Adolf Hitler

Early Days - 1889-1908 

Adolf Hitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau-am-Inn, Austria. The town is near to the Austro-
German border, and his father, Alois, worked as a customs officer on the border crossing. His mother,
Klara, had previously given birth to two other children by Alois, (Gustav and Ida) but they both died in
their infancy.  Adolf attended school from the age of six and the family lived in various villages around
the town of Linz, east of Braunau. By this time Adolf had a younger brother, Edmund, but he only lived
until the age of six. In 1896, Klara gave birth to Adolf 's sister, Paula, who survived to outlive him. 

Adolf Hitler grew up with a poor record at school and left, before completing his tuition, with an
ambition to become an artist. Alois Hitler had died when Adolf was thirteen and Klara brought up
Adolf and Paula on her own. Between the ages of sixteen and nineteen, young Adolf neither worked
to earn his keep, nor formally studied, but had gained an interest in politics and history. During this
time he unsuccessfully applied for admission to the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. 

The Vagabond - 1909-1913 

Klara Hitler died from cancer when Adolf was nineteen and from then onwards he had no relatives
willing or able to support him. So, in 1909, he moved to Vienna in the hope of somehow earning a
living. Within a year he was living in homeless shelters and eating at charity soup-kitchens. He had
declined to take regular employment and took occasional menial jobs and sold some of his paintings
or advertising posters whenever he could to provide sustenance. 

Munich and The Great War - 1913-1918

In 1913 Adolf Hitler, still a penniless vagrant, moved to Munich in southern Germany. At the outbreak
of the First World War, in 1914, he volunteered for service in the German army and was accepted into
the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment . Hitler fought bravely in the war and was promoted to
corporal and decorated with both the Iron Cross Second Class and First Class, the latter of which he
wore until his dying day [ironically the regimental captain who recommended him for the award was
Jewish]. The day of the announcement of the armistice in 1918, Hitler was in hospital recovering from
temporary blindness caused by a British gas attack in the Ypres Salient. In December 1918 he returned
to his regiment back in Munich. 

The First Hofbrauhaus Speech - 1919-1920

Given responsibility for publicity and propaganda, Hitler first succeeded in attracting over a hundred
people to a meeting in held October at which he delivered his first speech to a large audience. The
meeting and his oratory were a great success, and subsequently in February 1920 he organized a
much larger event for a crowd of nearly two thousand in the Munich Hofbrauhaus. Hitler himself was
not the main speaker, but when his turn came he succeeded in calming a rowdy audience and
presented a twenty-five point programme of ideas which were to be the basis of the party. The name
of the party was itself changed to the National Socialist German Workers Party (or Nazi for short) on
April 1st 1920. 

Not long after the February speech he was discharged from the army. Hitler continued to expand his
influence in the party and began to form a private group of thugs which he used to quash disorder at
party meetings and later to break up rival party's meetings. This group subsequently became the
Sturmabteilung or S.A. - Hitler's brown shirted storm troopers. He also became the regular main
speaker at party events from then onwards, attracting large crowds for each meeting. During the
summer of 1920 Hitler chose the swastika as the Nazi party emblem. 

Leader of the Nazi Party - 1921

By 1921 Adolf Hitler had virtually secured total control of the Nazi party, however this was not to the
liking of all Nazis. In July of that year, whilst Hitler was away in Berlin, the discontent members of the
party proposed a merger with a like-minded political party in Nuremburg in the hope that this would
dilute Hitler's influence. On hearing the news of the proposed merger, Hitler rushed back to Munich
to confront the party and threatened to resign. The other members were aware that Hitler was
bringing in the lion's share of funds into the organization, from the collections following his speeches
at meetings and from other sympathetic sources. Thus they knew they couldn't afford his resignation.
Hitler then proceeded to turn the tables on the committee members and forced them to accept him
as formal leader of the party with dictatorial powers. 

The Beer Hall Putsch - 1923

Up to November 1923 Hitler continued to build up the strength of the Nazi Party. During this time he
also plotted to overthrow the German Weimar Republic by force. On November 8th 1923 Hitler led an
attempt to take over the local Bavarian Government in Munich in an action that became known as the
"Beer Hall Putsch." Despite initially kidnapping the Bavarian officials in the Buergerbraukeller beer hall
in Munich and proclaiming a new regime using their names, the coup was not successful. The officials
were allowed to escape and re-gain control of the police and the armed forces. The coup was ended
on the morning of November 9th, when a column of three thousand SA men headed by Hitler and
General Ludendorff (one of the most senior generals of the First World War) were halted on their way
to the centre of Munich by armed police. After a brief gunfight, only General Ludendorff and his aide
had made it through to the central Plaza, where they were arrested. Hitler had fled the scene and was
later arrested and charged with treason. After his trial for treason he was sentenced to five years in
Landsberg prison, however he had successfully used the trial itself to gain publicity for himself and his
ideas. During his term in prison Hitler began dictating his thoughts and philosophies to Rudolf Hess
which became the book "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle). 

Re-Building the Nazi Party - 1924-1932

Hitler was released from Landsberg prison in December 1924 after serving only six months of his
sentence. At that time, the Nazi Party and its associated newspapers were banned by the government
and Hitler himself was forbidden from making public speeches. The support for National Socialism was
waning throughout Germany, their voting figures in elections fell from almost two million in 1924 to
810,000 by 1928 (this gave them only 12 out of a total of 491 representatives in Parliament). However
at the same time, Hitler succeeded in increasing the party membership and developed the
organization of the party throughout Germany with the help of Gregor Strasser who was responsible
for the organization of the Nazi Party in northern Germany. During this period Hitler also created the
infamous SS (Schutzstaffel) which was initially intended to be Hitler's bodyguard under the leadership
of Heinrich Himmler.  

Hitler Versus Hindenburg - 1932

In February 1932 Hitler decided to stand against Hindenburg in the forthcoming Presidential election.
In order to do this he became a German citizen on 25th February 1932. The result of the election on
13th March 1932 gave Hindenburg 49.6 percent of the vote and Hitler 30.1 percent (two other
candidates stood). As Hindenburg failed to win a majority a second election was called. The result of
the second election gave Hindenburg 53 percent and Hitler 36.8 percent (one other candidate stood).
Thus Hindenburg was re-elected to office and Hitler was forced to wait for another opportunity to win
power. 

Chancellor Bruening lasted in office until June 1932, unable to maintain popular support his
government resigned due to pressure from the President, who had been advised by an influential
General called Schleicher. General Schleicher had plotted the overthrow of the cabinet in conspiracy
with the Nazis. Power then passed to a Presidential cabinet headed by a new Chancellor, Franz von
Papen. New Reichstag elections were also set for the end of July. 

Nazis Become the Largest Party - 1932

In the July elections, the Nazi Party won 13,745,000 votes which gave them 230 out of the 608 seats in
the Reichstag. Although the Nazis were the largest party, they were still short of a majority. Hitler,
however, demanded that he be made Chancellor but was offered only the position of Vice-Chancellor
in a coalition government, which he refused.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor - 1932-1933

In September 1932, the Nazi members of the Reichstag, together with support form the Center Party
elected the prominent Nazi Herman Goering as President of the Reichstag (equivalent to House
Speaker). Using his new position, Goering managed to prevent the Chancellor from presenting an
order to dissolve the Reichstag, whilst a vote of no confidence in the Chancellor and his government
was passed. Thus having forced the resignation of the new government, the Reichstag allowed its own
dissolution. Although losing 34 of their seats in the following election, the Nazis retained enough
influence to assure that Papen would be unable to form a new Government and the Chancellor
resigned on 17th of November 1932. After Papen's resignation, Hindenburg still refused to appoint
Hitler as chancellor fearing that a Hitler Government would become a dictatorship. The President then
tried to re-install Papen as Chancellor, but Papen was unable to gain the support of his own cabinet,
including Schleicher who was Minister of Defence. President Hindenburg then appointed Schleicher as
Chancellor, the latter having assured the President that he could get the support of the Nazis in the
Reichstag. However, Hitler and his Nazi party had other ideas, and Schleicher found that he was
unable to win the support of any of the parties in the Reichstag and was forced to resign as Chancellor
on January 28th 1933. Finally on January 30th, 1933 President Hindenburg decided to appoint Hitler
Chancellor in a coalition government with Papen as Vice-Chancellor. 

The Burning of the Reichstag - February 1933

The penultimate step towards Adolf Hitler gaining complete control over the destiny of Germany
were taken on the night of 27th February 1933 when the Reichstag was destroyed by fire. The fire was
almost certainly planned by the Nazis, Goebbels and Goering in particular. A Dutch communist,
Marinus van der Lubbe, was made scapegoat for the fire, but the main outcome was that Hitler was
given an excuse to have all the Communist deputies of the Reichstag arrested, and managed to obtain
a decree from President Hindenburg giving the Nazi government powers to inter anyone they thought
was a threat to the nation. Furthermore the Presidential decree allowed the Nazi government to
suppress the free speech of its political opponents. Despite all these advantages, in the elections of
March 5th 1933, the Nazis only managed to achieve 44 percent of the votes. Even with the
suppression of the Communist deputies, Hitler was still short of an overall majority and nowhere near
the two-thirds majority needed for any change in the German constitution.

The Enabling Act - March 1933

The Enabling Act, placed before the Reichstag on 23rd of March 1933 was to allow the powers of
legislation to be taken away from the Reichstag and transferred to Hitler's cabinet for a period of four
years. The act required a two-thirds majority, but passed easily with the support of the Center and
Nationalist parties and the suppression of all Communist deputies and several Social Democrats. Thus
dictatorial powers were finally conferred, legally, on Adolf Hitler. By July 14th Hitler had proclaimed a
law stating that the Nazi Party was to be the only political party allowed in Germany. The Nazification
of Germany was underway. All non-Nazi organizations were disbanded, including political parties and
trade unions. The individual German states were stripped of any autonomous powers they might have
had and Nazi officials were installed as state governors.

The Night of the Long Knives - 1934 

After the initial rise to power of the Nazis, many of them, including the head of the SA Ernst Roehm,
wanted to see a further change in the power structure of Germany by taking over control of big
businesses and installing the SA as the main army of Germany with the existing army subordinate to it.
Hitler however thought differently and wanted to keep the German economy in good shape, reduce
unemployment and enable him to quickly re-arm the Wehrmacht. To Hitler, the SA was purely a
political force not a military one. Also the ageing President Hindenburg would not survive much longer
and Hitler needed the support of the Army if he was to be named as Hindenburg's successor. In May
of 1934 Hitler proposed to the chiefs of the Army and the Navy that he would suppress the SA and at
the same time expand the Army and Navy if they would support him as the successor to Hindenburg.
The chiefs of the forces readily agreed to Hitler's endorsement. In June Hitler ordered the SA to go on
leave for the entire month. However, by that time the rowdiness and lawlessness perpetrated by Nazi
thugs had grown to a point where President Hindenburg and his senior generals were considering
declaring a state of marshal law and Hitler was threatened with this recourse if he didn't do
something to curb these excesses. These threats, coupled with rumours generated by Himmler and
Goering concerning Roehm's loyalty to the Fuehrer and an impending coup against Hitler, finally
prompted Hitler to order Himmler and Goering to take action against the leaders of the SA. On June
30th 1934 Himmler's SS and Goering's special police arrested and executed the leaders of the SA,
including Ernst Roehm, and many others not connected with the SA, but against whom the Nazi
leaders had a score to settle. These others included General von Schleicher, the former Chancellor.

The Death of Hindenburg August 1934

President Hindenburg died on August 2nd 1934. Hitler had already agreed with the Cabinet that upon
Hindenburg's death the offices of President and Chancellor would be combined. The last wishes of
Hindenburg were that upon his death the monarchy should be restored. Hitler managed to suppress
these wishes and did not publish the President's will. Having already ensured the support of the Army,
Hitler went a step further by making the whole of the armed forces swear an oath of loyalty to him
personally. A plebiscite was then held for the public to decide on whether they approved of the
changes already made - 90% of voters gave their approval. Thus Hitler had become "Fuehrer and
Reich Chancellor" and the title of President was then abolished.
"Nazification" - 1934-1937
During the years following Hitler's consolidation of power he set about the "Nazification" of Germany
and its release from the armament restrictions of the Versailles Treaty. Censorship was extreme and
covered all aspects of life including the press, films, radio, books and even art. Trade unions were
suppressed and replaced with the centralised "Labour Front", which didn't actually function as a trade
union. The churches were persecuted and ministers who preached non-Nazi doctrine were frequently
arrested by the Gestapo and carted off to concentration camps. All youth associations were abolished
and re-formed as a single entity as the Hitler Youth organisation. The Jewish population was
increasingly persecuted and ostracised from society and under the Nuremburg Laws of September
1935 Jews were no longer considered to be German citizens and therefore no longer had any legal
rights. Jews were no longer allowed to hold public office, not allowed to work in the civil-service, the
media, farming, teaching, the stock exchange and eventually barred from practising law or medicine.
Hostility towards Jews from other Germans was encouraged and even shops began to deny entry to
Jews. From a very early stage, Hitler geared the German economy towards war. He appointed Dr.
Hjalmar Schacht minister of economics with instructions to secretly increase armaments production.
This was financed in various ways, including using confiscated funds, printing bank notes and mostly
by producing government bonds and credit notes.

In September 1936, Goering took over most of Schacht's duties in preparing the war economy and
instituted the Four-Year Plan, which was intended to make Germany self-sufficient in four years. This
put Germany on a total war economy and entailed strict control of imports, materials prices and
wages as well as the creation of factories and industrial plants to produce essential war materials (e.g.
synthetic rubber, fuels and steel). Workers were low paid and their freedom to move between jobs
was increasingly restricted. Even the workers' recreation time was strictly controlled through the
"Strength Through Joy" organisation. Hitler was the law when it came to the judicial system and had
the ultimate say over legal actions of any kind. Any judge who was not favourable to the Nazi regime
was dismissed, and a "Special Court" for political crimes and a "Peoples Court" for accusations of
treason were introduced. Both of these courts were controlled by the Nazi Party and an unfortunate
defendant was extremely unlikely to get a fair trial. 

Breaking the Versailles Treaty - 1934-1937

Hitler ordered the army to be trebled in size, from the 100,000 man Versailles Treaty limit, to 300,000
men by October of 1934. This was initially ordered to be carried out under the utmost secrecy.
Admiral Raeder, the chief of the navy, was given orders to begin the construction of large warships,
way above the maximum size decreed by the Versailles Treaty. The construction of submarines, also
forbidden by the Treaty, had already begun secretly by building parts in foreign dockyards ready for
assembly. In addition, Goering had also been tasked by Hitler with the training of air force pilots and
the design of military aircraft. In March 1935 Hitler decided to take a gamble and test the resolve of
Britain and France by authorising Goering to reveal to a British official the existence of the Luftwaffe
(German Air Force). Even though this was a direct challenge to the Versailles Treaty, there was little
reaction (its existence was already known anyway). Thus Hitler was given encouragement to take
further steps. A few days later, Hitler took a further gamble and declared openly the introduction of
military service and the creation of an army with 36 divisions (approx. 1/2 million men). Again, a weak
reaction from Britain and France allowed Hitler the comfort of knowing that his gamble had paid off.
At the same time that Hitler was increasing the strength of the armed forces, he was also following a
policy of making speeches proclaiming a desire for peace and the folly of war. He also announced that
he had no intention of annexing Austria or re-militarising the Rhineland and would respect all the
territorial clauses of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also announced that he was prepared to mutually
disarm the heaviest of weapons and limit the strength of the German Navy. A quote from Hitler at
that time: "Whoever lights the torch of war in Europe can wish for nothing but chaos."

The Re-militarisation of the Rhineland - 1936

On March 7th 1936 a small force of German troops marched across the Rhine bridges into the
demilitarised areas of Germany towards Aachen, Trier and Saarbruecken. Once again neither the
French nor British made any move to counter the flagrant breach of the Locarno Pact of 1925, which
had been signed willingly by Germany and was supposed to keep these areas west of the Rhine free
from German military units. The lack of French reaction was in spite of the fact that the small German
force was vastly outnumbered by the French army near the border. Immediately following the re-
militarisation of the Rhineland areas, Hitler once again preached in public his desire for peace
throughout Europe and offered to negotiate new non-aggression pacts with several countries
including France and Belgium. At the same time rapid construction of German defensive fortifications
began along the French and Belgian frontiers. Meanwhile Hitler's popularity within Germany was
boosted, his position as leader was strengthened and his control over the army generals was secured.

Weakening of Austrian Security and the Birth of the Axis - 1936 T

The security that Hitler had gained for Germany from the military stronghold in the Rhineland meant
less security for those countries in Central Europe (e.g. Austria and Czechoslovakia) who were reliant
on a swift response from France in the event of German aggression. This led the Austrian
Government, headed by Dr. Schuschnigg, during the summer of 1936, to begin a course of
appeasement of Hitler by, for example, giving Austrian Nazis influential positions within the
government in return for a pledge from Hitler to confirm his recognition of Austrian sovereignty. The
position of Austria was further undermined in October 1936 when the Italian dictator, Mussolini, who
had previously pledged to maintain Austrian independence, formed an alliance with Hitler. This
alliance, which became known as the Rome-Berlin Axis had been formed following the German and
Italian support of fellow fascist, General Franco, in the Spanish Civil War. The Axis partnership
included an agreement on a common foreign policy between the two countries.

Napoleon Bonaparte
One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an
impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who
could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France
whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in
thought for a century.

Birth in Corsica

Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15th 1769 to Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer and
political opportunist, and his wife, Marie-Letizia. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the
Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were
poor and pretentious. A combination of Carlo's social climbing, Letizia's adultery with the Comte de
Marbeuf - Corsica's French military governor - and Napoleon's own ability enabled him to enter the
military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and
graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in
February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three.

Early Career: The Corsican Misadventure

Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight
years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule bending, as well as the effects of the
French Revolution and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military
matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte.
Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted
in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name:
Bonaparte. Historians have frequently used the Corsican affair as a microcosm of Napoleon's career.

Early Career: Fluctuating Success

The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favoured individuals could
achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went.
By December 1793 Bonaparte was the hero of Toulon, a General and favourite of Augustin
Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason.
Tremendous political 'flexibility' saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Baras, soon to be
one of France's three 'Directors', followed.

Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary
forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to
the political spine of France. Bonaparte swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military
authorities - largely by never keeping his opinions to himself - and he married Josephine de
Beauharnais. Commentators have considered this an unusual match ever since.

Napoleon and The Army of Italy

In 1796 France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy - the post he
wanted - whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory
after victory against, theoretically stronger, Austrian opponents. Aside from the Battle of Arcole,
where Napoleon was lucky rather than clever, the campaign is legitimately legendary. Napoleon
returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a
patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly
to the newspapers he now ran.

Failure in the Middle East, Power in France

In May 1798 Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh
victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their
famous general might seize power. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a
great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave - some might
say abandon - his army and return in the August of 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire
coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate.

First Consul

The transfer of power might not have been smooth - owing much to luck and apathy - but Napoleon's
great political skill was clear; by February 1800 he was established as the First Consul, a practical
dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her
fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key
triumph - the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800 - was won by the French General Desaix.

From Reformer to Emperor

Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace Bonaparte began working on France, reforming
the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education and
government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while travelling with the army, and
the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited an undeniable skill as both legislator
and statesmen - a study of these achievements could rival those of his campaigns for size and depth -
but many have argued that this talent was deeply flawed and even fervent supporters admit that
Napoleon made mistakes. The Consul's popularity remained high - helped by his mastery of
propaganda, but also genuine national support - and he was elected Consulate for life by the French
people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which Bonaparte worked hard to maintain and
glorify.

A Return to War
Nevertheless, Europe was not at peace for long. Napoleon's fame, ambitions and character were
based on conquest, making it almost inevitable that his reorganised Grande Armée would fight further
wars. However, other European countries also sought conflict, for not only did they distrust and fear
Bonaparte, they also retained their hostility towards revolutionary France. If either side has sought
peace, the battles would still have continued.

For the next eight years Napoleon dominated Europe, fighting and defeating a range of alliances
involving combinations of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia. Sometimes his victories were crushing -
such as Austerlitz in 1805, often cited as the greatest military victory ever - and on other occasions he
was either very lucky, fought almost to a standstill, or both; Wagram stands as an example of the
latter. Bonaparte forged new states in Europe, including the German Confederation - built from the
ruins of the Holy Roman Empire - and the Duchy of Warsaw, whilst also installing his family and
favourites in positions of great power: Murat became King of Naples and Bernadotte King of Sweden,
the latter in spite of his frequent treachery and failure. The reforms continued and Bonaparte had an
ever-increasing effect on culture and technology, becoming a patron of both the arts and sciences
while stimulating creative responses across Europe.

Napoleon’s Failings

Napoleon also made mistakes and suffered setbacks. The French navy was kept firmly in check by
their British equivalent and the Emperor's attempt to tame Britain through economics - the
Continental System - harmed France and her supposed allies greatly. Bonaparte's interference in
Spain caused even larger problems, as the Spanish refused to accept Napoleon's brother Joseph as
ruler, instead fighting a vicious guerilla war against the French invaders.

The Spanish 'ulcer' highlights another problem of Bonaparte's reign: he couldn't be everywhere within
his empire at once, and the forces he sent to pacify Spain failed, as they often did elsewhere.
Meanwhile, British forces gained a toehold in Portugal, slowly fighting their way across the peninsula
and drawing ever more troops and resources from France itself. Nevertheless, these were Napoleon's
glory days, and on March 11th 1810 he married his second wife, Marie-Louise; his only legitimate child
- Napoleon II - was born just over a year later, on March 20th 1811.

1812: Napoleon’s Disaster in Russia

The Napoleonic Empire may have shown signs of decline by 1811, including a downturn in diplomatic
fortunes and continuing failure in Spain, but such matters were overshadowed by what happened
next. In 1812 Napoleon went to war with Russia, assembling a force of over 400,000 soldiers,
accompanied by the same number of followers and support. Such an army was almost impossible to
feed or adequately control and the Russians repeatedly retreated, destroying the local resources and
separating Bonaparte from his supplies.

The Emperor continually dithered, eventually reaching Moscow on September 8th after the Battle of
Borodino, a bludgeoning conflict where over 80,000 soldiers died. However, the Russians refused to
surrender, instead torching Moscow and forcing Napoleon into a long retreat back to friendly
territory. The Grande Armée was assailed by starvation, extremes of weather and terrifying Russian
partisans throughout, and by the end of 1812 only 10,000 soldiers were able to fight. Many of the rest
had died in horrible conditions, with the camp's followers faring even worse.

In the final half of 1812 Napoleon had destroyed most of his army, suffered a humiliating retreat,
made an enemy of Russia, obliterated France's stock of horses and shattered his reputation. A coup
had been attempted in his absence and his enemies in Europe were re-invigorated, forming a grand
alliance intent on removing him. As vast numbers of enemy soldiers advanced across Europe towards
France, over-turning the states Bonaparte had created, the Emperor raised, equipped and fielded a
new army. This was a remarkable achievement but the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria and
others just used a simple plan, retreating from the emperor himself and advancing again when he
moved to face the next threat.

1813-1814 and Abdication

Throughout 1813 and into 1814 the pressure grew on Napoleon; not only were his enemies grinding
his forces down and approaching Paris, but the British had fought out of Spain and into France, the
Grande Armée's Marshalls were underperforming and Bonaparte had lost the French public's support.
Nevertheless, for the first half of 1814 Napoleon exhibited the military genius of his youth, but it was
a war he couldn't win alone. On March 30th, 1814, Paris surrendered to allied forces without a fight
and, facing massive betrayal and impossible military odds, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of France;
he was exiled to the Island of Elba.

The 100 Days and Exile

Undoubtedly bored and aware of the continuing discontent in France, Napoleon made a sensational
return to power in 1815. Travelling to France in secret, he attracted vast support and reclaimed his
Imperial throne, as well as re-organising the army and government. This was anathema to his enemies
and after a series of initial engagements Bonaparte was narrowly defeated in one of history's greatest
battles: Waterloo.

This final adventure had occurred in less than 100 days, closing with Napoleon's second abdication on
June 25th 1815, whereupon British forces forced him into further exile. Housed on St. Helena, a small
rocky island well away from Europe, Napoleon's health and character fluctuated; he died within six
years, on May 5th 1821, aged 51. The causes of his death have been debated ever since, and
conspiracy theories involving poison are rife.

Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th President of the United
States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led the country through
its greatest constitutional, military and moral crisis—the American Civil War--by preserving the Union
by force while ending slavery and promoting economic modernization. Reared in a poor family on the
western frontier, he was mostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, an Illinois state legislator,
and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives, but failed in two attempts at
a seat in the United States Senate. He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband, and father
of four children.

Lincoln was an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery in the United States, which he deftly
articulated in his campaign debates and speeches.[1] As a result, he secured the Republican
nomination and was elected president in 1860. After war began, following declarations of secession
by Southern slave states, he concentrated on both the military and political dimensions of the war
effort, seeking to reunify the nation. He vigorously exercised unprecedented war powers, including
the arrest and detention, without trial, of thousands of suspected secessionists. He issued his
Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, and promoted the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the
United States Constitution, abolishing slavery.

Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including Ulysses S.
Grant. He brought leaders of various factions of his party into his cabinet and pressured them to
cooperate. He defused a confrontation with Britain in the Trent affair late in 1861. Under his
leadership, the Union took control of the border slave states at the start of the war and tried
repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. Each time a general failed, Lincoln
substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded in 1865. A shrewd politician deeply involved with
patronage and power issues in each state, he reached out to War Democrats and managed his own
re-election in the 1864 presidential election.

As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican party, Lincoln came under attack from all
sides. Radical Republicans wanted harsher treatment of the South, Democrats desired more
compromise, and secessionists saw him as their enemy.[2] Lincoln fought back with patronage, by
pitting his opponents against each other, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of
oratory;[3][4] for example, his Gettysburg Address of 1863 became one of the most quoted speeches in
history. It was an iconic statement of America's dedication to the principles of nationalism, equal
rights, liberty, and democracy. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of
Reconstruction, seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation in
the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. Just six days after the decisive surrender of the
commanding general of the Confederate army, Lincoln fell victim to an assassin — the first President
to suffer such a fate. Lincoln has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S.
Presidents.

Early life

Abraham Lincoln (no middle name) was born on February 12, 1809, the second child to Thomas
Lincoln and Nancy Lincoln (née Hanks), in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in
southeast Hardin County, Kentucky[ (now LaRue County).
Little is known about Lincoln's ancestors. Historical investigations have traced his family back to
Samuel Lincoln, an apprentice weaver who arrived in Hingham, Massachusetts, from Norfolk, England,
in 1637. However, Lincoln himself was only able to trace his heritage back as far as his paternal
grandfather and namesake, Abraham Lincoln, a local militia captain, and a substantial landholder with
an inherited 200 acre estate in Rockingham County, Virginia). The elder Abraham later moved his
family from Rockingham County, Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky, where he was ambushed and
killed by an Indian raid in 1786, with his children Mordecai, Josiah, and Thomas looking on. Mordecai's
marksmanship with a rifle saved Thomas from the same fate. As the eldest son, by law, Mordecai
inherited his father's entire estate.

When Lincoln was nine, his 34-year-old mother died of milk sickness. His older sister, Sarah (Grigsby),
died while giving birth at a young age. Soon after, his father married Sarah Bush Johnston, with whom
Lincoln became very close and whom he called "Mother”. In 1830, fearing a milk sickness outbreak,
the family settled on public land in Macon County, Illinois. In 1831, when his father relocated the
family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own,
canoeing down the Sangamon River to the village of New Salem in Sangamon County. In spring 1831,
hired by New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods by
flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After
arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—he walked back home. Lincoln's formal
education consisted of approximately 18 months of classes from several itinerant teachers; he was
mostly self-educated and was an avid reader. He attained a reputation of brawn and audacity after a
very competitive wrestling match, to which he was challenged by the renowned leader of a group of
ruffians, "the Clary's Grove boys." His family and neighbors considered him to be lazy. Lincoln avoided
hunting and fishing out of an aversion to killing animals.

Marriage and family

Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem;
by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. Ann wanted to notify a former love
before "consummating the engagement to Mr. L. with marriage." Rutledge died, however, on August
25, most likely of typhoid fever.

In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister. Late in 1836,
Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November
1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their
relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter from his law practice in Springfield,
suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied, and the courtship
was over.

In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in
Lexington, Kentucky. They met in Springfield in December 1839, and were engaged sometime in late
December. A wedding was set for January 1, 1841, but the couple split as the wedding approached.
They later met at a party, and then married on November 4, 1842 in the Springfield mansion of Mary's
married sister. While preparing for the nuptials and having cold feet again, Lincoln, when asked where
he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."
In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln worked
diligently in their home, assuming household duties which had been performed for her in her own
family. She also made efficient use of the limited funds available from her husband's law practice. One
evening, Mary asked Lincoln four times to restart the fire and, getting no reaction, as he was absorbed
in his reading, she grabbed a piece of firewood and rapped him on the head. The Lincolns had a
budding family, with the birth of Robert Todd Lincoln in 1843, and Edward Baker Lincoln in 1846.
According to a house girl, Abraham "was remarkably fond of children" and the Lincolns were not
thought to be strict with their children.

Early career and military service

In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln bought a small general store in New Salem, Illinois. He purchased it on
credit along with a partner. While the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and
Lincoln eventually sold his share of the business. When his partner later died, Lincoln became liable
for a $1,000 debt. Unable to pay he was forced to declare bankruptcy and did not finish repaying his
creditors for another 17 years. That same year he began his political career with a campaign for the
Illinois General Assembly. He had attained local popularity, and could draw crowds as a natural
raconteur in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money. He advocated
navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.[43][44] Before the election, he served briefly as a
captain in the Illinois militia during the Black Hawk War, although he never saw combat. Lincoln
returned from the militia and was able to campaign for the August 6 election. At 6 feet 4 inches (1.93
m), he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival." At his first speech, he grabbed an
antagonist by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13
candidates (the top four were elected), though he got 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem
precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and, after more dedicated self-study, as county
surveyor. In 1834, he won election to the state legislature after a bipartisan campaign, though he ran
as a Whig. He then decided to become a lawyer, and began teaching himself law by reading
Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and others. Lincoln's description of his learning
method was: "I studied with nobody." Admitted to the bar in 1837, he moved to Springfield, Illinois,
and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln became an able and
successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing
arguments. In 1841, he partnered with Stephen Logan until 1844, when he began his practice with
William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man." He served four successive terms in
the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.

In the 1835–1836 legislative session, he voted to continue the restriction on suffrage to white males
only while removing the condition of land ownership. He was known for his "free soil" stance of
opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying the "institution of
slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends
rather to increase than abate its evils."[ He closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American
Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by helping the freed slaves
return to Liberia in Africa
Early national politics

From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861, "I have always
been an old-line Henry Clay Whig." The party favored economic modernization in banking, railroads,
and internal improvements, and supported urbanization as well as protective tariffs, and Lincoln
supported these positions.

In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served one two-year
term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but showed his party loyalty by participating in
almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line. Lincoln developed a plan to abolish
slavery in the District of Columbia, with compensation for the owners and a popular vote on the
matter, but dropped it when he could not get enough Whig supporters. He used his office as an
opportunity to speak out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President Polk's
desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood."

Lincoln articulated his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war
had begun with a violent confrontation on territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S., but Polk insisted
that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own
soil." Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed, and
prove that the spot was on American soil. Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it,
the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district.
One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln."

Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln endorsed war hero General Zachary Taylor
for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Some of Lincoln's statements he would
later regret, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers. Taylor won and Lincoln
wanted to be Commissioner of the General Land Office, but that lucrative patronage job went to a
rival in Illinois. The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the
Oregon Territory. The territory was a Democratic stronghold and acceptance would have ended his
legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined.

Prairie lawyer

Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come
before a prairie lawyer." Twice a year for 16 years, he "rode the circuit" for 10 weeks at a time,
appearing in county seats in the mid-state region when the county courts were in session. Lincoln
handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the
conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a
riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.
His reputation grew, and he appeared before the Supreme Court of the United States, arguing a case
involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a "device to
buoy vessels over shoals." The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to
hold a patent.
Republican politics 1854–1860

Lincoln returned to politics, in opposition to the pro-slavery Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which
repealed the slavery-restricting Missouri Compromise (1820). Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of
Illinois incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act, and thus mandated that the people have the
right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in their territory, rather than have such a decision
imposed on them by the national Congress.

On October 16, 1854, in his "Peoria Speech," Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery which he
repeated en route to the presidency.[84] Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,
he said the Kansas Act had a "'declared' indifference, but as I must think, a covert 'real' zeal for the
spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I
hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world..."

In late 1854, Lincoln decided to run as a Whig for an Illinois seat in the United States Senate, which
was, at that time, elected by the state legislature.[87] After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the
Illinois assembly, once his support began to dwindle, Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman
Trumbull, who defeated opponent Joel Aldrich Matteson. The Whigs had been irreparably split by the
Kansas-Nebraska Act. Lincoln said, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I
am an abolitionist, even though I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery." Drawing on
remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Liberty, and Democratic party
members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new Republican Party. At the Republican
convention in 1856, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for Vice-
President. In 1857–58, Douglas broke with President Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the
Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the re-election of Douglas for the Senate in
1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted
Kansas as a slave state. In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its controversial pro-slavery decision
in Dred Scott v. Sandford; Chief Justice Taney opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no
rights from the Declaration of Independence or Constitution. Lincoln, though strong in his
disagreement with the Court's opinion, was as a lawyer unequivocal in his deference to the Court's
authority. Lincoln historian David Herbert Donald provides Lincoln's immediate reaction to the
decision, showing his evolving position on slavery: "The authors of the Declaration of Independence
never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity',
but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'." After the state Republican party convention nominated him for
the U.S. Senate in 1858 (the second instance of this in the country), Lincoln then delivered his famous
speech: "'A house divided against itself cannot stand'.(Mark 3:25) I believe this government cannot
endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not
expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all
the other." The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery
debate, and rallied Republicans across the North. The stage was then set for the campaign for
statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S.
Senator.
1860 Presidential nomination and election

On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers
organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and
Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency. Tapping on the distorted legend of
his pioneering days with his father, Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate." On
May 18, at the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln became the Republican
candidate on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase.
Former Democrat Hannibal Hamlin of Maine received the nomination for Vice President to balance
the ticket. Lincoln's nomination has been attributed in part to his moderate views on slavery, as well
as his support of internal improvements and the protective tariff. In terms of the actual balloting,
Pennsylvania put him over the top. (Lincoln made known to Pennsylvania iron interests his support for
protective tariffs.) Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the
others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me."

Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party of the Slave Power, as
it tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Scott decision and the presidency of
James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his
supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. Meanwhile, Douglas was selected
as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, with Herschel Vespasian Johnson as the vice-presidential
candidate. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention, disagreeing with
Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their
candidate.

As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of
them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the
enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the
North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There
were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on
Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior
power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.
The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a
Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold one million copies.

Presidency

On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the sixteenth president of the United States, beating
Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and John Bell of the
new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first Republican president, winning entirely on the
strength of his support in the North; he was not on the ballot in ten states in the South, and won only
two of 996 counties in all the Southern states. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957
votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. The electoral vote was decisive: Lincoln had
180 and his opponents added together had only 123. Turnout was 82.2%, with Lincoln winning the
free Northern states. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln. Bell won Virginia,
Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South. There were fusion tickets in
which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to form one ticket in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode
Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have
won a majority in the Electoral College.

As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union. On
December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. The seven states soon declared themselves to be a sovereign
nation, the Confederate States of America. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the
secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the
Confederacy. There were attempts at compromise, such as the Crittenden Compromise, which would
have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, and which some Republicans even supported.
Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent...to any concession or
compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we
have a constitutional right." Lincoln, however, did support the Corwin Amendment to the
Constitution, which had passed in Congress and protected slavery in those states where it already
existed. A few weeks before the war, he went so far as to pen a letter to every governor asking for
their support in ratifying the Corwin Amendment as a means to avoid secession.

En route to his inauguration, President-elect Lincoln evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, who were
uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, Allan Pinkerton, and on February 23, 1861, arrived in disguise
in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military security. Lincoln directed his
inaugural speech to the South, saying, "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be
enemies...The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every
living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when
again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." [131] A copy of this inaugural
address was delivered to California via the newly-created Pony Express in seven days, three days
sooner than advertised and in the midst of the Paiute War.[132] By the time Lincoln took office, the
Confederacy was an established area, and no leader of the insurrection proposed rejoining the Union
on any terms; the Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis on February 9, 1861, as their provisional
President. The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 rendered legislative compromise practically
implausible. By March 1861, Lincoln and nearly every Republican leader agreed the Union could not
be dismantled.
East Visayan Adventist Academy
San Sotero, Javier, Leyte

Project in History

Submitted by:
Rio Fe B. Pestaño

Submitted to:
Mrs. Charity Palarao