The Biopsychology Interrelation
AS’ PSYCHOLOGY
THE BODY’S RESPONSE TO ANXIETY
DAVE JOHNSON
Key points to remember
 Stress is a state in which results
in disproportion of apparent
demands and an individual’s
apparent ability to cope.
 Central nervous system (CNS),
consisting brain and spinal
cord.
 Sensory pathway refers to nerve
impulses towards the CNS.
Motor pathway is away from
CNS.
 Functional division of nervous
system consist of autonomic
nervous system (ANS) and so-
matic nervous system.
 Electrical impulses are con-
ducted through neurons, which
are basic unit of nervous system.
 Synapse is the functional con-
nection between two neurons,
through which signal can pass.
 Autonomic nervous system
(ANS) consist of the sympa-
thetic nervous system (SNS) and
the parasympathetic nervous
system (PNS).
 Pituitary - adrenal system
consist of hypothalamus, pitui-
tary gland, adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH), adrenal
cortex, stimulates release of
cortisol.
 Sympathomedullary pathway
involves hypothalamus, adrenal
medulla, which stimulates the
release of adrenaline and nor
adrenaline.
The ner vous system and stress
Stress is the sensation of being under pres-
sure. Selye (1930) categorized stress into
three relevant stages of psychological re-
sponse of the body according to his
‘general adaptation syndrome’ (GAS). The
GAS theory is backed up with biological
evidence. Thus, the study on how brain
and neurotransmitters influence our be-
haviors, taught and feelings, including
stress is known as biopsychology. This
document summarize and appraise how
biological evidence shows our nervous sys-
tem is influenced by stress and influence
as skeletal muscles, muscles controlling
stress.
speech, internal organs and glands, and the
The body’s role of information accumulat-
sweat glands in the skin. Other complex
ing, storage and management methods are functions are also carried out i.e. need to
carried out by structure called the nervous experience positive emotions (such as
system. Brain and the spinal cord are the bliss, pleasure, etc) and to avoid negative
vital components of this system. Nerve emotions (such as pain, anxiety and frus-
impulses that is dispatched from brain and tration). Thus, this system plays a major
spinal cord controls various functions, such role in an individual’s stress response.
Str ucture of ner vous system
The fundamental processing the sensory pathway. Later, there are various functional
element of the nervous system response to the stimuli from divisions. Two of the most
is known as the central nervous CNS is dispatched to sense important are the autonomic
system (CNS), which includes organs. This passage is called nervous system (ANS), which
the brain and the spinal cord. the motor pathway. is considered as automatic and
Spinal cord consist of billions unconscious regulations of
Nerves are linked to the CNS,
of linked neurons (nerve cells). internal body functions (e.g.
The nerves are cables that
releasing certain hormones)
The initial contribution of in- carry information to the entire
and somatic nervous system,
formation to the CNS is re- body.
which controlled willed
ceived from the sense organs.
In addiction to these anatomi- movements on voluntary mus-
The pathway from the sense
cal division, on the other hand cles.
organs to the CNS is known as
THE BIOPSYCHOLOGY INTERRELATION

The neuron
Neurons are specialized cells
that are organized in to nerves
around the body. There are
three types of neurons : in-
terneuron, motor neuron and
sensory neuron.
Dendrites are extensions that
branch out of the neuron body.
Every neuron also has another
extension known as the axon
(also known as nerve fibres)
Under a certain specific condi-
tion the neuron transmits elec-
trical impulses along its axon.
These electrical impulse causes
the release of a chemical called
neurotransmitter from the
axon terminals. Axon vary in
length from about a centimetre
to a metre.
Axon terminals are the ending
on the neurons along the axon.
Nearby the axon terminals are
dendrites of the following neu-
ron.
Action potential is the term
used to describe the amount of
impulses that are sent along a
neuron, and a neuron on aver-
age has a action potential rate
of 430 kilometer per hour.
If the cell body of a neuron gets
damaged or denatured, it dies
and its never replaced. An
newborn starts life lots of neu-
rons. Eventually the amount of
neurons decreases as days go
on.
Human behaviors and all as-
pects are coded by pattern of
the nerve impulses in different
part of the nerve. Wholly,
millions of neurons as nerve
cells bundle up together in
different coded patterns to
form a nervous system.

The Synapse
Synapse is a gap between an
axon terminal and the receiving
neuron. Signals are passed
across the gap from pre-
synaptic terminal to post-
synaptic terminal (one direc-
tion). Single neurons may form
thousands of these connections
with adjacent nerve cells.
Each neuron has its long fibre
(axon) that extents and splits
into numerous branches leading
to synaptic gaps. This extension
is usually to the cell body of the
post synaptic neuron. At a syn-
apse, two neurons do not come
in to contact. Instead, they
form a gap known as synaptic
cleft. When electrical impulses
are passed along the pre-
neuron they impulses are re-
lease into the cleft as chemicals
known as neurotransmitters.
The released neurotransmitters
are received by the post-
synaptic terminal by receptors
in post-synaptic membrane,
which has complementary
binding site to neurotransmit-
ters.

Beta-blocker drugs block The autonom ic n er vous sy stem (A NS)

the action of adrenaline ANS controls involuntary , that and breathing rate). This pre-
and noradrenaline on are seem automatic, response pares an individual for fight or
of organs, blood vessels, glands flight response. The parasym-
the heart and thus slow and various other tissues in the pathetic works in the contrary
body. ANS consists of a net- way.
the rate and force of its work of nerves separated into
The sympathetic system plays a
beat. two parts : the sympathetic
predominant role during times
nervous system and the para-
of stress or fear.
sympathetic nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous sys-
tem amplifies activities in the
PAGE 2 body (quickening the heartbeat
 AS’ PSYCHOLOGY

Sympathetic branc h
The sympathetic nervous sys-
tem (SNS) consist of cables of
nerves that pass from the spi-
nal cord throughout body to
other organs and other struc-
tures they control. Controls
the ‘fight or flight’ reflex;
prepares the body to respond
to threats in environment. In
these tissue the nerve ending
release neurotransmitters
called adrenaline and
noradrenaline. It also stimu-
lates the production of adrena-
line from the adrenal glands,
which are located above the
kidneys.
The consequences of the re- which urine is excreted from SNS prepares body for a
lease of these neurotransmit- the bladder.
ters are accelerating and
SNS has link to the heart, thus, efficient ’fight of flight’
strengthening the heart beat,
it activates heart rate to speed response. PNS relaxes
widening of the airways, wid-
up and raise in blood pressure.
ening of the blood vessels in
muscles, and narrowing of the
These effects are increased the body after stressful
prolonged by adrenaline and
blood vessels in the skin and ’fight or flight’
nor adrenaline produced by
abdominal organs (this is to
the sympathomedullary path-
allow more blood flow
way. These hormones act on situation.
through the muscles). In addi-
heart muscle to increase heart
tion, the neurotransmitter also
rate, and also on blood vessels
decrease the activity of diges-
to narrow increasing the heart
tion, dilate the pupils of the
rate.
eye and produce the contrac-
tions in male urethra, tube in

Parasy mpat he tic b ran c h

Parasympathetic nervous sys- blood stream and signals the
tem (PNS) is also chains of heart to pump at normal rate.
nerve that are distributed from
CNS to other organs and
structure. This works to bring
our body back to state after
’fight or flight’ reflex. PNS
nerves release acetylcholine a
neurotransmitter, which has a
opposite effect to adrenaline
and noradrenaline. This helps
body control reaction after-
wards. This also reduces the
level of adrenaline in to the

Brain
Billions of neurons bundles
together to form most com-
plex model. The brain is cate-
gorised into hindbrain, mid-
brain and forebrain. Forebrain
consist of medulla, pons and
cerebellum. Together the me-
dulla, pons and the midbrain
consist of brain stem. Brain-
stem is a continuation to spinal
cord. The brain stem also con-
tains autonomic centres i.e.
autonomic pathways staring
from here going alone the
spinal cord extent to other
organs.
Forebrain is grouped into
diencephalon which consist of
thalamus and hypothalamus,
and cerebral hemispheres
which consist of limbic system,
basal ganglia and cortex. Lim-
bic system plays a vital role in
memory and emotion and
cortex is a area where input
from our sensory receptors is
analysed. Cortex present in
prefrontal lobe of the brain
also associates high level cogni-
tive and emotional functions.
Hypothalamus also plays a
important role in controlling
pituitary gland, which lies
below it and other autonomic
centres in brain stem.
PAGE 3
THE BIOPSYCHOLOGY INTERRELATION

B odily res pons e to stress

“ A physical, chemical, Going through stressful situa- pathway.
tion that might possible involve
or emotional factor that danger and threats will cause
Stress can also be stimulated
internally. Our thoughts and
causes bodily or mental alertness of the situation, and
worries can undertake demands
tension and may be a then estimate using memories
that cannot be coped with, this
of previous experience. There-
factor in disease can also active hypothalamus
fore, this involves limbic and
and body’s stress responses.
causation” - stress cerebral cortex, especially
those involved with emotional Therefore, perception of
defined by Merriam memory such as hippocampus stressful situation results in
Webster and amygdala. When stressful stimulating the sympathome-
situation is acknowledged, dullary pathway and pituitary -
cortex and limbic system sends adrenal system.
signals to the hypothalamus to
activate the pituitary-adrenal
system and sympathomedullary

Sympathomedullar y pathway
This pathway is associated with When activated, SNS stimu-
SNS, which is part of ANS, that lates the adrenal medulla to
controls various internal organs produce adrenaline and
such as glands that release hor- noradrenaline into the blood
mones, heart, circulatory sys- stream.
tem and the digestive system.
these hormones act on heart
Nerve impulse are stimulated
muscle to increase heart rate,
from a region in brain stem.
and also on blood vessels to
This nerve impulse runs along
narrow increasing the heart
the spinal cord and spinal
rate. As a result, this allow
nerves to various organs; one
more oxygen to be carried to
of the nerve extents to the ad-
the working muscles to carry
renal medulla, which along
out increased physical activity.
with adrenal cortex is known as
adrenal gland.

Pituitar y-adrenal system

Underneath the brain is the
pituitary glands that are con-
nected to the hypothalamus.
Pituitary is the gland that pro-
duces numerous glands into the
body. The important role of
this gland is to produce hor-
mones that are vital for repro-
duction and growth. This gland
is controlled by the hypothala-
mus and its release depends on
PAGE 4 hypothalamic activity.
The major pituitary stress hor-
mone is adenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH). Stimulation
of ACTH into the blood stream
in carried out by hypothalamus.
The hormone travels to the
adrenal cortex, part of adrenal
gland. When ACTH reaches
the adrenal cortex, it stimulates
the release of corticosteroids
such as cortisol and corticoster-
one into the blood stream.
Body stored energy in the form
of glycogen in the liver and fat
reserves in the fatty tissue. The
major effect of corticosteroid
produced breaks down glyco-
gen and fatty acids. This in-
creases the blood glucose level
and fat levels. Corticosteroids
also bind to the complementary
receptors in the lymphocytes.
Thus, it acts as a competitive
inhibitor to other antigens.
Therefore this also reduces
immunity. This reduces im-
mune response, allowing indi-
viduals to be prone to illness.
Cortisol on the other hand
shrinks the thymus glands
where white blood cells are
made.