact.

In recent years, technological developments and knowledge of geology have resulted in the

accessibility of civil engineering projects. However, before the advancements in technology – way back the

12th century, the Republic of Pisa wanted to turn its cathedral square into a landmark. So, they have enlarged

the existing church and added a free standing bell tower. Pisa is a Greek word which means “marshy land”; it

certainly represents the geological condition of the place which is composed mainly of clay, mud and wet

sand. Engineers of that time were masters of their art but they knew little about the geology of the area and

established the originally planned 8 story structure with a 3-meter underground foundation. Five years after

beginning the construction for the bell tower, the structure slowly tilted about 0.6 degree. To address the

problem, the Italian government enlisted top engineers for interventions but they only made the situation

worse. What’s amazing about this tower is that the engineers projected that when the degree of tilt reaches

4.455 degrees, it would topple but by 1990, the tilt reached 5.5 degrees. That is why this tower became

widely famous. After the many attempts to correct the tower, the tilt was reduced to 3.99 degrees on 1992 by

digging diagonally and extracting soil to balance the structure. This was made possible because of the

emerging geologic exploration at that time.

Hence, knowing the geology of an area is vital in any civil engineering works. As mentioned, sufficient

information and understanding of the area will greatly help in reducing risks and hazard. Furthermore, it will

help in determining the nature, form and cost of the project.

Description of geological conditions, dams, tunnels and building

• Geological condition

Geological condition is the present geologic situation of an area the affects its structure. The state an

area depends on many conditions from soil characteristics up to its topographic features. The present

geological conditions would affect how the structures such as dams, tunnels and building will be built.

• Dams

Dams are structures built across a valley to create a water storage reservoir. These valleys, which

may be U-shaped or V-shaped could influence on what type of design is suitable for the area. Dams are built
for provision of a dependable water supply for domestic and/or irrigation use, for flood mitigation, and for

generation of electric power. These structures can be classified based on structure and design, and based on

material used. Dams that are classified based on structure and design are the following:

➢ Arch dam which is situated at narrow canyon with steep side walls. This type of dam requires

good rock foundation.

➢ Gravity dam depends on the Earth’s gravity pulling down on the dam’s mass. This type is well-

suited in blocking rivers in wide valleys; thus, foundation must have high bearing strength.

➢ Barrages dam are built at mouth of rivers because they are often used to control water flow for

irrigation system.

➢ Rockfill dams are embankments of compact granular soil with impervious areas. This is resistant

to earthquake; hence, it is suitable to areas that are lying near fault lines.

➢ Earth fill dam/Earthen dam is the most cost effective type of dam because it can be constructed

from materials on site or nearby.

On the other hand, dam built based on the material used is the steel dam and the timber dam. Steel

dam was popular during the industrial revolution because of its cheap materials (such as steel instead of

common masonry, earthworks, concrete, etc.) but today, it is rarely built because its maintenance cost is

much expensive than its production cost because of rust and corrosion. Likewise, the timber dam was also

widely used during the industrial revolution. Nowadays, it is rarely used because timber must be kept wet in

order to maintain water retention.

• Tunnels

Tunnels are underground passageways which are dug through the surrounding soil. Tunnels provide

long-term solutions to a variety of infrastructure projects ranging from constructing roadways or pipelines

through difficult terrain to freeing up valuable surface space in dense urban areas. In recent years, the rapid

expansion of metropolitan areas has led nations around the world to give more and more consideration to the

upfront investment of tunneling projects in order to promote more efficient use of surface space and

recognize the significant benefits to society at large.

 Moreover, the purposes of tunnels are for easy transportation, public works such as utility and gas

pipe lines, and for mining works. Tunneling is a method of excavating the soil to create tunnels. It is a unique

field, requiring geological, geotechnical, mining and civil engineers to work together with construction

contractors and government agencies to deliver resilient and reliable subsurface infrastructure.

• Building

Buildings are usually roofed and walled structure built for permanent use. It is constructed for

personal or residential use, industrial use and commercial use. Before a building can be erected, foundations

must be laid first. Additionally, there are different types of building foundations that are classified as shallow

or deep foundation. Shallow foundations are those foundations in which the depth at which the foundation is

placed is less than the width of the foundation and generally termed as spread footing as they transmit the

load of the super structure laterally into the ground. The following the type of building foundation under the

shallow class:

➢ Individual footing/ Isolated footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building

construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad foundation. The shape of

individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns,

wherein the size is calculated based on the load on the column and safe bearing capacity of soil.

➢ Combined footing

Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their isolated

footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design differs. The

shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns.

➢ Strip foundation/Spread footings/Strip footings/Wall footings

Spread footings are those whose base is wider than a typical load bearing wall foundations. The

wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure over more area and provides

better stability. Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers
where the bearing soil layer is within three meters (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity

must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the base area of the structure. These should not

be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which may

result in scour or liquefaction.

➢ Raft or Mat foundation

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the

building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat foundation is for columns

and walls foundations where the loads from structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to

prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of

all the load bearing elements of the structure. It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less

for suitability of spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of the

structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided. These foundations should not be

used where the groundwater table is above the bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such

conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction.

On the other hand, deep foundation is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep strata.

The following are the types of deep foundation:

➢ Pile foundation

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure

to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of

structures through columns to hard soil strata, which is much below ground level where shallow foundations

such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to

lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces. Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil

conditions near the ground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to

50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface. Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by

skin friction and by end bearing. Use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

➢ Drilled shafts or Caissons

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, are a type of deep foundation and have action similar to pile

foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure

through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled

shafts or caissons is done using an auger. Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile

foundations. It is used where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet

to 300 feet). Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose,

water-bearing granular soils exist. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to

stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

Geological conditions necessary for construction of dams, tunnels, and building

In order to build structures that would address the needs of the people without compromising their

safety, geological conditions must be considered first before construction proper. Below are some geological

conditions necessary for constructing dams, tunnels and building:

1. Type of rock

The type of rock present in an area affects its strength and water-bearing capacity. Engineers

should be able to distinguish and describe the rocks of the construction site. Rocks are classified as

igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Additionally, these rocks have different properties, strength

and deformation behaviour that could affect the structure to be built.

Igneous rock

The crystalline nature of the igneous rocks signifies high compressive strength with

potential difficulties in rock excavations process, but can also indicate the mark competence with the

advantages of decreased support needs to achieve an acceptable degree of stability. Localized and

relatively thin intrusive rocks are usually fine-grained and often possess high strength and significant

resistance to weathering by comparison to the coarser grained igneous types with similar mineral

constituents. Igneous rocks consisting of volcanic tuff and pumice can be particularly weak and

porous and whilst usually exhibiting low strength values with ease of excavation, they can be
 subjected to rapid weathering with accompanying loss of competency and can also give rise to the

significant ground water problems.

Sedimentary rock

The effects of stress and advanced weathering, and weakening by the action of water can

give rise to the problems especially where such rock type contains appreciable clay minerals. The

banded characteristics are sometimes responsible for marked variation in strength, deformation and

permeability in different directions.

Metamorphic rock

Rock types such as quartzite, marble, dolomite marble, and hornfels generally exhibits

random distribution of minerals and display minor foliation and are relatively more competent. Rock

containing micaceous minerals have well defined planes of weakness and can easily split along these

planes of weakness and show very rather properties in terms of both strength and deformation

properties.

2. Presence of geological discontinuities

There are many discontinuities but the following are the major discontinuities which affect

structure design:

Faults

Faults are associated displacement along the plane of the rupture caused by tectonic

stresses. In tunneling, the orientation of the faults is vitally important since this govern the length of

tunnel affected by the faults and its accompanying faults zone. In dams, since faults likely cause more

ground movement during earthquakes, dams built in earthquake zone must have strong stability and

resistance against earthquakes. In buildings, there should be no or fewer buildings that reach more

than ten stories in areas lying near fault lines.

Folds
 In geology, a fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as

sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation. An anticline is a fold

that is convex upward, and a syncline is a fold that is concave upward, monocline is a simple bend in

the rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal but are inclined.

Folds are more noticeable in layered rock and present more serious problem, especially in

tunneling during excavation. Thus, stronger support is needed to overcome this problem. Also,

trough in fold accumulates water during excavation and will cause pumping problems

Joints

Joints are structural plane of weakness and greatly affect shear strength of properties of rock

and rock masses. The presence of joints is responsible for a number of instability in the underground

excavations in all types of engineering works. Likewise, joints pattern considerably affects the mode

of rock failure or collapse potential and the degree of over break during the dam and tunnel

excavation, and lying of building foundation. Therefore, the joints properties and their patterns

should be studied with care and detail.

3. Soil and groundwater conditions

Presence of groundwater may cause hazard most particularly in tunnelling activities. These

potential groundwater problems can be predicted using deep bore holes. In addition, engineers

should know the soil bearing capacity of the area to address problems that may arise during

construction and to properly plan interventions in line with the construction procedures. In

constructing buildings, engineers should be aware of the characteristics of the soil to reduce hazards

caused by liquefaction due to weak soil features. For instance, the presence of groundwater can

encourage liquefaction, which occurs when a saturated or partially saturated soil substantially loses

strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress such as shaking during an earthquake or other

sudden change in stress condition. During this situation, the soil material that is ordinarily a solid

behaves like a liquid. Likewise, in construction of dams, reservoirs and their surrounding area must

be identified and investigated to ensure safety parameters.

 4. Topographic features

Knowing the topography of the location will help engineers to address and plan potential

hazard that may affect the project.

Conclusion

Adequate knowledge of geology is quite beneficial in civil engineering projects because knowing the

geologic condition of an area can reduce the risk of hazards since as mentioned, it helps in determining

the nature, form and cost of the structures to be built.

Furthermore, meticulous planning and site investigation are important before construction to ensure

the quality not only of the structure but also of the environment. Thus, applying correct construction

procedures and measures would be advantageous.

Lastly, as engineers, safety should be held to paramount not only for the workers but also for the

citizens of the community that would be affected in case of construction disasters.

Road Cutting

 In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock from a relative rise along a route is
removed. The term is also used in river management to speed a waterway's flow by short-cutting a
meander.

 Cuts are typically used in road, rail, and canal construction to reduce the length and grade of a
route. Cut and fill construction uses the spoils from cuts to fill in defiles to cost-effectively create
relatively straight routes at steady grades.

Grade

 The Grade also called Slope, Incline, Gradient, Mainfall, Pitch or Rise of a physical feature, landform or
constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the horizontal. It is a special case
of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree
of "tilt". Often slope is calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run", or as a fraction ("rise over run") in which
run is the horizontal distance (not the distance along the slope) and rise is the vertical distance.
 Cut and fill

 It is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the amount of material from cuts
roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments, so minimizing the amount
of construction labor

Types of Cut

 A SIDEHILL CUT can be formed by means of sidecasting cutting on the high side balanced by moving
the material to build up the low side to achieve a flat surface for the route.

 THROUGH CUT is where the adjacent grade is higher on both sides of the route, require removal of
material from the area since it cannot be dumped alongside the route.[

 A LEDGE is a cut in the side of a cliff well above the bottom of a gorge

 A LOCK CUT is a section of a river or other inland waterway immediately upstream and downstream
of a lock which has been modified to provide locations for boats to moor while waiting for the lock
gates to open or to allow people to board or alight vessels.
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