c


c
 or 

 are echinoderms belonging to the class  


.[2] The names "starfish"
and "sea star" essentially refer to members of the Class Asteroidea. However, common usage
frequently finds "starfish" and "sea star" also applied to ophiuroids which are correctly referred
to as "brittle stars" or "basket stars".

There are 2,000 living species of starfish that occur in all the world's oceans, including the
Atlantic, Pacific, Indian as well as in the Arctic and the Southern Ocean (i.e., Antarctic) regions.
Starfish occur across a broad depth range from the intertidal to abyssal depths (>6000 m).

Starfish are among the most familiar of marine animals and possess a number of widely known
traits, such as regeneration and feeding on mussels. Starfish possess a wide diversity of body
forms and feeding methods. The extent that Asteroidea can regenerate varies with individual
species. Broadly speaking, starfish are opportunistic feeders, with several species having
specialized feeding behavior, including suspension feeding and specialized predation on specific
prey.

The Asteroidea occupy several important roles throughout ecology and biology. Sea stars, such
as the Ochre sea star (°

 

) have become widely known as the example of the
keystone species concept in ecology. The tropical Crown of Thorns starfish ( 
  )
are voracious predators of coral throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Other starfish, such as
members of the Asterinidae are frequently used in developmental biology.

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Starfish express pentamerism or pentaradial symmetry as adults. However, the evolutionary

ancestors of echinoderms are believed to have had bilateral symmetry. Starfish, as well as other
echinoderms, do exhibit bilateral symmetry, but only as larval forms.[3]

Most starfish typically have five rays or arms, which radiate from a central disk. However,
several species frequently have six or more arms. Several asteroid groups, such as the
Solasteridae, have 10-15 arms whereas some species, such as the Antarctic è  




can have up to 50. It is not unusual for species that typically have five-rays to exceptionally
possess five or more rays due to developmental abnormalities.[4]

The bodies of starfish are composed of calcium carbonate components, known as ossicles. These
form the endoskeleton, which takes on a variety of forms that are externally expressed as a
variety of structures, such as spines and granules. The architecture and individual shape/form of
these plates which often occur in specific patterns or series, as well as their location are the
source of morphological data used to classify the different groups within the Asteroidea.
Terminology referring to body location in sea stars is usually based in reference to the mouth to
avoid incorrect assumptions of homology with the dorsal and ventral surfaces in other bilateral
animals. The bottom surface is often referred to as the oral or actinal surface whereas the top
surface is referred to as the aboral or abactinal side.
-

-
 (origin Old English r) is the common name for various marine mammals of the order
Cetacea.[1] The term !  sometimes refers to all cetaceans, but more often it excludes dolphins
and porpoises[2], which belong to suborder  (toothed whales). This suborder also
includes the sperm whale, killer whale, pilot whale, and beluga whale. The other Cetacean
suborder 
  (baleen whales), are filter feeders that eat small organisms caught by straining
seawater through a comblike structure found in the mouth called baleen. This suborder includes
the blue whale, the humpback whale, the bowhead whale and the minke whale. All Cetacea have
forelimbs modified as fins, a tail with horizontal flukes, and nasal openings (blowholes) on top
of the head.

Whales range in size from the blue whale, the largest animal known to have ever existed[3] at
35 m (115 ft) and 136 tonnes (134 LT; 150 ST), to various pygmy species, such as the pygmy
sperm whale at 3.5 m (11 ft).

Whales collectively inhabit all the world's oceans and number in the millions, with annual
population growth rate estimates for various species ranging from 3-13%.[4] For centuries,
whales have been hunted for meat and as a source of raw materials. By the middle of the 20th
century, however, industrial whaling had left many species seriously endangered, leading to the
end of whaling in all but a few countries.

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Both cetaceans and artiodactyl are now classified under the super-order Cetartiodactyla which
includes both whales and hippopotamuses. Whales are the hippopotamus's closest living
relatives.[5]

D  
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All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, are descendants of land-living
mammals of the Artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). Both descended from a common
ancestor, the Indohyus (an extinct semi-aquatic deer-like ungulate) from which they split around
54 million years ago.[6][7] Primitive whales probably first took to the sea about 50 million years
ago and became fully aquatic about 5-10 million years later.[8]
—

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Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and armed with a single pair of chelae
(claws). Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, while many crabs live in fresh water and on
land, particularly in tropical regions. Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimetres
wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span of up to 4 metres (13 ft).[4]

About 850 species of crab are freshwater, terrestrial or semi-terrestrial species;[5] they are found
throughout the world's tropical and semi-tropical regions. They were previously thought to be a
monophyletic group, but are now believed to represent at least two distinct lineages, one in the
Old World and one in the New World.[6]

The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Jurassic, although Carboniferous ï 
,
known only from its carapace, may be a primitive crab.[7] The radiation of crabs in the
Cretaceous and afterward may be linked either to the break-up of Gondwana or to the concurrent
radiation of bony fish, crabs' main predators.[8]

4
 

Crabs typically walk sideways[12] (a behaviour which gives us the word !
). This is
because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient.[13] However,
some crabs prefer to walk forwards or backwards, including raninids,[14] è     [15]
and  
  
.[12]. Some crabs, notably the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable
of swimming.[16]

Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns. They can communicate by
drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive towards one another and males
often fight to gain access to females.[17] On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices
are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes.[18]

Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae,[19] and taking any other food, including
molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria and detritus, depending on their availability
and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the
fastest growth and greatest fitness.[20][21]

Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during
mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.[2
c

c
 (superorder c


) are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a
highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years
ago.[1]

Since that time, sharks have diversified into 440 species, ranging in size from the small dwarf
lanternshark, D  

  , a deep sea species of only 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in length, to
the whale shark,  

, the largest fish, which reaches approximately 12 metres
(39 ft 4 in) and which feeds only on plankton, squid, and small fish by filter feeding. Sharks are
found in all seas and are common down to depths of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). They generally do
not live in freshwater, with a few exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can
live both in seawater and freshwater.[2] They breathe through five to seven gill slits. Sharks have
a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and parasites, and improves
their fluid dynamics so the shark can move faster. They have several sets of replaceable teeth.[3]

Well-known species such as the great white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark, and the
hammerhead are apex predators, at the top of the underwater food chain. Their extraordinary
skills as predators fascinate and frighten humans, even as their survival is under serious threat
from fishing and other human activities

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Shark teeth are embedded in the gums rather than directly affixed to the jaw, and are constantly
replaced throughout life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth grow in a groove on the inside of
the jaw and steadily move forward as in a "conveyor belt"; some sharks lose 30,000 or more
teeth in their lifetime. The rate of tooth replacement varies from once every 8±10 days to several
months. In most species teeth are replaced one at a time, except in cookiecutter sharks the entire
row of teeth is replaced simultaneously.[7]

Tooth shape depends on diet: sharks that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense flattened
teeth for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed
on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth
with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are
smaller and non-functional.[8]


c
c are marine cephalopods of the order  
, which comprises around 300 species. Like
all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle, and arms. Squid,
like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs and two, usually longer, tentacles. Squid are
strong swimmers and certain species can 'fly' for short distances out of the water.[2]

£  
  

Squid have differentiated from their ancestral molluscs such that the body plan has been
condensed antero-posteriorly and extended dorso-ventrally. What before may have been the foot
of the ancestor is modified into a complex set of tentacles and highly developed sense organs,
including advanced eyes similar to those of vertebrates.

The ancestral shell has been lost, with only an internal gladius, or pen, remaining. The pen is a
feather-shaped internal structure that supports the squid's mantle and serves as a site for muscle
attachment. It is made of a chitin-like substance.

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The main body mass is enclosed in the mantle, which has a swimming fin along each side. These
fins, unlike in other marine organisms, are not the main source of locomotion in most species.

The skin is covered in chromatophores, which enable the squid to change color to suit its
surroundings, making it effectively invisible. The underside is also almost always lighter than the
topside, to provide camouflage from both prey and predator.

Under the body are openings to the mantle cavity, which contains the gills (ctenidia) and
openings to the excretory and reproductive systems. At the front of the mantle cavity lies the
siphon, which the squid uses for locomotion via precise jet propulsion. In this form of
locomotion, water is sucked into the mantle cavity and expelled out of the siphon in a fast, strong
jet. The direction of the siphon can be changed, to suit the direction of travel.

Inside the mantle cavity, beyond the siphon, lies the visceral mass, which is covered by a thin,
membranous epidermis. Under this are all the major internal organs.


 
 




The giant axon, which may be up to 1 mm (0.04 inches) in diameter in some larger species,
innervates the mantle and controls part of the jet propulsion system.

As cephalopods, squid exhibit relatively high intelligence among invertebrates. For example,
groups of Humboldt squid hunt cooperatively, using active communication. (See Cephalopod
intelligence.)
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The name is originally from Greek įİȜijȓȢ ( 
), "dolphin",[1] which was related to the Greek
įİȜijȪȢ (

), "womb".[2] The animal's name can therefore be interpreted as meaning "a 'fish'
with a womb".[3] The name was transmitted via the Latin  

[4] (the romanization of the
later Greek įİȜij†; Ȣ -  
[5]), which in Middle Latin became  

and in Old French

 , which reintroduced the into the word. The term  has also historically
been used.[6]

The word is used in a few different ways. It can mean:

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This article uses the second definition and does not describe porpoises (suborder Odontoceti,
family Phocoenidae). Orcas and some closely related species belong to the Delphinidae family
and therefore qualify as dolphins, even though they are called whales in common language. A
group of dolphins is called a "school" or a "pod". Male dolphins are called "bulls", females
"cows" and young dolphins are called "calves".[7]

 
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Ë (also known as  or 
 or 


) are free-swimming members of the
phylum Cnidaria. Jellyfish have several different morphologies that represent several different
cnidarian classes including the Scyphozoa (over 200 species), Staurozoa (about 50 species),
Cubozoa (about 20 species), and Hydrozoa (about 1000±1500 species that make jellyfish and
many more that do not).[1][2] £
 is another word for A
, and refers specifically to adult
jellyfish.

Jellyfish are found in every ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Some hydrozoan jellyfish, or
hydromedusae, are also found in fresh water; freshwater species are less than an inch (25 mm) in
diameter, are colorless and do not sting. Many of the best-known jellyfish, such as Aurelia, are
scyphomedusae. These are the large, often colorful, jellyfish that are common in coastal zones
worldwide.

In its broadest sense, the term jellyfish also generally refers to members of the phylum
Ctenophora. Although not closely related to cnidarian jellyfish, ctenophores are also free-
swimming planktonic carnivores, are generally transparent or translucent, and exist in shallow to
deep portions of all the world's oceans.

Alternative names for groups of jellyfish are scyphomedusae, stauromedusae, cubomedusae, and
hydromedusae. These may relate to an entire order or class.

á
 


The word A
(which has been in common usage for more than a century)[3] is used to
denote several different kinds of cnidarians, all of which have a basic body structure that
resembles an umbrella, including scyphozoans, staurozoans (stalked jellyfish), hydrozoans, and
cubozoans (box jellyfish). Some textbooks and websites refer to scyphozoans as "true
jellyfish".[4][5]

Since jellyfish are not even vertebrates, let alone true fish, the usual word A
is considered
by some to be a misnomer, and American public aquariums have popularized use of the terms
A 
or
A 
instead.[6]

In its broadest usage, some scientists occasionally include members of the phylum Ctenophora
(comb jellies) when they are referring to jellyfish.[7] Other scientists prefer to use the more all-
encompassing term "gelatinous zooplankton", when referring to these, together with other soft-
bodied animals in the water column.[8]

A group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm.[9] "Bloom" is usually used for a
large group of jellyfish that gather in a small area, but may also have a time component, referring
to seasonal increases, or numbers beyond what was expected.[10] Another collective name for a
group of jellyfish is a
.[11]
 
  are reptiles of the order   (the crown group of the superorder —

),
characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a
shield. "Turtle" may either refer to the Testudines as a whole, or to particular Testudines which
make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic²see also sea turtle, terrapin, tortoise, and the
discussion below.

The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species. The earliest known turtles
date from 215 million years ago,[2] making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more
ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the many species alive today, some are
highly endangered.[3]

Like other reptiles, turtles are ectotherms²their internal temperature varies according to the
ambient environment, commonly called cold-blooded. However, leatherback sea turtles have
noticeably higher body temperature than surrounding water because of their high metabolic rate.

Like other amniotes (reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals), they breathe air and do not lay
eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. The largest turtles are aquatic.

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The largest ever chelonian was  
 
, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have
been up to 4.6 metres (15 ft) long.[5]

The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa. It measures no more than
8 centimetres (3.1 in) in length and weighs about 140 grams (4.9 oz). Two other species of small
turtles are the American mud turtles and musk turtles that live in an area that ranges from Canada
to South America. The shell length of many species in this group is less than 13 centimetres (5.1
in) in length.


c


c

 compose the fish genus



 within the family Syngnathidae, in order
Syngnathiformes. Syngnathidae also includes the pipefishes. "Hippocampus" comes from the
Ancient Greek 
meaning "horse" and  
meaning ³sea monster´.[2]

There are nearly 50 species of seahorse. They are mainly found in shallow tropical and temperate
waters throughout the world. They prefer to live in sheltered areas such as seagrass beds, coral
reefs, or mangroves. Colonies have been found in European waters such as the Thames
Estuary.[3] From North America down to South America there are approximately four species,
ranging from the very small (dwarf seahorses are only about 2.5 centimeters (1 in)) to much
larger specimens off the Pacific Coast of Central America (the foot-long  
). 


are larger seahorses that range from Nova Scotia to around Uruguay. Three species live in the
Mediterranean Sea:  

(long snout),  

(short snout) and 




(immigrated from the Red Sea). These fish form territories, with males staying in about 1 square
metre (11 sq ft) of their habitat while females range about one hundred times that area. They bob
around in sea grass meadows, mangrove stands, and coral reefs where they adopt murky brown
and gray patterns to camouflage themselves among the sea grass. During social moments or in
unusual surroundings, seahorses turn bright colors.

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Piranhas belong to the subfamily Serrasalminae, which also includes closely related
omnivorous[3] fish such as pacus.[4] Traditionally, only the four genera °
,
°

, ° 

and 


are considered to be true piranhas, due to their
specialized teeth. However, a recent analysis showed that, if the piranha group is to be
monophyletic, it should be restricted to 


, °

and part of °
, or
expanded to include these taxa plus ° 

,   , and °

 

.
° 

was found to be more closely related to    than the other three piranha
genera.[4]

The total number of piranha species is unknown and contested and new species continue to be
described. Estimates range from fewer than 30 to more than 60.[4]

>  

Piranhas are found in the Amazon basin, in the Orinoco, in rivers of the Guyanas, in the
Paraguay-Paraná, and the São Francisco River systems. Some species of piranha have broad
geographic ranges, occurring in more than one of the major basins mentioned above, whereas
others appear to have more limited distributions.[4]

Aquarium piranhas have been introduced into parts of the United States with specimens
occasionally found in the Potomac River, Lake of the Ozarks in Missouri and even as far north as
Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin, although they typically do not survive cold winters.[5] Piranhas
have also been discovered in the Kaptai Lake in south-east Bangladesh. Research is being carried
out to establish how piranhas have moved to such distant corners of the world from their original
habitat. It is anticipated that some rogue exotic fish traders have released them in the lake to
avoid being caught by anti-poaching forces.[6]

>
 

Piranhas are normally about 14 to 26 cm long (6 to 10 inches), although some specimens have
been reported to be up to 43 cm (18.0 inches) in length.[7]




, °
, °

and ° 

are most easily recognized by their
unique dentition. All piranhas have a single row of sharp teeth in both jaws; the teeth are tightly
packed and interlocking (via small cusps) and used for rapid puncture and shearing. Individual