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Institute of Canada at the time of publication but do not necessarily reflect the viewpoint of each individual
member. While a great deal of care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the
Appraisal Institute, the Appraisal Institute of Canada, the UBC Real Estate Division, nor its editors and staff
assume responsibility for the accuracy of the data contained herein. Further, the general principles and
conclusions presented in this text are subject to local, provincial, and federal laws and regulations, court cases,
and any revisions of the same. This publication is sold for educational purposes with the understanding that the
publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional advice.
© Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved. No part
of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the Appraisal Institute of Canada.
Published by the UBC Real Estate Division. Printed in Vancouver, Canada.
CHAPTER 3
FOUNDATIONS OF APPRAISAL
ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǯȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ ¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱǯȱȱ¡ǰȱȱȱ
¢ȱŗşŞŖǰȱȱȱȱȱǻȱȱȱǼȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱĚǰȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱěǯȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱŘŖŖŖȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ěȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ȭ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȂȱȱǯȱ¢ǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
DZ
yȱ
yȱ
yȱ
yȱ ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
AGENTS OF PRODUCTION
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ
ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱǰȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ ǯ
Land
ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
Labour
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱǯȱȱȱȱȱ
¢ȱȱ ȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ¡ǰȱ¡ǰȱǰȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
Capital
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǻǯǯǰȱ Ȭ
¢ȱȱǼǰȱǰȱȱȱǻȱǰȱȱǼȱȱȱȱ
ȱǯ
Entrepreneurial Coordination
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱęȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǯȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ȱ Ȭ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱȱǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ǯȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ
entrepreneurial coordination
The ability of an entrepreneur to combine
ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȯȱ ȱ ȱ
land, labor, and capital in the development ȱ ȱ ǻȱ ȱ ȱ
of real property; a component of real estate ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęǼȱ Ȯȱ ȱ
value that represents the investment of time, ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
expertise, and equity by an entrepreneur (or ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ
developer) in the development of a property. ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¡ǯȱȱŗŝȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱęȱȱȱǯ
Change
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ǰȱ
ȱȱȱ ȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ
All values are anticipations of the future.
ȱȱȱȱěȱȱȱȱȱ
– Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
ȱǯȱȱȱȱȱĚȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǰȱȬ
The principles of anticipation, change,
ǰȱȱ¢ȱǯȱȱĴȱ
supply and demand, competition,
and substitution are fundamental to
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
understanding the dynamics of value. ȱȱȱěȱȱ¢ȱǰȱǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱęȱ
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ Ȃȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ǰȱ
ǯǯǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǰȱ ȱ
ȱęȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ¢ȱǯȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱ
ěȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǯȱȱȬ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ěȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ŗşȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
Supply
¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ǯȱ¢ȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǻ ȱȱȱǼǰȱȱǰȱǰȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ¢¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȂȱȱ¢ǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȬ
ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝ¢ǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ȃȱ
ȱ¡ȱȱęȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱǯ
¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱǯȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱǰȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȃȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ǰȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȬȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ
ȱǰȱȱȱ¡ȱȱȱȱǯ
Demand
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱ¢¢ȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱ ȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĝȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ěȱ ǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ
ȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ¡ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ęȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ěȱǰȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ¢ȱȱǯ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
Competition
ȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱ ȱȱȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱęȬ¡£ȱȱ¢ǯ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵǯȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱ¢ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱ ȱ¡DZ
yȱ ȱęȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ¢ǯ
yȱ ¡ȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱǯ
yȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ęǯȱ ęȱ
ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
¡ǰȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ¡ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ
competition
ęȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ¢ȱ
Between purchasers or tenants, the interactive
ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¡ǰȱ
efforts of two or more potential purchasers
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
or tenants to make a sale or secure a lease;
between sellers or landlords, the interactive ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
efforts of two or more potential sellers or ȱȱęǯȱ¢ȱȱ¢ȱȱ
landlords to complete a sale or lease; among ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȬ
competitive properties, the level of productivity ǯȱȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ęǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
and amenities or benefits characteristic of ǯȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
each property considering the advantageous ȱȱęȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ
or disadvantageous position of the property ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
relative to the competitors. ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
substitution
The appraisal principle states that when Substitution
several similar or commensurate commodities,
goods, or services are available, the one ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
with the lowest price will attract the greatest ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
demand and widest distribution. This is the ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭ
primary principle upon which the cost and ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ
direct comparison approaches are based. ȱȱȱȱ ȱǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
¢ǯȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ¢ȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ǰȱȱǯȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢Dzȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¢Dzȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢Ȭȱ Ĵǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȬȱǯȱȱ¢ȬȱĴȱ
ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ¡ȱȱǰȱ¢ȱȱ ǰȱȱ
ȱȱǯȱȱȱȬȱ¢ǰȱȱ¢ȱȬ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǰȱǰȱȱǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
DZȱȱǰȱǰȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯŗȱ ȱ ¡ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
Ĝȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ¢ȱ
ȱȱȱȬȱǯ
Balance
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ The principles of balance, decreasing marginal
utility, contribution, surplus productivity, and
ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
conformity explain how the integration of
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
property components affects property value.
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢Ȃȱ ¢ǯȱ ǰȱ
ǰȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱ
ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱǯǯǰȱ
ȱȱȱęȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ
ǰȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱǰȱ¡ȱȱȱǯȱ¢ȱȱ¡ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱǯȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ¢ǯ
1
The specific issues involved in the valuation of unique properties are addressed in Frank E. Harrison, Appraising the
Tough Ones: Creative Ways to Value Complex Residential Properties (Chicago: Appraisal Institute, 1996).
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
Contribution
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǞřŖǰŖŖŖȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ǞřŖǰŖŖŖǯȱ
ǰȱ ȱ Ȃȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ȃȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ DZ
yȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱǯ
yȱ ȱȱȱǯ
yȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǯǯǰȱ ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
yȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ ȱȱȱěȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
yȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱǯ
ȱȱȱȱ¡ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱ
ȱ¢ǯȱ¢ȱȱȱǰȱȱ¢Ȃȱȱȱ¢ȱȬ
£ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¡ǰȱ Ȭ
Ȭȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ contribution
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ The concept that the value of a particular
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ component is measured in terms of its
ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ¢ȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ contribution to the value of the whole property
ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ȭ or as the amount that its absence would
detract from the value of the whole.
ȱǯ
Surplus Productivity
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ŗŞȱ ȱ
ŗşȱȱęȱȱȱ ȱȱǰȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǻȱ ȱ ŘŘǼǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ surplus productivity
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢£ȱ ȱ ȱ The net income that remains after the costs of
ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱ¢ȱ various agents of production have been paid.
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ŘŖȱ ¢ȱ Ȭ conformity
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ The appraisal principle that real property
value is created and sustained when the
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭ
characteristics of a property conform to the
ǰȱ ǯǯǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
demands of its market.
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
Conformity
¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȬ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱǰȱȬ
ǰȱȱǯȱȱȱȱȱȱ£ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ¢ǯȱȱ
ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ȭ
ȱȱȱ£ǰȱ¢ǰȱȱǰȱȱȱĜȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ
ȱȱǯ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǰȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ Ȭȱ¢ȱ ȱȱ ȱȱ
ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǯȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȬȱ¢ȱ ȱȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱ Ȭȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ǯȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ĵȱ
ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ
ěǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ¢ǯ
Externalities
ȱȱȱ¡ȱȱȱȱ¡ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱěȱȱȱǯȱȱȱ ¢ǰȱȱȱęȱȬ
ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
externalities ȱȱȱȱ¡ȱȱȱ
Factors outside a property, or externalities, ȱ ȱ Ĝ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
exert both positive and negative influences on ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
the property’s value.
¡ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ¡ǰȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱȱȱȱ¢¢ȱǰȱ¡ȱĚȱěȱȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱȱȱȱǰȱǰȱȱǯȱ¡ȱ¢ȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱ¢ȱĴȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ¡ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱěȱȱȱȱǻȬ
Ǽȱȱȱȱ¢ǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ¡ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱ¢ǯȱȱěȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ
ȱęȱȱȱ¢ȱǯ
ȱęȱ¢ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǰȱ¢ǰȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ęȬ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ěȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ŗşşŖǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ęȱ
ȱǰȱ ȱȱȱěȱȱ ȱȱ¢ȱǯȱȱ
ȱȱęȱȱȱȱ¡ȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱ ŗşşŖǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ Ȯȱ ȱ Ĵ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ
Ȭǰȱ ȱ
ȱȮȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ ǰȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȬȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
Changes to the Income Tax Act in 1972 made gains in the value of investment real estate in Canada
taxable; before that, such "capital gains" were free of tax. Further reforms at the same time prevented
rental investors from claiming depreciation charges (called capital cost allowances or CCA) as deductions
against income from other sources. These changes had a far-reaching effect on the value of investment-
grade properties. Due in part to the tax advantages available prior to 1970, some real estate markets
had been overbuilt. After the tax law was changed, the oversupply was recognized and values in these
markets declined significantly.
In 1974, the multiple-unit residential building (MURB) provision of the Income Tax Act restored the
favourable CCA treatment for rental apartment developments. The MURB provision was extended
several times – it was in effect from 1974 to 1979 and was reinstated from 1980 to 1981. The purpose of
the MURB provision was to stimulate investor interest in rental housing; at this it proved successful, as
many syndicated MURB tax shelter rental projects were built across Canada during this time. However, in
1978, depreciation rates for MURBS were reduced, and in 1979 and 1981, the deductibility of expenses
for rental investors was limited, making this type of investment less attractive. During the recessionary
period that commenced in 1981, demand for rental multi-unit developments disappeared. By the mid
1980s, low interest rates stimulated a gradual economic recovery and sales of new and existing homes
picked up.
ȱȱȱ ȱŘŖŖŖDzȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱ
¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱǯȱȇȱ¢ȱȱ
¢ȱȱȱęȱȱȱȱ¢ǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱŘŖȱ¢ǰȱ¢ȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ǯȱȱȬȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¡ȱ
ěȱȱȱ¡ǯȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ
¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱȬȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱ
ȱǯȱȱ
¡ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȇȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
¡ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǰȱȱ¡ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ǰȱȱȱęȱ
¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ
¢ȱǰȱęǰȱȱǰȱȱ¡ȱȱ ȱȱŘŖŖŚȱȱŘŖŖŞǰȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ DZȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ǰȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ǰȱ ȱ
ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ
ȱȱŘŖŖŚȱȱŘŖŖŞǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱǯȱȱ
ȱ Ȭȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ȱ ȱȱȱǰȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱěȱ
ȱȱȱ¢ȱ ȱȱȱŘŖŖŜǯȱ ȱȱȱȱǰȱȬ
ǰȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱŘŖŖŞǯȱ
ȱ ȇȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱěȱȱȱǯ
ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱǰȱ¢ȱȱȱěȱ¢ȱȱ
ǰȱȱȱȱȱǰȱ¢ȱ¡ǰȱȱ ǰȱ
ȱ ȱ Ĵǯȱ ěȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱȱ
ȱȱȱ ȱ¡ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱǯ
Social Forces
ȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱǯȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢£ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ǯȱȱ¢ȱȱȱěȱȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȬ
ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ
ȱ¢ȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
¢ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ Ĵȱ
ȱǰȱ ȱȱǰȱȱ¢ȱǯ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
Economic Forces
ȱȱȱĚȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱ¢£ȱȱȬ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ ǰȱǰȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ¢ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱȱȱDZ
yȱ ¢
yȱ ȱ
yȱ ȱ¡
yȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢
yȱ ȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ
yȱ ¢ȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱȱĴȱȱ¡ȱ
yȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
ȱȱ¢ȱȱȱǯ
Governmental Forces
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
¢ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǯȱȱ ȱ Ȭ
¢ǰȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱěȱȱ
ȱ Ĵǯȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¡ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱĚȱ¢ȱDZ
yȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ Ȭ
ǰȱȱȱ
yȱ ȱ£ǰȱȱǰȱȱȱȱǰȱ¢ȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱ
yȱ ǰȱǰȱȱȱęȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱĚȱȱ¢ȱDZ
Ȥȱ ȱȱ
Ȥȱ ȱȱ¢ȱ
Ȥȱ ȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȬ
ȱȱȱ
Ȥȱ ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ£ȱȱ¡ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
Ȥȱ ȱ ěȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱ
Ȥȱ ȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱȱȱȬ
ȱ
Ȥȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ¢ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱę
Environmental Forces
ȱȱȱȬȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱ¢£ȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱ DZ
yȱ ȱȱȱȱ ǰȱȱǰȱǰȱȱ¢
yȱ ¢ȱȱ
yȱ ¡ȱȱȱȱǰȱǰȱȱ
yȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ
ȱ
yȱ ¢ȱȱ¢ǰȱȱȱȱȱ ¢ȱ
¢ǰȱǰȱǰȱȱȱȱ ¢
yȱ ȱȱȱ¢ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ
location
ȱȱȱ¢ȱȬ
The time-distance relationships, or linkages,
ȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱ
between a property or neighborhood and all
other possible origins and destinations of ȱ ǻǯǯǰȱ ǰȱ ǰȱ ȱ
people going to or coming from the property ǼȱȱȱȱȱȬȱ
or neighborhood. ǯȱ ȱ ŗŖȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭ
linkage ȱ ȱ £ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
1. Time and distance relationship between a ȱǯ
particular use and supporting facilities, e.g., ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ěȱ
between residences and schools, shopping, ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ęȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ¢ȱ
and employment. ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢Ȃȱ
2. The movement of people, goods, services, or ǯȱ ȱ ȱ Ȭȱ
communications to and from the subject site, ǰȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ
measured by the time and cost involved. ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱǯȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ǯȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱȱ ȱĜȱȱȱȱȱȱǰȱȱȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱǯ
ȱ ¢£ȱ ȱ ȱ Ěȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ
ȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱȱęǰȱȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ ȱ ȱ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.
ȱǯȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ¢ȱ¢ǰȱȱȱ¢ȱȬ
ȱȱ¢Ȃȱȱȱȱ DZ
yȱ ȱ
yȱ
yȱ
yȱ ȱ
yȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱ
yȱ ȱȱ
yȱ ȱȱ¢
yȱ ȱ
yȱ ȱȱȱ
yȱ ȱȱ ȱ
ȱ ¡¢ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ǰȱ ȱ ¡¢ȱ ȱ ¢ȱ £ȱ
ȱ¢ȱ£ȱȱȱȱȱǯ
©Copyright 2010 by the Appraisal Institute of Canada and the Appraisal Institute. All rights reserved.