UoB No:09031620 IHRM 3/4/2011

BRADFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT

MDIS Singapore

Training Needs for International

Managers

International Human Resource Management

UoB no.09031620

Date of Submission: 24th June, 2010

Program: Master of Business Administration.

Lecturer: Dr. Wong Wee Chwee

Module Title: IHRM

MDIS Batch No: MBBE20915A

I certify that this assignment is a result of my own work and

does not exceed the word count stated below.

Word Count: 1,492 (Excluding appendices/bibliographies, tables and

diagrams)

This assignment contains a CD.

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UoB No:09031620 IHRM 3/4/2011

Table of Contents

Table of Contents.................................................................................................................2
Introduction:.........................................................................................................................3
The role of training for International Managers:.................................................................4
Experimental Learning Theory (ELT):................................................................................5
Key Components of Effective Pre Departure Training:......................................................6
Pre Departure Expatriate Training Examined:.................................................................7
A different dimension to training for International Managers:............................................9
Expatriate Families:...........................................................................................................10
Discussion and Conclusion:...............................................................................................11
References:.........................................................................................................................12

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UoB No:09031620 IHRM 3/4/2011

Outline critical training packages that contribute to the development of

international managers.

Introduction:

In the new age of easy travel and e-business the contacts

between people of different cultures and nations are widespread. With
the increasing business dealings and cooperation among nations,
cross-national contacts are likely to be even more numerous and
extensive in the future. This implies that there will be a further demand
for individuals who can function effectively and efficiently in a foreign
environment. (Tung, 2001). As with expatriates, international
managers adopting other methods of working on international
assignments, such as e-business, business travel, and short and non
standard assignments, face similar difficulties as expatriates, though at
a much less intense level. As international manager numbers increase,
it has been estimated that 10 to 40% of expatriates return before
completing their assignment. (Romero, 2002). These “casualties” not
only represent substantial costs to the companies involved, but
constitute a waste of human resources because most of those who
“failed” had good track records in the home office prior to assignment
overseas. (Tung, 2001).
In the light of the relatively high failure rate among expatriates,
the need to identify possible misfits (expat selection), and training
procedures to ensure better performance abroad, present itself with
great urgency. (Tung, 2001). Therefore, the way in which a multi
national enterprise (MNE) anticipates and provides suitable training is
an important first step. This is reflected in the growth of interest in,
and provision or, pre-departure training to prepare expatriates and
accompanying family members for the international assignment.
(Dowling et. al., 2008).

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The role of training for International Managers:

Expatriates don’t come cheap to start with and
underperformance or failure only adds to the bill. Contributing to the
high failure rates and costs is the lack of comprehensive expatriate
support to meet the myriad challenges of working and living in another
country. (Jack, Stage 2005). One of the major reasons for expatriate
failure is the expatriate’s or his/her family’s inability to adapt to the
foreign culture of the assignment location, besides other reasons such
as lack of emotional maturity, insufficient technical skills and low levels
of motivation for being overseas. (Romero, 2002).
Figure 1: The need for expatriate pre departure training.

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Given that the primary expatriate selection criteria is technical

ability, since of course the primary role of expatriates is to train host
country nationals, through knowledge transfer and establish systems
and processes that work effectively, it is not surprising that there is a
emphasis on pre-departure training activities that are mainly
concerned with cultural awareness. This aspect has gained prominence
as there is a close link between expatriate failures and cultural
adjustments. (Dowling et al 2008). Failed or ineffective expatriate
assignments may be avoided by utilizing effective training to prepare
expatriates and his/her families for the assignment while still in the
home country. Cross cultural training (CCT) has been effective at
increasing cross-cultural skill development and job performance.
(Romero, 2002)

Experimental Learning Theory (ELT):

Though there is an increasing emphasis on training,
Experimental Learning Theory as proposed by Kolb (1984) remains the
most pervasive theories of how managers learn from experience.
Basing his model on the works of Dewey, Lewin, Paiget, James and
Freire, Kolb argued that experimental learning encompasses the
totality of the human learning process, where experience forms the
foundation for four modes of learning: feeling (Concrete Experience,
CE), reflecting (Observation & Reflection, RO), thinking (Abstract
Conceptualization, AC) and acting (Active Experimentation, AE). Taken
in order these four stages encompass the learning cycle and it can be
immediately appreciated how CE forms a basis for RO, in which the
experience is subsequently assimilated into AC. From AC, the
experience is then formed to AE, which signifies that the learning cycle
is complete and ensures that it begins anew by assisting the creation
of new experiences (CE). (Yamazaki, Kayes, 2004).

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Figure 2: Experimental Learning Dimensions and Learning Skills.

Source: Yamazaki, Kayes 2004.

Key Components of Effective Pre Departure Training:

After having selected the expatriate through a structured
selection process and evaluating his/her suitability for the assignment,
using factors that are critical to success, such as Technical
Competence, Personality Traits, Environmental Variables, his/her
family situation etc. (Tung,2001), it is now relevant to discuss the
constituents of expatriate training packages.
Studies indicate that the essential components of pre departure
training programs that contribute to a smooth transition to a foreign

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location include cultural awareness training, preliminary visits,

language instruction and assistance with practical day to day matters.
(Dowling et.al, 2008).

Pre Departure Expatriate Training Examined:

As can be seen from figure 1 expatriates, when exposed to a new

culture are likely to experience a culture shock. The impact of the
culture shock can be significantly reduced by proper culture awareness
training. (Fig.1). Tung (2001) identified five main components of a
culture awareness training namely, area studies programs, culture
assimilator, language training, sensitivity training and field
experiences.
The area studies program includes environmental briefing and
cultural orientation programs. They are designed to provide the trainee
with information about the particular countries sociopolitical history,
geography, stage of economic development and cultural institution
with the basic assumption that “knowledge will increase empathy, and
empathy will modify behavior in such a way as to improve intercultural
relationships.” (Tung, 2001). Such programs may also include
understanding the host nation’s legal and educational system, politics
economics, heritage, social structure and social business practices.
(McEnery, DesHarnais, 1990)
The culture assimilator is a series of 75 to 100 short
intercultural encounters which are judged by a panel of experts to be
critical to the interaction between intercultural members. (Tung, 2001).
Though the technique was designed for people who had to be assigned
overseas at short notice, studies designed to test the validity and
effectiveness of the this training technique reveal that it is apparently
very effective in assisting members of one culture to interact and
adjust successfully with a member of another culture. (Tung, 2001)
Language training is a seemingly obvious and desirable
component of expatriate pre departure training, but is often ranked
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below that of the desirability for cultural awareness training. (Dowling

et. al, 2008.). Besides the fact that English is considered as the world
business language, other factors that make language training less
desired for expatriates is the degree of contact with host country
nationals. MNE’s also tend to adopt a common company language to
facilitate reporting and other control mechanisms. (Dowling et al
2008). On the other hand knowledge of the host country language is a
critical element of the host country culture. An expat manager with no
host country language skills may rely on interpreters, as easy as this
seems, day to day affairs pose significant problems for these
managers. (McEnery, DesHarnais, 1990).
According to Tung (2001), sensitivity training programs focus
on learning at the affective level and are designed to induce flexibility
in the individuals attitude, thereby making him/her accept that
unfamiliar modes of behavior and value systems can also be valid
ways of doing things in a different culture.
Field experiences or preliminary visits to the host country
provide the expatriate candidate and his family to have a preview that
allows them to assess their suitability for and their interest in the
assignment. A well designed trip will also aim to introduce the
expatriate candidate to the business context in the host country, thus
allowing the candidate to make a more informed pre departure
preparation. However sufficient attention needs to be paid to the
phases of cultural adjustment, where in the first stage is the tourist
phase and normally coincides with the preliminary visit. It is phase 2
and recovery from phase 2 (Culture Shock) that is of vital importance
for the successful performance of the expatriate. (Dowling et al, 2008).

Figure: 3 The Phases of cultural adjustment

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Phase 1: Phase 4:
Tourist Adjustment

Phase 3:
Pulling Up
Adjustment

Phase 2: Crisis
Culture Shock May Exist

Time

Source: Dowling et al 2008.

A different dimension to training for International

Managers:
According to Yamazaki and Kayes 2004, there are nine cross
cultural learning clusters and these can be classified into four learning
skill dimensions. The four learning skill dimensions are interpersonal,
informational, analytic and action. The clusters of adaptive skills
encompasses the learning clusters of adaptability and flexibility and
managing stress, and since these skills develop abilities to react to
different multicultural issues, are put under the developmental skills
learning area. Table 1 below summarizes the nine clusters of cross
cultural learning.

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Table 1: Competencies for successful cross cultural adaptation for

expatriates.

Source: Yamazaki, Kayes, 2004.

Expatriate Families:
Two thirds of expatriate failures are related to lack of
interpersonal skills and factors relating to the family situation that
disrupt adaptation. The spouses and the children’s inability to adapt to
the new culture makes the family vulnerable to internal conflict at a
time when unfamiliar culture has already exerted significant pressure
on the family. If an employee is to take on an expatriate role, the
company may also want to evaluate the families’ motivation and ability
to adapt to the new culture. More often than not, training and
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development has focused on the employee performance,

promotability, and bottom line effectiveness. But research shows that
family adaptation or lack of it, will affect performance and thus the
companies bottom line. (McEnery, DesHarnais, 1990).

Discussion and Conclusion:

The vitality of training for international managers can be seen
from the fact that 2/3 of expat failures are due to a lack of
interpersonal skills and family factors. Less than 1/3rd of expatriate
failures are job related. (McEnery, DesHarnais, 1990). Therefore the
emphasis of an expatriate program has to shift from selecting the right
candidate with the right technical skills to an all round development of
the employee to prepare him/her and his/her family for the overseas
assignment. Technical skills are of course rated by most MNE’s as the
most important criteria for expatriate selection, and the ORC
Worldwide 2002 survey indicated that 72% of the participating firms
selected expatriate candidates based on technical abilities. (Dowling et
al, 2008)

(1,492 Words)

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References:
1.) Tung R.L., (2001), “Selection and Training of Personnel for
Overseas Assignments”, Columbia Journal of World Business, pg
68- 78.

2.) Romero, E. J., (2002),” The Effect of Expatriate Training on

Expatriate Effectiveness”, Journal of Management Research, Vol.
2, No. 2, pg 73-77.

3.) Dowling P. J., Festing M., Engle A. D., (2008), International

Human Resource Management, 5th Edition, United Kingdom:
Cenage Learning.

4.) Yamakazi Y., Kayes D.C., (2004), “An Experimental Approach to

Cross Cultural Learning: A Review and Integration of
Competencies for Successful Expatriate Adaptation”, Academy of
Management Learning and Education, Vol. 3, No. 4, pg 362-377.

5.) McEnery J., DesHarnias G., (1990), “Culture Shock”, Training and
Development Journal, April 1990, pg 43-47.

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