Plastic 1

Plastic
A plastic material is any of a wide range of
synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids
used in the manufacture of industrial
products. Plastics are typically polymers of
high molecular mass, and may contain other
substances to improve performance and/or
reduce costs. Monomers of plastic are either
natural or synthetic organic compounds.

The word plastic is derived from the Greek

πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning capable of
being shaped or molded, from πλαστός
(plastos) meaning molded.[1] [2] It refers to
their malleability, or plasticity during Household items made of various types of plastic
manufacture, that allows them to be cast,
pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes—such as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.

The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which is applied to any
material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond a certain point.
Aluminum which is stamped or forged, for instance, exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the common
sense; in contrast, in their finished forms, some plastics will break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in
the technical sense.
There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that don't
undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be moulded again and again; examples are
polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).[3] Thermosets can melt and take
shape once; after they have solidified, they stay solid.
The raw materials needed to make most plastics come from petroleum and natural gas.[4]

Overview
Plastics can be classified by chemical structure, namely the molecular units that make up the polymer's backbone and
side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and
halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as
condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[5]
Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such
classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomer, structural, biodegradable, and electrically conductive. Plastics
can also be classified by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature,
and resistance to various chemical products.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an
enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many
traditional materials, such as wood; stone; horn and bone; leather; paper; metal; glass; and ceramic, in most of their
former uses.
The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously limits their hardness, density,
and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will
melt or decompose when heated to a few hundred degrees celsius.[6] While plastics can be made electrically
Plastic 2

conductive, with the conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[7] [8] [9] [10] they are still no
match for most metals like copper which have conductivities of several hundreds kS/cm. Plastics are still too
expensive to replace wood, concrete and ceramic in bulky items like ordinary buildings, bridges, dams, pavement,
and railroad ties.

Chemical structure
Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite
molecular weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units, known as repeat units, derived from
monomers; each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units. The vast majority of plastics are
composed of polymers of carbon and hydrogen alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or sulfur in the backbone.
(Some of commercial interests are silicon based.) The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a
large number of repeat units together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang"
from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the
polymer chain). This fine tuning of the properties of the polymer by repeating unit's molecular structure has allowed
plastics to become such an indispensable part of twenty first-century world.
Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting
point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions
(temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). The so-called
semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters
and some polyurethanes. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly
(methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.

Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

Families
Plastic 3

Plastics families
Amorphous Semi-crystalline

Ultra polymers PI, SRP, TPI, PAI, HTS PFSA, High performance PPSU, PEI, Fluoropolymers: LCP,
polymers PESU, PSU PARA, HPN, PPS, PPA

Other
polyamides

Mid range PC, PPC, COC, PMMA, PEX, PVDC, PBT, PET, POM,
polymers ABS, PVC Alloys PA 6,6, UHMWPE

Commodity PS, PVC PP, HDPE, LDPE

polymers

History
The first human-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855;[11] he called this plastic Parkesine (later
called celluloid). It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London.[12] The development of
plastics has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically
modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic
molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene). In 1866, Parkes formed the Parkesine Company
to mass produce the material. The company, however, failed due to poor product quality as Parkes tried to reduce
costs. Parkesine's successors were Xylonite, produced by Daniel Spill (an associate of Parkes), and Celluloid from
John Wesley Hyatt. Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The generic name of
Parkesine is pyroxylin, or Celluloid. Parkesine is often synthetic ivory. The Parkesine company ceased trading in
1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by the Plastics Historical Society of London. There is a plaque on the wall of the
site of the Parkesine Works.[13]

Types

Cellulose-based plastics
Parkes developed a synthetic replacement for ivory which he marketed under the trade name Parkesine, and which
won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major component of
plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose
nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be
molded when heated.[14] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
Bois Durci is a plastic molding material based on cellulose. It was patented in Paris by Lepage in 1855. It is made
from finely ground wood flour mixed with a binder, either egg or blood albumen, or gelatine. The wood is probably
either ebony or rose wood, which gives a black or brown resin. The mixture is dried and ground into a fine powder.
The powder is placed in a steel mold and compressed in a powerful hydraulic press while being heated by steam. The
final product has a highly polished finish imparted by the surface of the steel mold.

Bakelite
The first so called plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first
viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in
New York state. Baekeland was searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators.
He found that mixtures of phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass when mixed together
and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if allowed to cool. He continued his investigations and found that
the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite" materials with different
Plastic 4

properties. Most of these compositions were strong and fire resistant. The only problem was that the material tended
to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of unacceptable quality.
Baekeland built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product. He publicly
announced his discovery in 1912, naming it bakelite. It was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts,
finally coming into widespread use in consumer goods in the 1920s. When the Bakelite patent expired in 1930, the
Catalin Corporation acquired the patent and began manufacturing Catalin plastic using a different process that
allowed a wider range of coloring.
Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material, not based on any material or even molecule
found in nature. It was also the first thermosetting plastic. Conventional thermoplastics can be molded and then
melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds between polymers strands when cured, creating a tangled matrix that
cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermoset plastics are tough and temperature resistant.
Bakelite was cheap, strong, and durable. It was molded into thousands of forms, such as cases for radios, telephones
and clocks, and billiard balls.
Phenol-based ("Phenolic") plastics have been largely replaced by cheaper and less brittle plastics, but they are still
used in applications requiring their insulating and heat-resistant properties. For example, some electronic circuit
boards are made of sheets of paper or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin.

Polystyrene and Polyvinyl Chloride

After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led
to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples
in the wave of new plastics were polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), developed by IG Farben of Germany.
Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to
make plastic model kits and similar knick-knacks. It would also be the
basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name
styrene foam or Styrofoam. Foam plastics can be synthesized in an
"open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in
an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are
distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation
devices. In the late 1950s, high impact styrene was introduced, which
was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy
figurines and novelties.

Plastic piping and firestops being installed in

Ontario. Certain plastic pipes can be used in some
non-combustible buildings, provided they are
firestopped properly and that the flame spread
ratings comply with the local building code.
Plastic 5

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl")[15] has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form
strong bonds. PVC in its normal form is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, and is now used for making
plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with
chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.

All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen chloride is released into the
atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.[16] Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water
vapor in the air to form hydrochloric acid,[17] polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long-term archival storage
of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).[18]

Nylon
The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon.
Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York
City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist
Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform
pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took
some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.
His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first
application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings.
Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as
polyesters.[19]

General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon

It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial
processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense
to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania".
Plastic 6

Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II. The production
capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to
manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to
selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze,
triggering the so called nylon riots.
Subsequently polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g.
caprolactam. Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerization.
Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant,
particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, and because of good heat-resistance,
increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.

Rubber
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that was originally derived from latex, a milky
colloidal suspension found in the sap of some plants. It is useful directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of
rubber in Europe is cloth waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil) but, later, in 1839, Charles Goodyear
invented vulcanized rubber; this a form of natural rubber heated with, mostly, sulfur forming cross-links between
polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability.

Synthetic rubber
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of
natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably styrene-butadiene
rubber. In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to 840,000
tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic
rubbers for solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based
solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.

Toxicity
Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness, pure plastics generally have low toxicity in their
finished state, and will pass through the digestive system with no ill effect (other than mechanical damage or
obstruction). However, plastics often contain a variety of toxic additives. For example, plasticizers like adipates and
phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to make them pliable enough for use in
food packaging, toys and teethers, tubing, shower curtains and other items. Traces of these chemicals can leach out
of the plastic when it comes into contact with food. Out of these concerns, the European Union has banned the use of
DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the most widely used plasticizer in PVC. Some compounds leaching from
polystyrene food containers have been found to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human
carcinogens.[20]
Moreover, while the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in its manufacture may be toxic; and
small amounts of those chemicals may remain trapped in the product. The World Health Organization's International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized the chemical used to make PVC, vinyl chloride, as a known
human carcinogen.[20] Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when
heated.
The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may
leach into food.[20] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin
cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals' offspring.[21] A more recent
animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to
Plastic 7

inflammation and heart disease.[22]

As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to
investigate suspicious indications of BPA being linked to cancer.[23]
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic
compounds present in new car smell.
The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the United States government
banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.[24]

Environmental issues
Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic so durable make it equally
resistant to natural processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and
may persist for hundreds or even thousands of years.[25] In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes.
Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin.[26] Also, the manufacturing of plastics often creates
large quantities of chemical pollutants.
Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and general use, except in life-critical fire
suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone
layer; however, non-CFCs are currently used in the extrusion process.
By 1995, plastic recycling programs were common in the United States and elsewhere. Thermoplastics can be
remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, though the purity of the material
tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock
state.
To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry devised a
now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. A plastic container using this scheme is marked with a
triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a number giving the plastic type:

Plastics type marks: the resin identification code

1. PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate
2. HDPE, high-density polyethylene
3. PVC, polyvinyl chloride
4. LDPE, low-density polyethylene,
5. PP, polypropylene
6. PS, polystyrene
7. Other types of plastics (see list, below)
Unfortunately, recycling of plastics has proven to be a difficult process. The biggest problem is that it is difficult to
automate the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the
resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the
caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional
problems to the automated sorting process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process
mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase capacity and
efficiency of plastic recycling.
While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to be sorted, a
consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and
colors of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the
Plastic 8

item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result in
more consumer product components being re-used or recycled. Recycling certain types of plastics can be
unprofitable, as well. For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These
unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy
plants.

Biodegradable (compostable) plastics

Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet
radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and some instances rodent pest or insect attack are
also included as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. It is clear some of these modes of
degradation will only work if the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will only be effective if certain
conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to
degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually
genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol,
is expensive at present.[27] The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for
food packaging applications.

Bioplastics
Some plastics can be obtained from biomass, including:
• from pea starch film with trigger biodegradation properties for agricultural applications (TRIGGER).[28]
• from biopetroleum.[29]

Oxo-biodegradable
Oxo-biodegradable (OBD) plastic is polyolefin plastic to which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of
metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen (as in a littered state), these additives catalyze the natural
degradation process to speed it up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to environmental conditions.
Once degraded to a small enough particle they can interact with biological processes to produce to water, carbon
dioxide and biomass. The process is shortened from hundreds of years to months for degradation and thereafter
biodegradation depends on the micro-organisms in the environment. Typically this process is not fast enough to meet
ASTM D6400 standards for definition as compostable plastics.

Price, environment, and the future

The biggest threat to the conventional plastics industry is most likely to be environmental concerns, including the
release of toxic pollutants, greenhouse gas, litter, biodegradable and non-biodegradable landfill impact as a result of
the production and disposal of petroleum and petroleum-based plastics. Of particular concern has been the recent
accumulation of enormous quantities of plastic trash in ocean gyres.
For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been their low price. Yet in recent years the cost of plastics has
been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising cost of petroleum, the raw material that is chemically
altered to form commercial plastics.
With some observers suggesting that future oil reserves are uncertain, the price of petroleum may increase further.
Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and tar oil are alternatives for plastic production but are
expensive. Scientists are seeking cheaper and better alternatives to petroleum-based plastics, and many candidates
are in laboratories all over the world. One promising alternative may be fructose.[30]
Plastic 9

Factory in a box
With 3D images from the PC with special software, we may produce our 3D object plastic up to 6x6x7 inches with
ABS, HDPE or Corn-based biodegradable plastic material. The machine heats strands of plastic to 200 Celsius and
building up 3D objects layer by layer.[31]

Common plastics and uses

• Polyester (PES) - Fibers, textiles.
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - Carbonated drinks bottles,
peanut butter jars, plastic film, microwavable packaging.
• Polyethylene (PE) - Wide range of inexpensive uses including
supermarket bags, plastic bottles.
• High-density polyethylene - Detergent bottles and milk jugs.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower
curtains, window frames, flooring.
• Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) - Food packaging.
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) - Outdoor furniture, siding, floor
tiles, shower curtains, clamshell packaging.
• Polypropylene (PP) - Bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt
containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers), plastic pressure pipe
systems.
• Polystyrene (PS) - Packaging foam/"peanuts", food containers,
plastic tableware, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette
boxes. A chair made with a polypropylene seat
• High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food
packaging, vending cups.
• Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) - Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood car engine moldings.
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) - Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers,
keyboards), drainage pipe.
• Polycarbonate (PC) - Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, lenses.
• Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) - A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic.
Used in car interior and exterior parts, and mobile phone bodies.
• Polyurethanes (PU) - Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers (Currently
6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance the most commonly used plastic found in cars).

Special purpose plastics

• Melamine formaldehyde (MF) - One of the aminoplasts, and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for
instance in moldings (e.g., break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the
decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e.g., Formica).
• Plastarch material - Biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch.
• Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes) - High modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant
polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g., Formica), thermally
insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat
and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam
(e.g., Oasis). Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors (red, green, brown), and as
thermoset it is difficult to recycle.
Plastic 10

• Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) - Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for
use in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings. One of the most expensive commercial polymers.
• Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) - A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize.
• Polylactic acid (PLA) - A biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters
derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as corn
starch, once made from dairy products.
• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) - Contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names
around the world; e.g., Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets, fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for
vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of
other agents.
• Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) - Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for
frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides. It is more commonly known as Teflon.
• Urea-formaldehyde (UF) - One of the aminoplasts and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics. Used as
a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.

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[22] Alonso-Magdalena, Paloma; Morimoto, Sumiko; Ripoll, Cristina; Fuentes, Esther; Nadal, Angel (January 2006). "The Estrogenic Effect of
Bisphenol A Disrupts Pancreatic β-Cell Function In Vivo and Induces Insulin Resistance" (http:/ / www. ehponline. org/ docs/ 2005/ 8451/
abstract. html). Environmental Health Perspectives 114 (1): 106–112. doi:10.1289/ehp.8451. PMID 16393666. PMC 1332664. ..
[23] Andrew Zajac FDA issues BPA guidelines (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2010/ jan/ 16/ nation/ la-na-fda-bpa16-2010jan16), Los Angeles
Times, January 16, 2010
Plastic 11

[24] Lisa Wade McCormick More Kids' Products Found Containing Unsafe Chemicals (http:/ / www. consumeraffairs. com/ news04/ 2009/ 10/
pirg_lead_tests. html), ConsumerAffairs.com, October 30, 2009
[25] Alan Weisman, "The World Without Us," St. Martin's Press, NY, 2007.
[26] "Dioxins" (http:/ / www. oeconline. org/ our-work/ kidshealth/ toxics/ air/ dioxins). Oregon Environmental Council. .
[27] Biodegradation of plastic bottles made from Biopol in an aquatic ecosystem under in situ conditions, accessed March 2009 (login required)
(http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ n651104158x43255/ )
[28] CORDIS: Search CORDIS: Projects (http:/ / cordis. europa. eu/ search/ index. cfm?fuseaction=proj. document& CFTOKEN=19120617&
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[29] Spain: Scientists Close To Making Biofuel From Algae (http:/ / www. tmcnet. com/ usubmit/
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[30] 'Sugar plastic' could reduce reliance on petroleum (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
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[31] http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/ article-1345789/ MakerBot-Thing-O-Matic-The-portable-factory-box-create-3D-object-plastic.
html

• Substantial parts of this text originated from An Introduction To Plastics v1.0 (http://web.archive.org/web/
20070810225820/http:/www.vectorsite.net/ttplast.html) / 1 March 2001 / greg goebel / public domain.

External links
• J. Harry Dubois Collection on the History of Plastics, ca. 1900–1975 (http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/
d8008.htm) Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
• Material Properties of Plastics – Mechanical, Thermal & Electrical Properties (http://www.plasticsintl.com/
sortable_materials.php?display=mechanical)
• List of over 600 plastics (http://www.ides.com/plastics/default.htm)
• Plastics Historical Society (http://www.plastiquarian.com/)
• History of plastics, Society of the Plastics Industry (http://www.plasticsindustry.org/AboutPlastics/content.
cfm?ItemNumber=670&navItemNumber=1117)
• What Are Plastics Made Of? (http://www.popsci.com/archive-viewer?id=cycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=58&
query=B-25) January 1943 Popular Science
bjn:Panyu
Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and Contributors

Plastic  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408644041  Contributors: - ), -Bobby, 123kapil, 7, 8thstar, A Macedonian, A Train, ABF, AC+79 3888, Abductive, Abhijithpkumar,
Abmac, Acroterion, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Adrian, Adrian Glamorgan, AgentSteel, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Ahoerstemeier, AirdishStraus, Aitias, Ajbabixx, Akshaya sriram, Alan Liefting,
Alansohn, Albertoeba, Aldaron, Ale jrb, Alex Bakharev, Alex Rio Brazil, Alexius08, Allmightyduck, Alpha 4615, Alphax, Amal75, Amcbride, Amplitude101, An0nymouse, AnOddName,
Anabus, Anastrophe, Anaxial, AndreasJS, Andres, AndrewHowse, Andrewpmk, Andros 1337, Andycjp, Anna Frodesiak, Anna Lincoln, Anon1245, Antandrus, Antman102, Apalgoel, Apothecia,
Appeltree1, AquaGeo, Arakunem, Arjun01, Arrowofyourdeath, Arthurthefirst, Askari Mark, Atif.t2, Aua, Avitor, Avm1111, AxelBoldt, Ayax el cronopio, Az1568, Baberg, Bantosh, Bartledan,
Baseball-bob, Bcartolo, Begoon, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Beregond5, Bert Hickman, Bgold4, Bhadani, Bhumiya, BiT, Biederman, BigBodBad, Bigtimepeace, Billlund, Bináris, Blanchardb,
Blaxthos, Blotwell, Bluerasberry, Bmiller 73, Bob, Bobcutie, Bobet, Bobianite, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bomac, Bongwarrior, Boogster, BoomerAB, Boomshadow, Bootneylees, BraneJ, Brian0918,
Bruce89, Bryan Derksen, Bryan986, Bubba hotep, Bubonic plague, Bunnyhop11, Burgercat, Cacycle, Callsign, Caltas, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, CannotResolveSymbol,
CapitalR, CardinalDan, Casito, Casper2k3, Cassavau, Catgut, CatherineMunro, Cdueck, Ceyockey, Cg2112, Chamal N, Charles Gaudette, CharlesC, Che829, Ched Davis, ChemGardener,
ChemNerd, Chowbok, Chrislk02, Christian75, Christopher Parham, Christopherlin, Chriswiki, Chvhch, Claudiaprinstein, Clear perspective, Closedmouth, Cmgoogin, Coasterlover1994,
Codingmasters, Coewiddabikdik, Coffee, Cohesion, Colfer2, ColinClark, Combatentropy, Confiteordeo, Conversion script, Cookiez33, CoolMike, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Creidieki, Cremepuff222,
Cuddlyable3, Curtsurly, CustardJack, Cutler, Cwoyte, Cyktsui, Cynthia Bennett, Czrinindia, D0762, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCEdwards1966, DJ.Sandros12, DSRH, DVD R W, Da monster under
your bed, DaL33T, DabMachine, Daniel Olsen, Daniel Quinlan, DanielCD, Danieltiger45, Darth Mike, DaveSumpner, David Gale, David spector, DavidCary, DavidLevinson, Dawn Bard,
Dbfirs, Dc987, Dcfrely, Ddruk, Debresser, December21st2012Freak, Deeby, Dekisugi, Deli nk, Delldot, Denali134, Deor, DerHexer, Dffgd, Dicklyon, Dillard421, Dismas, DivineXiao, Doc
Strange, DocWatson42, DocendoDiscimus, Doddsie, Dog123, Dogcow, Dogears, Dogman15, DonSiano, Donbert, Doniago, Doseiai2, DoubleBlue, Dougz1, Dr. Kaplas, DrBob, Drbeach,
Dreadstar, Dream Focus, Dsp13, Ducati38, Duk, Dycedarg, E Wing, ECWAnna, Eagleal, Edcolins, Edderso, Edgar181, Edison, Edstoves, Edward, Eequor, Egil, Elembis, Eliezerh, Elisaassay,
Ellywa, Emcee, Emubob59, Entellegence, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Ephebi, Epitaf, Erik Carson, Evanscnce, Everyking, Excirial, Eyrian, Fabrictramp, Fact idiot, Falseinfo, Faradayplank,
Fat&Happy, Favonian, Femto, Ferkelparade, Ferret face, Fetchcomms, Fetofs, Fieldday-sunday, Firedude231, Fl, Flewis, Flowerpower1256, Fngosa, Forton, Fram, Fran Rogers, Fredrik,
Fritzpoll, Frogger3140, Fudoreaper, Fusionmix, Fyyer, GB fan, GD 6041, GDonato, GHe, GOER, GRAHAMUK, GTBacchus, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Garfield226, GargoyleMT, Gary King,
Garyzx, Geedubber, GeoGreg, Gerweck, Ggrreeggg, Ghazwan1234567890, Ghewgill, Giftlite, Ginsengbomb, Gjd001, Gobonobo, God Emperor, Gogo Dodo, GoneAwayNowAndRetired,
Gorgeouschick, Grafen, Graham87, Green940, Greudin, Ground Zero, Gsarwa, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gzkn, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hanacy, Hangman.m, HappyCamper, Hardyplants,
Harmless rebellion, HarryHenryGebel, Harryboyles, Hazard-SJ, Hdt83, Hemant 17, HenryLi, Heron, Hevnakifly, Hidanielyourock, Hiphopdontstop, Hiteshg105, Hobartimus, HolIgor,
Hotcrocodile, Htfiddler, Hugo-cs, Huntereyesman, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen Iodide, I am a lemon, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ISC PB, IWUVwabbits, Iamamarine, Ibbn, Igrowsolutions, ImGz, Immunize,
Imoen, ImperfectlyInformed, Imroy, Inkypaws, Instinct, Intelati, InverseSubstance, Iridescent, IrisKawling, Isopropyl, J Michalek, J. Spencer, J.delanoy, JForget, JNW, Jackehammond, Jake
Wartenberg, James086, JamesAM, JamesBWatson, Jamesontai, Jammy dodga, Jaranda, Jarekt, Jauhienij, JavierMC, Javierito92, JcCoPM, Jeff G., Jeffozvold, Jenny66, Jesterbard, Jhaegele,
Jknez1, JoanneB, John, John of Reading, John254, JohnCD, JohnnyB256, Jojit fb, Jonnie5, Jooler, Jorend, Jorge Stolfi, Joshlepaknpsa, Joshua, Jovianeye, Joyous!, Jr1038, Jrtayloriv, JulesH,
Julesd, Juliancolton, Jullianisawesome, Justfred, Justin W Smith, KFP, KVDP, Kaiserb, Kamenev, Kanags, KarlM, Karol Langner, Karthik6129, Katana0182, Katoa, Kazikameuk, Keeves, Keith
Edkins, Ken Gallager, Kenyon, Kickus, Killurmama45, King of Hearts, Kingfish, Kingpin13, Kingtilley, Kingturtle, Kipala, Kjkolb, Knd333, Konstable, Korath, Kousaalyabakthavalam, Kraftlos,
KrakatoaKatie, Krawi, Krazymikeyd, Krulle, Kubigula, Kungming2, Kuru, Kwiki, LGF1992UK, LMB, Lahiru k, Lambyte, Landon1980, Landroo, Lankiveil, Lantrix, Lazylaces, LeaveSleaves,
LedgendGamer, LeeWilson, Leolaursen, Leon7, Lesath, Leuko, Lexicon, Lightning, Lindorm, Linnell, Lisa4edit, LoOkLeFt, Loadeddesign, Logical2u, Lomacar, LonelyBeacon, Loren.wilton,
Lost tourist, Louis Calvete, Louiscam, Luckharry, Lucyfanclub, Lukenjoel, Lumos3, Luna Santin, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MIckStephenson, MPerel, Mac, Mac Davis, Majopius, Mandarax,
Manishearth, Manop, Manticore, Manuel Trujillo Berges, MarcoTolo, Masterblooregard, Matador, Materialscientist, Mattabat, Mav, Max rspct, Mazca, Maziotis, McGeddon, Mendaliv, Merope,
Metallicradiation428, Metiscus, Mettimeline, Michael2, MichaelHenley, Michaelsploosh, Midwesttoolguy, Migi29, Miguel, Mike Doughney, Mike dill, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minghong, Minimac's
Clone, Mishuletz, MissMJ, Mix999, Mkweise, Mmeeyy, Mmmeg, Mmxx, Moe Epsilon, Momoskido, Monkeyluv98, Moreschi, Morning277, Mosquitopsu, Mr2001, MrFish, Mrpabaloogi,
Mstefaniak, Museerouge, Mushroom, Myanw, Mygerardromance, N419BH, NCurse, NVPBIOCR, Nagy, Nakon, Nancy, Naru12333, Natbrazil, Nathan jameson, NawlinWiki, Neparis, Netalarm,
Neuro, NewEnglandYankee, Nickybutt, Nightfly, NittyG, Nivix, Nk, Nlu, Noahwass, Noclevername, Noisy, Non-dropframe, Nono64, Nos 4 speed, Nposs, Nucleophilicrxn, Nut er, Nyttend,
Obbyyoyo, Od Mishehu, Oenus, OlEnglish, Olivier, OllieFury, Olliescampton, Onopearls, Ooblagis, Oooooo990, Open2universe, Orphan Wiki, Oxymoron83, P2020C, P30Carl, Pakaraki,
PantsofAwe, Paul-L, Pax:Vobiscum, Pcbene, Pdn, Peter T.S., Peter.C, PeterJohnson, PeterWiki09, Petersam, Petri Krohn, Phact, Phidauex, Philip Trueman, Phædrus, PiMaster3, Piano non
troppo, Pinethicket, Pingswept, Pinkadelica, Plusle, Pmergner, Poing137, Poitypoity, Possum, PowerSane, Powermate, Press-yes, Prince of Dharma, Prmacn, Professor Fiendish, PseudoSudo,
Pseudomonas, Puiokjh, Qbmessiah, Quaeler, Queeber, Quintote, Quizman1967, RJFJR, RMHED, RUL3R, RYNORT, Radioactivebloke, Radon210, Rahuloof, RainbowOfLight, Rainypenguin,
Raremetalmining, Raven in Orbit, Ravik, Rdsmith4, Rebroad, Reconsider the static, Recycledagplastic, RedHillian, Regancy42, Reinyday, Reneeholle, RetiredWikipedian789, RexNL, Rfc1394,
Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Rifleman 82, Rmhermen, RobHarding, Robin63, RocketJohnson, Rodri316, Rollopets, Ronhjones, Rooboy715, Rory096, RoyBoy, Rrburke, Rror, Rtyq2, Rusty
Cashman, Ryou-kun16, Ryulong, SCEhardt, SHeumann, SMC, Saif tinku, Samjohnson99, Samst2, Sananthara3, Sara USA, SarekOfVulcan, Sasha l, Sazzmee, ScAvenger, Scetoaux,
SchfiftyThree, Schzmo, Scientizzle, Scimitar, Sciurinæ, Scjessey, Scyrene, Securiger, Senator Palpatine, Sesu Prime, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shawn in Montreal, Shenme, Sheps999, Shipmaster,
Siawase, Sidd09, Sidhekin, Silverchemist, Siphonusa, Sjakkalle, Sjblock, Sjcole, Sjö, Skafantaris, SkarmoutsosV, Skunkboy74, SkyWalker, Slakr, Slaught420, Smeira, Snowolf, Sodium,
Solace098, Solipsist, Solitude, Sonett72, Sonjaaa, Sophus Bie, SpLoT, Spellcast, SpellingGuru, Splash, Sponge, SpyMagician, Srose, Staffwaterboy, Starcraft101, Starxrandom, Steel, Stephen e
nelson, StephenBuxton, Stephenb, Steven Zhang, Stewartadcock, Stickee, Stokerm, Stuartfost, Stuston, Stw, Suffusion of Yellow, Superowls, Svetovid, Swift as an Eagle, Symane, Synchronism,
T-borg, Tardigrada2008, Tarosan, Tasc, Tazzlon, Tbhotch, Teemu Ruskeepää, Templarion, Teo64x, Terence, TerraFrost, Tetracube, That Guy, From That Show!, The Kid, The Rambling Man,
The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The spesh man, TheCarterVI, TheEgyptian, TheRanger, Theda, Theoneintraining, Theplastic, Thingg, Thunderboltz, Tide rolls, Timneu22,
Timwi, Tintenfischlein, Toddst1, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom, Tom harrison, TomPhil, Tommy2010, TonyBallioni, Trakov, TransporterMan, Triwbe, Trusilver, Tsman, Tsoares468, TutterMouse,
Tvbrichmond, Twang, Twilo, Twinkle Bum, TylerJarHead, Tyrenius, UKSF, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unschool, Urfaceisfunny, Urhixidur, Usernamefortonyd, VMS Mosaic, Vague Rant, Valfontis,
Van helsing, Versus22, VikOlliver, Vipinhari, Vogelfrei, Vortexrealm, Vrenator, Vsmith, Vssun, WHZhang, WHeimbigner, WJBscribe, WackyBoots, Wafulz, Waggers, Wayward, Weetoddid,
WelshMatt, Wes Hermann, Where next Columbus?, Wheret, Whisky drinker, Whouk, Wiki alf, WikiFew, Wikifreak1121, William Avery, Willik83, Willking1979, Winjay, Wizard191,
Wizardman, Wknight94, Wolf Lorber, Wolfling, Woogee, WriterHound, Wtmitchell, Wurtzel, Xtruderdood, XxsickamongthepurexX, Yahel Guhan, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yerpo,
Ynhockey, Yurik, Zakjordansmith1993, Zampini, Zirland, Zombiebaron, Zsinj, Zurishaddai, Zvika, 2054 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Plastic household items.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plastic_household_items.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:ImGz
File:Plastic food.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plastic_food.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Bantosh, N.Mori
File:Plastic pipe firestops nortown casitas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plastic_pipe_firestops_nortown_casitas.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Achim Hering
File:styrene polymerization.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Styrene_polymerization.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Edgar181
File:vinylchloride polymerization.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vinylchloride_polymerization.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Edgar181
File:Condensation polymerization diacid diamine.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Condensation_polymerization_diacid_diamine.svg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Calvero.
File:Resin-identification-code-1-PETE.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-1-PETE.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fvasconcellos,
Remember the dot, TotoBaggins, 3 anonymous edits
File:U+2674 DejaVu Sans.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:U+2674_DejaVu_Sans.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Resin-identification-code-3-V.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-3-V.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Remember the dot,
TotoBaggins
File:Resin-identification-code-4-LDPE.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-4-LDPE.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
uploader was TotoBaggins at en.wikipedia
File:Resin-identification-code-5-PP.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-5-PP.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Remember the dot,
TotoBaggins
File:Resin-identification-code-6-PS.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-6-PS.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Remember the dot,
TotoBaggins
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 13

File:Resin-identification-code-7-OTHER.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-7-OTHER.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Erwin,

Remember the dot, TotoBaggins, 1 anonymous edits
File:Cadeira Palmetal - Modelo I - Preta - Simples.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cadeira_Palmetal_-_Modelo_I_-_Preta_-_Simples.jpg  License: Free Art License
 Contributors: Palmetal Metalúrgica - Palmetal

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/