TCO (Terminal Course Objectives) (A).

Understand the Basics of Composite Materials Technology.

Introduction.

In any subject it is easier to obey the rules if you have a basic understanding of the
underlying science and technology. As an example, if you have ever conducted lap
shear type adhesively bonded joint strength tests, using very poor surface preparations
and very good ones, you will have found that the poor ones give almost no strength at all.
The good ones fail at high loads although they all use the same adhesive. If you have
never done such tests, or seen them done, you may find it much harder to believe that
surface preparation is important. The background knowledge given in these pre-requisite
modules will help you to understand the rules, quoted in data sheets and by instruction on
the practical course, so that you will know why they are necessary and must be observed.
They will try to give you an introduction to, and some understanding of, the critical
points that need to be remembered when performing maintenance actions on composite
parts. Always try to remember that the rules are not there to make life difficult, even if
they are hard to obey at times. They are there to make sure that the job is well done and
that failures do not occur as the result of either lack of knowledge or of the discipline
required to apply sound knowledge to the job. These lessons have been learned, the
hard way, by others and you don't want to repeat their mistakes yourself. Remember a
good old saying, "Learn from the mistakes of others, you will never live long enough to
make them all yourself".

Foil of differences between composites and metals. KBA supply.

New words

One of the first things to be appreciated is the need to learn the meaning of new words.
Every activity, sport or hobby has its own language that may mean very little to those not
involved. In most languages the same word can have several different meanings
depending on the subject under discussion. Most subjects will also have their own new
words. To understand a new occupation we must learn new words and new meanings
for old words. This takes some time and may cause confusion for the first few weeks.
There is no way around this except time, patience and some effort.
SAE AIR 4844 Composite and Metal Bonding Glossary will help considerably.

New materials

There is an immediate need to appreciate a significant range of new materials, Most

people are familiar with wood, metals and several types of plastic. Entering the world of
composites means learning about carbon, glass and aramid fibers, resins and adhesives,
bagging films, release films, potting compounds, honeycomb core and foams of various
types. It also means learning how vacuum systems work to apply pressure, how
thermocouples measure temperature and how hot-bonders are used to control
temperature, vacuum pressure and curing times. We will begin with resins and
adhesives and then move on to the three main fibers carbon, glass and aramid and also
core materials of various types.

For more information see Reference 1.

A1 Distinguish among resin, fiber and core applications and uses.

Resins A resin is often called a matrix when used in conjunction with reinforcing
fibers, i.e. a composite consisting of the fibers and the resin. In modern composite
materials applications there are many resins available and numerous products within each
type. Epoxy resins are the ones most commonly used in aircraft structural components,
but Phenolic resins are used for internal composite parts such as floor panels, galleys and
overhead storage bins because phenolic resins are less toxic in the event of fire.
Polyimide and Bis-maleimide resins are used where higher service temperatures are
needed, Polyester, Vinyl Ester and Epoxy resins are used extensively in boat building
and for many other uses. First it should be noted that the term "resins" is normally used to
describe relatively low viscosity liquid materials that form the matrix of a composite
when they are cured. The word viscosity is used to describe how "runny" the materials
are, for example, water is a "thin" (low viscosity ) fluid that flows easily, treacle is a
much thicker (high viscosity) one.

Wet-layup resins: These resins are typically two-part systems, where a curing agent is
mixed with a base resin and the mixture brushed onto layers of Fibreglass, Carbon fiber,
Aramid fiber or occasionally other less commonly used fibers. These liquid resins may
then cure to a solid product at room temperature or they may need heat to be applied to
achieve the chemical reaction required to make them cure to a solid. It is essential that
the base resin and curing agent are weighed out in the correct proportions, to the nearest
tenth of a gram using electronic scales and then mixed thoroughly for at least three
minutes. This is important in order to achieve the required strength and temperature
resistance of the composite part. .
When the required amounts of base resin and curing agent have been taken from their
cans, or other containers, always remember to replace the lids immediately. This is
important because moisture absorption, especially into the curing agent degrades the
material and reduces the strength of the final product. These two-part systems must
be weighed accurately to ensure the correct mix ratio. Check the data sheet each time as
different systems have significantly different ratios. They must then be thoroughly mixed
for at least three minutes. Trials have shown that this is essential. Three minutes feels a
very long time when mixing a resin, rather like waiting for a bus. Use your watch and
check the time or you will be in danger of mixing for less than three minutes and then
you will not achieve a good mix. Some two-part systems contain dyes to color the two
parts, say red and white or blue and yellow. When a completely uniform color is
achieved with no streaks the resin can be considered mixed but the three minute rule is
worth using to be on the safe side. Remember that the resin matrix must be fully cured
to give the final composite part the compression strength it needs.
Pre-preg resins: Alternatively the resin can be supplied already applied to the fabric in a
form called Pre-preg, which means pre-impregnated fibers. It is then supplied as a roll
between two plastic release sheets, which must be removed before application or the
layers of pre-preg will not stick to each other during the curing process. The resin is then
at what is known as the "B"stage and must be kept in a freezer at -18oC(0oF) until it is
required for use. In this condition it has a shelf life of six to twelve months depending
on the type. Pre-preg also has an open time limit at room temperature of about one
month. After this period the material must be tested for acceptance before use or be
scrapped. Records must be kept of shelf life and open time for each roll. When required
for use a roll must be allowed to warm to room temperature and must not be opened until
all moisture, due to condensation from the shop atmosphere onto the cold roll, has been
completely evaporated. The total time out of the freezer must be recorded on each
occasion plus 15 minutes and when the open time limit has been reached the material
must be tested before further use. Pre-preg materials used in the fabrication of aircraft
structural components normally come in two types, those that cure at 120oC (250oF) and
those that cure at 180oC (350oF). Some types can be cured at 150oC (300oF). Matrix
resins come in a wide range of chemical formulations and some can work at much higher
temperatures than others. The maximum temperature at which a composite part can be
used depends on the choice of resin and fiber. Carbon and glass fibers can be used at
quite high temperatures but aramid and polythene fibers can be limited in maximum
temperature by the fibers rather than the resins. In repair work one major requirement is
that only the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer), SRM (Structural Repair Manual)
specified resins and fibers or OEM or DER (Designated Engineering Representative)
agreed alternatives may be used. This is necessary to maintain the original design
strength of the part. The first problem in repair, once a decision has been made that the
part will be repaired in preference to being replaced, is to check the SRM or part drawing
and find out the materials the part is made from and hence the materials that must be used
for repair.

Adhesives

Adhesives are used to bond composite parts together and are often used for bonding
metal parts, usually parts made from aluminum alloys but also titanium alloys and
occasionally stainless steel. Metal reinforcements are sometimes used in composite parts
so there is a need to understand the adhesive bonding of metal parts as well as
composites. The surface preparation of metal parts to be bonded is even more critical
than the surface preparation of composite parts therefore the technician must be very
careful to ensure that the surfaces to be bonded are properly prepared. The surface
treatment of metal parts will be covered more fully later.
Adhesives are chemically similar to composite matrix resins but are of higher viscosity to
avoid the adhesive flowing out of joints and leaving them "resin starved". Two types of
adhesives are typically used in bonding composites, paste adhesives and film adhesives.

Paste Adhesives: Two-part room temperature curing adhesive systems are usually of
about "toothpaste" viscosity, when completely mixed. They also need to be weighed out
accurately and the two parts mixed thoroughly for at least three minutes. Epoxy
adhesives are the most common type used for bonding aircraft structural composite parts.

The maximum service temperature of paste adhesives varies considerably with their
chemical composition so it is essential to ensure that only the OEM approved type or
approved equivalent is used for each specific purpose. One part paste adhesives are also
available and these need to be heat-cured in a similar way to film adhesives
Curing of paste adhesives takes place above a minimum temperature that depends on the
chemical formulation. See the data sheets for curing times, pressures and temperatures.
They also require low temperature storage. Lids must also be immediately replaced on
containers, after removing the required amount of adhesive, to avoid moisture absorption.
One part resins must be returned to the freezer as soon as possible after the required
amount has been taken

Film Adhesives: Adhesives can also be supplied in the "B" stage, or partly cured
condition, when they are known as film adhesives because they are a thin film of
adhesive between two plastic release sheets. They come in various weights per square
foot or square meter and can also be cured at 120oC (250oF), 150oC (300oF)or 180oC
(350oF) depending on the type. These cure temperatures must be accurately maintained
over the entire bondline as too low a temperature means an incomplete cure and too high
a temperature may make the bondline more brittle. Each adhesive data sheet will provide
the temperature limits for that particular product. Some have a wider band of acceptable
cure temperature than others. In some cases, but not all, a lower temperature may be
used for a longer time but all film adhesives have a lower temperature limit below which
a full cure will not take place. Check the data sheet for the material you are using. When
bonding aluminum alloy skins to aluminum alloy or aramid honeycomb it is essential to
use a fairly heavy weight of film adhesive in order to produce a good size of fillet where
the honeycomb joins the skin. When bonding composite pre-preg to honeycomb it is
required to add a thin layer of film adhesive and not rely completely on surplus resin
from the pre-preg being adequate to ensure good fillets to the honeycomb core.

Fibers used in composite structures

There are three fiber types that are most commonly used in composite aircraft structures.
These are carbon, glass and aramid. They are easily distinguished from one another
because carbon is black, glass is water clear and aramid is yellow in color. Quartz fiber
is sometimes used for radomes and Boron fiber patches are often used to repair metal
parts that exhibit fatigue cracks.
Carbon fibers have the best all-round properties when all factors are considered and so
are the most commonly employed fiber for critical structural aircraft components. They
are used for wing, fuselage, stabilisers (horizontal and vertical), elevators, ailerons, main
wing flaps and rudder structures. Carbon fiber is also used in undercarriage doors,
engine cowlings, helicopter rotor blades and can even be found in undercarriage
components for some helicopters. Carbon fiber can be supplied in several grades of
strength and modulus and forms. Carbon fibers are often woven into fabric (or cloth)
forms for original part and repair pre-pregs or dry fiber mats for wet layup repairs.
Glass fiber is used for radomes because it has good transmissivity and is not electrically
conductive. Aramid fibers are used for some radomes and Quartz fiber for some others.
These materials can also be used for galleys, floor panels and overhead stowage bins.
Carbon is sometimes used for floor panel skins. Glass fibers are available in two basic
types, "E" glass and "S" glass. "E" glass fiber is cheaper and by far the most commonly
used but "S" glass fiber, although more expensive, has higher mechanical properties and
is used where the additional cost can be justified.

Aramid can be supplied in several types. "Kevlar" 49 is the most common for aircraft
use and "Kevlar" 149 can be supplied if required. “Kevlar” 149 has a much lower water
uptake than “Kevlar” 49.

All these fibers, except Boron, which is too thick to be woven, can be made into fabrics
having many different weave styles or made into unidirectional tapes each having a wide
range of areal weights.

To assist in good adhesion to matrices Carbon fiber is treated with an oxidation process
and then an epoxy sizing/finish is applied. Glass fiber has the sizing applied after the
fibers have been drawn from the bush and this helps to prevent damage during weaving.
After weaving this size is burned off by heating to 600oF (315oC) in an oven and a finish
is applied to improve the resin to glass bond strength and also to increase bond durability.
It is important to note that the choice of finish used on the glass depends on the resin to
be used to make the composite. Glass and aramid fabric manufacturers supply
documentation that give tables showing the finish required for each resin type. Aramid
fabrics and tapes may or may not have a finish depending on the resin to be used.

It can be seen that it is essential to select the correct fiber type and weight of fabric or
tape with the right surface finish in order to make a strong, durable repair.
It is very easy to use a fabric of the wrong weight and great care must be taken to ensure
that this does not happen. When fabric is cut from a roll a label with full identification
details must be attached or included in the plastic bag. This information must give the
surface finish details, as once removed from the roll there is no simple means of
identifying the finish used on a fabric. A further point that should be noted is that some
composite lay-ups may use fabrics and tapes of different weights at certain points in the
lay-up and sometimes layers of aramid or glass are added at special positions. This
means that all the plies in a lay-up may not be the same materials or the same weight so
careful identification and the correct location and orientation of each ply is a serious
matter.

In should be noted that a fiber reinforced composite is only strong in the direction of the
fiber. The angle of each ply is important to strength and stiffness and each layer or ply
must be laid up in the direction given on the drawing or SRM page. Drawings and
SRM's give ply tables showing the material type and lay-up direction of each ply in a
part. An orientation clock (sometimes called a warp clock) is also shown on each drawing
sheet to give the lay-up direction of each ply relative to a key direction on the part. It
should also be borne in mind that although composites are very strong in the fiber
direction their transverse strength may be only about one thirtieth of their longitudinal
strength. This is a similar ratio to wood, which has cellulose fibers in a matrix called
lignin. The low value of transverse strength needs to be considered in design. This is
why clean, dry composite surfaces, which have been carefully abraded with aluminum
oxide or silicon carbide abrasive paper need to be used. Only the surface resin layer
should be abraded without damaging the first layer of fiber. Use the grit size
recommended in the SRM. Note that for repair work the first repair ply should be
oriented in the same direction as the surface ply to which it is to be bonded.

The transverse strength of a composite is limited by the lower of two properties. The first
is the resin strength itself and the second, which may govern the end result, is the resin to
fiber bond strength. If the resin comes unstuck from the fiber then the transverse strength
will be only that of the bond and not the resin. Ideally the strength of the bond to the
fiber needs to be greater than the strength of the resin itself. This requires the use of the
correct finish on the fibers and dry fiber surfaces.

Core materials

Aircraft currently employ many parts such as flight control surfaces, undercarriage doors,
engine cowlings, many fairings and wing trailing edge panels, which utilise sandwich
composite construction. Sandwich parts consist of two thin face sheets, with a core
material between them, to provide stiffness and strength at low weight. These thin-faced
structures are easily damaged but are, fortunately, relatively easy to repair. Anyone
involved in composite repairs is likely to deal with many of these components.

In a similar way to an "I" section steel beam used in buildings, the skins take the tension
and compression loads that are taken by the flanges in an "I" beam and the core takes the
shear loads like the web does in an "I" beam.

Figure 2.26 from Ref: 1 or Sandwich construction diagram (use SRM diagram of a
sandwich cross-section).

Sandwich panels are near to optimum design when the weight of the two skins is equal to
the weight of the core material. However, in applications such as passenger, and
especially cargo floor panels in aircraft, the indentation or damage resistance may be very
important to the life of the part in service. It has been found that the damage resistance
can be improved at the lowest weight increase by using a heavier, and hence stronger,
core material rather than by adding to the weight of the top skin. The size of the
indenting object is also important. Small indentors tend to cause compression failure of
the core and larger ones cause shear failure. Therefore, core materials for these types of
applications need both good compression and shear strengths. These factors need to be
taken into account when designing wheels for food carts. The largest practicable
“footprint” on the panel is desirable. It is also helpful for the food cart wheels to have
“tyres” of the lowest possible coefficient of friction to allow the wheels to swivel easily
on the carpet in the cabin.
A considerable range of core materials exists, each serving its own specific purposes,
although many are used for a range of components. The factors that determine choice
are strength, upper temperature limits, moisture absorption and cost. There is no such
thing as a bad natural material, although a bad material can be produced when its
formulation is not correct or a process is not carried out correctly or it has degraded in
some way before use. Materials are what they are, when made or selected properly, and
we have to use the right ones in the right places. As an example, balsa wood can be a
good core material but only if water is prevented from ingressing into it. When foam
cores are used in boat hull construction they must be of the "closed cell" type to avoid
water absorption if the outer skin is damaged.

Typical core materials used in composite aircraft structural sandwich parts are:

Aramid honeycomb
Glass cloth honeycomb
Aramid cloth honeycomb
Aluminum alloy honeycomb

Other core materials currently available are,

Balsa wood
Polystyrene foam (Styrofoam)
Polyvinyl chloride foam (cross-linked and uncross-linked versions).
Polyurethane foam
Polyimide foam
Polymethacrylimide foam (Rohacell).
Carbon fiber cloth honeycombs

All honeycombs can be supplied in a range of cell sizes, cell shapes and core densities.
The normal hexagonal cell does not bend easily except when aramid is heat formed.
Aramid honeycomb with hexagonal core is often heat-formed by an OEM as this can be
cheaper than buying over-expanded or flex core. Over-expanded honeycomb is made to
bend one way and to wrap around leading edges or to make tubes. Flex core, or double
flex core, cell shapes are used for the nose of radomes and other double curvature
requirements. Only electrically non-conductive core materials may be used to make or
repair radomes. One problem that can occur with radomes, and other parts in service, is
that hexagonal honeycomb, that is supplied flat, will not always take up the shape
required in a radome if it cannot be heat-formed. It may be necessary to request OEM
approval to use over-expanded or flex core of equivalent strength and stiffness in these
positions for repairs.

Aluminum alloy honeycomb must be anodized to ensure a good bond to the adhesive that
joins it to the skin. The bondline area, end-on to the cells, is so small that good fillets of
adhesive are essential to a good bond (0.5 mm or .020 inch minimum fillet size) is
recommended. For this reason only the correct type of film adhesive may be used to
bond honeycomb. If in doubt always use a slightly heavier than specified film adhesive
when bonding to honeycomb to ensure a good fillet.

A2 Describe various composite processing parameters.

Composite components are normally made by the OEM, or an approved subcontractor, to

very high standards.
1. Production quality tooling is used as a significant number of parts have to be
made and good tooling is essential.
2. All film adhesives and pre-pregs are stored to their manufacturer’s
recommendations and records are kept to ensure that materials are within their
shelf life and in good condition at the time of use.
3. The staff are trained and make many parts and therefore become familiar with
the needs of the job they are doing.
4. The workshop temperature is maintained within specified limits and so is the
relative humidity of the atmosphere.
5. The part is laid up in a clean room with a positive pressure where temperature
and humidity are also controlled. No cutting or sanding is permitted in a
clean room and staff must wear clean overalls. No smoking, drinking or
eating is permitted in the clean room.
6. The work is planned to run smoothly so there are no long delays between
layup of the part and the cure cycle.
7. Normally an autoclave is used to ensure the required pressure and temperature
and a computer controlled program will control the heat –up rate, the cure
cycle, with any steps in temperature if required, and the cool down rate.
8. The pressure will also be monitored throughout the cure.

Repair processing

See section B1.

It may be a surprise to know that good repair is actually a more difficult process.

Correct processing of composites and adhesives is absolutely vital. OEM's have as one
of their greatest concerns the quality of repairs made at outstations around the world,
where they have no control over the quality of the work. This is the basic reason for this
training course. On the positive side, the better we do the work, the larger the repairs
we are likely to be allowed to make. When metal sheets or large billets are purchased
from approved and long-established companies with the full quality control test data
supplied, OEM's and airlines can have a high level of confidence that the material is of
the right quality. When composite repairs are performed by other than the OEM’s it is
essential that the repair materials, repair processes and the repair personnel are fully
approved and qualified.

The processing parameters that need to be controlled are many.

1. The workshop must be clean, dry and at the right temperature and humidity. The
recommended conditions are a clean room with a positive air pressure to minimise
the entry of dust and dirt, room temperature 18oC (64oF) to 30oC (86oF)and 60%
maximum relative humidity. A figure of 35% relative humidity is preferred. Tests
at QinetiQ, Farnborough, UK have shown that relative humidity below 35% does
not lead to any significant improvement in results and is uncomfortable as a
working environment. Good lighting should be provided.
2. Any tooling required must be available, clean and in good condition.
3. The component must be clean and dry and the surface must be correctly prepared
for bonding the repair patch. Check with a moisture meter if components are
fiberglass or aramid. Dry until readings in the green band are obtained. Dry the
surface to SRM requirements as a minimum if the surface is carbon fiber. No
moisture meter for carbon fiber is available at a reasonable cost for general use.
4. The required repair materials must be available and in the correct condition (i.e.
dry and warmed to room temperature) and within their specified shelf lives.
5. Each ply of composite must be of the correct material type, weave and weight
and it must be laid in the right place and in the right direction. If using pre-preg
material, both release films must be removed. Place all release films in one pile
and check that they have all been removed before proceeding with the bagging
process. Remove one release film, lay the ply and then roll the ply down before
removing the top release film for each layer.
6. If new honeycomb is used in a repair it must be of the right type, weight and cell
size with the specified finish and must be undamaged. It must also be oriented to
drawing and in line with the core being repaired. It must be bonded to the skin
with the specified adhesive and bonded to the existing core with potting
compound using the specified materials. If other core materials e.g foams are
used they must be of the right type and weight and they must be joined to the
existing core with the adhesive specified in the SRM.
7. If vacuum pressure is to be used the bagging film and sealant and the breather
cloth lay up, together with all release films, perforated and non-perforated must be
correct and in the required positions and all the materials must be clean and dry
and in good condition.
8. Thermocouples must be correctly located. Remember that thermocouples are
often accurate to about plus or minus five degrees. To ensure a good cure add five
degrees to the cure temperature. See Ref:1, Chapter 10, for more details of
thermocouples. Use the correct type as several types are available and their
calibration requirements are very different. Your hot-bonder will only work with
the type for which it was designed. If you are not familiar with thermocouples a
simple description may help. AIR 4844 defines them as,”A device which uses a
circuit of two wires of dissimilar metals or alloys, the two junctions of which are
at different temperatures. In special laboratory cases, where great accuracy was
required, it was common practice many years ago to place one junction, the cold
junction, in melting ice and the other at the point of temperature measurement. In
portable equipment, such as hot-bonders, a cold junction compensation circuit is
used, and only the hot junction employed for temperature measurement is visible
 to the user. A net electromotive force (emf) or current, occurs as a result of this
temperature difference between the two junctions. The minute electromotive
force , or current, is sufficient to drive a galvanometer or potentiometer”. These
can be calibrated in terms of temperature. The most common thermocouple types
are Iron/Constantan, Chromel/Alumel and Platinum/Platinum Rhodium alloy.
They are listed in order of cost.
9. Vacuum pressure must be correct and the leakage rate check requirement must be
met.
10. Bonding should commence as soon as possible after the materials have been laid
up, to avoid degradation of film adhesives and pre-pregs at room temperature.
Some large jobs may take three days to lay up and this is a significant amount of
the permitted open time if the material is anywhere near the end if its shelf life.
For such work the remaining open time for the material should be checked before
lay-up starts. The specific pre-preg material working life is provided in the
supplier data.
11. The temperature readings from all the thermocouples must be within the required
limits and maintained correctly for the specified length of time to achieve full
cure. Local heating at any cool spots may be needed to do this.
12. Vacuum pressure must be maintained for the whole cure time and until the
component temperature has fallen to 50oC or less.
13. After curing, the release films and peel plies must be removed with care to avoid
damage after so much good work has been done.

Some very practical lessons learned the hard way.

1. Some pre-pregs need a perforated release sheet to allow volatiles to escape in

addition to its use for bleeding off excess resin. One sample did not cure
with non-perforated release sheet on both sides but it did cure when the non-
perforated release sheet on one side was removed and replaced with a
perforated sheet. In this case the volatiles seemed to be inhibiting the cure.

2. Shell Epikote 828 seems to get more viscous with time in storage. Any
crystallisation can be removed by heating the base resin alone to 60oC
maximum for one hour, see the data sheet. The same applies to Shell
Epikote 815, which is 828 with a diluent.

3. Breather cloth MUST be placed under the vacuum extract fitting. This is to
ensure a good airflow and to prevent resin going up the vacuum line.
If resin gets into the extract fitting it may also block it and solid resin is
difficult to remove.

4. Do not locate the vacuum extract fitting too near the part or it may draw
resin into itself.

5. Do not place the vacuum extract fitting on the part or it will leave its mark,
permanently.
 6. Tools (molds) must be absolutely clean and smooth. All defects will be
repeated on the part.

7. Release sheet should extend well beyond the end of the part to avoid resin
sticking to the mold face.

8. Composite laminates will not bond together properly at zero pressure. Just
rolling them together, even with a good roller pressure, will not be sufficient.
This is especially true when time-expired material is being used for training
purposes. A good vacuum is essential for a good bond and to extract
volatiles.

Some of the finer points can only be learned from experience and may not
be applicable to all materials. It is worth making your own check list and
recording experiences to save going through the whole process again
another day.

A3 Describe composite design parameters and effects of processing

Design parameters include strength, stiffness, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, creep
resistance, temperature limitations and relative thermal expansion coefficients between
different layers of fabric or tape and between the component and the tooling used.

1. Strength in the fiber direction depends almost entirely on the fibers.

2. Stiffness in the fiber direction depends almost entirely on the fibers.
3. Impact resistance depends on the toughness of the fibers and the strain to failure
of the resin matrix. Also on the strength of the matrix to fiber bond.
4. Composite compression strength depends on the matrix resin modulus.
5. Interlaminar shear strength (ILSS), or short beam shear strength, depends on resin
matrix properties. See ASTM-D-2344.
6. Fatigue resistance depends on the relative fatigue strain to failure of the fiber and
resin. If the fiber has a fatigue strain to failure higher than the resin then the resin
will fail first and laminate failure will be progressive. If the resin fatigue strain to
failure is higher than that of the fiber then the fatigue properties become fiber
dependent.
7. The correct finish on all types of fiber is important to give a good resin to fiber
bond.
8. The maximum operating temperature of a composite is defined by the maximum
operating temperature of the resin matrix. This is related to the glass transition
temperature, which often depends on the cure temperature. Hence the correct
resin must be used and it must be cured at the correct temperature for the required
time.
9. Creep resistance depends on the creep characteristics of the fiber.
10. Temperature cycling casn have a significant effect on a composite part. If, for
example, aramid and carbon fibers are mixed in a laminate then if the component
 suffers a wide range of temperature cycling e.g. in an engine cowling, then
disbonding may occur due to the stresses imposed by the differential thermal
expansion and contraction because these characteristics are different for the two
fibers. Delamination has been found to occur over a period of time in engine
cowlings of this design. Cracking due to linear expansion differences has been
reported and must be considered in design.
11. The resin must be fully cured. If the resin matrix is not fully cured then the
performance of the composite may be seriously affected. The resin matrix may
have a lower modulus than required and the compression strength could be
reduced. The moisture absorption into the matrix could be increased . The glass
transition temperature could be lower than the specification requires.
12. The plies must be de-bulked prior to cure. If the plies are not de-bulked
sufficiently to remove air before heat is applied, and the vacuum is not sufficient
to remove any solvent vapors that outgas from the resin during cure, then voids
may be present in the cured product. These can result in reduced compression
strength. The correct de-bulking procedure must be followed and the required
vacuum or autoclave pressure MUST be maintained for the full cure time. The
correct perforated release films and breather cloths must also be used.

It can be seen from this list of things that can go wrong, unless the above factors are
understood and dealt with, that incorrect processing will affect the strength and maximum
service temperature of the final product. Hence the need for this training course or an
equivalent. Many of the words in the above section may be new to you.
Please see section A6 Composite and Metal Bonding Glossary SAE AIR 4844 latest
issue for definitions of these terms. Time spent reading the glossary is an important
educational process in itself. Always keep a copy handy, it can be very helpful.

A4 Describe various composite machining, assembly and finishing processes.

Composite machining.

This is well described in a very informal video supplied by Du Pont. Ref: 2. SRM’s
from Airbus and Boeing cover the design of drills and other cutting tools very well. As
with any material the cutting tools must be sharp and use the angles, found by much
experiment, to be the best for each process. Cutting speeds and feed rates must also be
correct. Always consult source documentation, e.g the SRM for the correct cutting
instructions. See Ref: 1, Chapter 13.

Simple factors that apply equally well to cutting wood, plywood or composites are the
need to use a backing plate of wood, plywood or plastic to avoid "break out" on the rear
face. If you doubt this just put a piece of wood or plywood in a vise and push an
ordinary twist drill through it at a high feed rate. The back face will have large splinters
broken from it. Likewise if you need to chamfer a piece of wood you must cut it with a
plane or chisel so that the wood fibers are in tension. If you don't you will split the wood
across the grain. Composites behave in a similar way but are much more expensive if
you damage them. Always cut or sand a composite so that the fibers are cut in tension.
This is especially important when cutting aramids. Another important point with
aramids is that they are softer and need a sharper cutting tool. Any tools used to cut
aramids must be kept for aramids only. If tools have been used to cut glass or carbon
fibers they will not be sharp enough to cut aramids afterwards. Carbon fiber, although
not itself hard, wears steel tools quite rapidly. Frequent sharpening of all cutting tools is
necessary.

Routers
Routing is a very coarse cutting system and only sharp tools of the right design can be
used with the support of the right templates.

Special band saws

High speed diamond grit-coated band saws are good for cutting composites but backing
support must be provided. Dust extraction must be provided on all power tools and all
dust produced by hand tools should be removed with a vacuum cleaner as soon as
practical.
DO NOT, under any circumstances use a pressurised air line to blow dust away as this
only adds to the particle concentration that you are breathing and is an unacceptable
health hazard.

Cutting honeycomb cores

Aluminum alloy, aramid and other honeycomb materials can be supplied in sheets cut to
the thickness required. They can be cut down the cells with a sharp knife, e.g. Stanley
Knife or a razor blade, but if they need to be cut to thickness from a block then a very
high speed band saw is needed. A suitable band saw needs to run at a blade speed of
5,000 metres (16,000 ft) per minute. The reason for this high blade speed is that the only
resistance to the cutting force of the blade teeth is the inertia of a very lightweight
material. Consequently only a very high speed can help to produce a clean cut before the
material is bent out of shape. A special blade is also needed with only a 0.05 mm (0.002
inch) offset on the teeth to avoid tearing the honeycomb. This blade MUST NOT be
used to cut any other materials. For sandwich panel repairs it is common practice to cut
a piece of honeycomb, slightly in excess of the final thickness, to the required shape to fit
a hole using a sharp knife. You can then apply a suitable adhesive to the bottom skin, a
generous amount is recommended to ensure good filleting, and then to "pot" the
honeycomb in place around the edges to join it to the existing honeycomb with a suitable
potting compound.

Once the adhesives have cured, the skin should be protected, and then the honeycomb
core that projects above the skin can be carefully sanded flush with the skin in
preparation for the application of the skin repair patch.

Cutting foam cores

Some can use hot wire cutters but others e.g. polyurethane foams, give off dangerous
fumes and the use of hot-wire cutters is not permitted. Check with the material data sheet
and SRM to ensure that you use the correct, and safe, cutting method.

Water jet cutting

This uses very high pressure water containing an abrasive grit and is a very good
production line system when large numbers of parts need to be cut. It can also be used
for single cuts. The machinery is very expensive and needs good safety systems as a
water jet can remove a finger or an arm very rapidly. It has the advantages that accurate
profiles can be cut quickly and the temperature is low so that no damage is done to the
matrix resin during the cutting process. It also washes away the machining dust. Other
cutting and sawing processes generate considerable frictional heat. This causes unwanted
fumes to be given off during cutting. Extraction systems should be used to remove these
vapors and the dust.

Oscillating saws (Cast cutters)

This method uses a circular saw blade that oscillates through a very small angle. If the
blade touches the skin, the flexibility of the skin is sufficient to allow it to move by the
same amount as the blade or more so that no cutting action takes place.
When the same saw is used on a rigid composite it will cut the material because it is rigid
compared to skin and flesh. This technique is often used to cut out damaged sections of
skin from a sandwich panel with honeycomb or other core prior to the removal of
damaged core.

The following recommendations are made to ensure safety and quality.

1. Use the correct blades .
2. Never use a dull (worn) blade, it may cause injury.
3. Tighten the blade retaining nut before each use.
4. Clamp the composite to minimise vibration and to improve the quality of cut.
5. Too much pressure may cause the blade to break.
6. Clean the blade before each cutting operation.
7. Do not use near solvents or other flammable fluids as these cutters are electrically
powered.

Tank cutters

These are like circular hacksaw blades and are used by plumbers to cut holes in water
tanks. They are very useful for cutting large radii at the corners of holes cut in damaged
sandwich panel skins. It should be noted that when cutting out sections of skin, to
remove impact or disbonding damage, square corners should not be used as they can
induce fatigue cracks at a later stage . Generous corner radii should always be used for
skin repairs. i.e 25mm (one inch) or larger. Use suitable tank cutters

Grinding burrs
These come in a wide range of shapes and sizes for various tasks and a convenient size
can usually be found to smooth the edges of cut-outs in skins and to blend the sides with
the corners produced by tank cutters. See Chapter 13 in Ref:1, Hand Tools.

Hand power drills

The first point to be made about these is that they should be air-powered and not
electrically powered. The reason for this is that solvents, such as acetone, MIBK and
IPA are used for cleaning off surplus resin from parts and for cleaning resin or adhesives
from tools and molds and these solvents are flammable. They are always present in
composite and metal bonding workshops and fire is a serious risk to be carefully avoided.
These drills are used to carry drill bits of various types, tank cutters and grinding burrs.
If working directly on aircraft, fuel or fuel vapor may also be a problem. Pneumatic tools
with rear exhausts are recommended and are beneficial for two reasons, firstly air is
directed away from the work and dust is not blown around the shop and secondly venturi-
type vacuum attachments to the tools can be used to provide dust extraction. This
applies to high speed grinders below and all other compressed air powered tools.
See Ref:1. Machining a hole in carbon fiber or glass fiber is particularly gruelling on
bits. Carbide or cobalt-tipped spade bits are good, but diamond polycrystalline coated
tools are better. For carbon fiber, Boeing recommends drilling dry if possible. If
necessary use filtered air, CO2, non-oil-containing Freon or Boelube as lubricants.
It is important not to exceed the glass transition temperature of the resin during drilling.
Always check the SRM for the correct drills and tools. In general a high cutting speed
and a low feed rate is recommended. The temperature of the component must not exceed
60oC during machining of any kind.

High Speed Grinders

These machines are used for light sanding, feather edging and cutting. They must be
small and light enough to be handled easily. A high skill level is required to achieve
good results. Use the correct disc with the right grit type and size. Generally 120 grit
should be coarse enough to remove paint and 240-320 grit is suitable for preparing
surfaces for adhesive bonding. A delicate touch is needed because the objective is to
lightly abrade the resin at the surface without cutting into any of the surface fibers. This
really does need care and practice.

Orbital Sanders

These sanders are normally compressed air powered and should be used carefully and
the correct type of grit and grit size must be used. Also new abrasive paper should be
used when the first piece has become worn out or clogged. While it is important not to
remove too much material too quickly, by using a grit size that is too coarse, it should be
noted that the grit on a worn paper slowly breaks up into a smaller grit size and so
becomes a finer grade with time. This will generate a lot of frictional surface heat on the
part and the cutting rate will fall to near zero.
Abrasive papers and grits

When using abrasive papers and grits it is important to use the grit sizes recommended in
the SRM. Too fine a grit size will cause frictional heat and a slow rate of material
removal. However, too large a grit size will cause deep scratches and may remove more
material than intended and hence lead to a larger repair. Choosing the optimum grit size
is essential and also the correct grit type. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are the
most commonly used grits. Suitable grades of 3M Scotchbrite abrasive pads may also be
recommended in the SRM.

Reamers

When mechanical fasteners are used that require either a close tolerance hole, or a small
degree of interference fit, a very accurate hole needs to be made and a jig may be needed
to ensure accurate hole alignment in addition to the precise hole size required. One of
the problems of serious structural repairs with mechanical fasteners is going to be tooling
to ensure accurate alignment of holes and close tolerance holes.

Lubrication and cooling

Another factor to be considered when machining composites with any of the tooling
mentioned above, but especially when drilling holes, is the need to avoid heating the
composite to the point where the glass transition temperature of the resin is exceeded.
Drilling above the resin Tg may cause clogging and prevent material removal. The
composite should not be heated to above 60oC (140oF) to minimise this risk. See Ref:1.
Composite parts are not good at conducting heat away from drilling, thus keeping the
drill bit cool is a major concern. Air cooling, using clean, filtered air may be used, or CO2
gas, or non-oil-containing freon. Approved lubricants are alcohol lubricants from the
BOELUBE family of cutting agents. These will not ingress the fibers or resins, will not
cause outgassing in honeycomb structures, will not contaminate the adhesive or bonding
agents, and may be removed easily by alcohol solvents or a mild detergent rinse. The
Boelube range are based on cetyl alcohol (C16H34O) also known as Hexadecanol or n-
Hexadecyl alcohol. This a waxy solid of melting point 49oC (120oF), which is a good
indicator of the temperature around the drill and helps to avoid exceeding 60oC (140oF).
See Ref:1.

Speed and feed rates

The wrong cutting speed or feed rate can cause heat or mechanical damage and /or
delamination of composite parts. Check the SRM for the correct values. As a general
rule, a high-speed, slow-feed technique is preferred. See Ref: 1 for more detail.

Diamond Wheel trimmers

These are used mainly for cutting panel edges to shape and use diamond-tipped cutting
wheels. They are designed to cut quickly and to give a good edge finish.

Assembly processes.

Composite components can either be;

a) Bonded together using suitable film or paste adhesives
b) or they can be mechanically fastened using a range of special fasteners for this
process. Quite often a combination of these is used and assembly may be by
bonding in some areas and fastening in others or joints can be both bolted and
bonded to provide extra security and fatigue resistance. Complex assembly jigs
may be required to ensure the precise location of critical parts such as hinges in
undercarriage doors or attachment lugs for empennage components. Parts that
may need frequent removal for inspection or maintenance may need very accurate
jigging so that any replacement parts will be certain to fit.

Finishing processes

The quality of finish required is likely to depend on whether or not the part can be seen
by passengers. It may also be a wing or empennage leading edge and a smooth finish
may be needed to ensure smooth airflow. Special finishing films of adhesive or resin
are sometimes applied when a particularly good finish is required. The quality of surface
finish on the mold used to make the part is also critical as the slightest mark on the mold
will be repeated in the surface resin of the cured part. Fillers can be used and the
surface rubbed down by hand in some cases.

Primers and paints are the first thought when finishes are mentioned. They are needed to
protect composite parts from environmental effects such as moisture and ultra-violet rays.

However, many other coatings are used for a range of purposes

1. Conductive coatings are added to give protection from lightning strikes and take
several forms. Metal foils, flame-sprayed aluminum, and metal-coated fabrics or
expanded foil mesh may be used. It is important, when repairing composites, to
remember that any such coatings must be replaced and their electrical
conductivity checked as part of the repair process.
2. Erosion-resistant coatings are used on radomes, wing leading edges, tailplane and
fin leading edges and the leading edges of helicopter blades. They may be
neoprene or polyurethane rubber boots for radomes or erosion resistant paints of
various types or they may be titanium or stainless steel sheets formed to the shape
required.
3. Some interior panels may be coated with Tedlar, Polyvinyl fluoride(PVF) to keep
out moisture and provide an easily cleaned surface. Speedtape or a thin coat of
sealant may provide temporary protection for a small amount of allowable
damage that is awaiting repair.
Whatever the coating if it has to be removed, in part or in whole, to repair a component
then it must be replaced before the repair is signed off as completed.

A5 Describe stiffened laminate and sandwich applications and structural

properties.

Stiffened laminate applications

Stiffened laminate applications are usually wing and empennage main torque box skins
and spars, and fuselage skins, stringers and frames. These components employ skins that
are themselves of thickness greater than needed for the skins used for sandwich panels.
Fuselage skin laminates will be fairly thick in some places where bending or torsion loads
are high. The latest aircraft are using very thick composite laminates for wing spars in
addition to the heavy skin panels used in wing torque box structures previously made
from aluminum alloy. The wing skins themselves are stiffened with composite stringers
which may be bonded, bolted or attached by both methods. Wing skin profile is
maintained and air loads transferred to the spars by ribs, which are attached to the skins
and to the spars at each end. The wing skins use a ply lay-up designed to give good
torsional stiffness to the wings as well as good bending strength. The lower wing skin
takes tension loads in flight and some compression load on the ground whereas the upper
skin is in compression during flight but carries some tension loading on the ground and
more in the case of a heavy landing. Twisting (torsion) loads are applied to the wing by
engine thrust and reverse thrust and by the use of ailerons and spoilers. Similarly, the
use of rudder, especially in the event of engine failure on one side, will apply severe
torsion loads to the fuselage. Likewise the horizontal stabiliser will apply bending loads
to the fuselage when the elevators are used as will a heavy landing.

Sandwich structure applications

These are much lighter structures often using skins of only two or three layers of a fairly
thin carbon, glass or aramid fabric. They may use aramid honeycomb, aluminum alloy
honeycomb, various types of foam or balsa wood as core materials.
Usually, but not always, aluminum honeycomb is used in panels with skins of aluminum
alloy and composite-skinned panels usually use aramid or glass honeycomb or foam
cores. There are many applications of sandwich structures. Some of these are ailerons,
elevators, rudders, floor panels, trailing edge falsework panels, wing to body fairings,
flap screw jack fairings, engine cowlings, undercarriage doors, radomes, galleys,
overhead stowage bins etc. These are the items, which until recently, have been the
concern of those repairing composites. They are used because sandwich panels are light,
stiff structures, which can be obtained at a low weight. Often no great strength is
required in some fairing panels but stiffness is needed to maintain their shape.
Most of these items are also readily removable so they can be replaced with a spare part
while the repair is done and no delays are incurred. Because of their light construction, it
is likely that these parts will continue to be those most often in need of repair and the
techniques for these have been available for a long time.

Thoughts for the future

Any major structural parts that do get damaged will take a lot of time and money to repair
and new skills will have to be developed as experience dictates. Repairs will have to be
made because these parts are too large and costly in time and money to replace. It is
certain that for major repairs using mechanical fasteners it will be the drilling of
accurately aligned holes to the tolerances required that will give some problems. No
hand held drills for this job! Portable jigs that can hold the drills steady will be needed
and the drills themselves will need to be of the controlled feed and speed type. Reamers
will almost certainly be required to achieve the tolerances needed for holes for mild
interference type fasteners. They too will need locating jigs. Ready made stringer
sections will be needed or techniques for making these on site.

A6 Glossary of terms

This document was compiled some time ago and has been updated several times. This
should be available on line and you can make reference to it any time you need a
definition of some word that is new to you. Inevitably you will need to learn many new
words. This is always the case when learning any new activity so keep that glossary
handy.

Useful acronyms

AC: Airworthiness Circular

AD: Airworthiness Directive
ADL: Allowable Damage Limit
BMS: Boeing Material Specification
BVID: Barely Visible Impact Damage
DER: Designated Engineering Representative (of the FAA)
FAA: Federal Aviation Administration
FAR: Federal Aviation Regulations
M&P: Materials and Process (as in M&P Engineer)
MPD: Maintenance Planning Document
NDI: Non-Destructive Inspection
OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer
P/E: Pulse Echo ultrasonic inspection equipment
PSE: Principal Structural Element
RDL: Repair Damage Size Limit
SRM: Structural Repair Manual

References

1. "Care and Repair of Advanced Composites", Second edition, Keith.B.

Armstrong, L.Graham Bevan and William F. Cole II, Published by SAE
International, 400, Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, USA.
2005. ISBN 0-7680-1062-4.
2. Cutting, Machining and Repairing Composites of Kevlar, Du Pont External
Affairs, 1111, Tatnall Street, Wilmington, DE 19898, USA.