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4.

Classification of Steels,
Welding of Mild Steels
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 32

In the European Standard DIN EN


Definition of the term “steel” 10020 (July 2000), the designations
Steel is a material with a mass fraction if iron which is higher
than of every other element, ist carbon content is, in general, (main symbols) for the classification of
lower than 2% and steel contains, moreover, also other
elements. A limited number of chromium steels might contain a steels are standardised. Figure 4.1
carbon content which is higher than 2%, but, however, 2% is the
common boundary between steel and cast iron [DIN EN 10020
(07.00)]. shows the definition of the term „steel“
and the classification of the steel
Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:
grades in accordance with their
l unalloyed steels
chemical composition and the main
l stainless steels
quality classes.
l other, alloyed steels

Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

· unalloyed steels - unalloyed quality steels


- unalloyed special steels
· stainless steels

· other, alloyed steels - alloyed quality steels


- alloyed special steels

br-er05-01.cdr © ISF 2004

Definition for the


classification of steels

Figure 4.1

In accordance with the chemical com-


position the steel grades are classified
into unalloyed, stainless and other
alloyed steels. The mass fractions of
the individual elements in unalloyed
steels do not achieve the limit values
which are indicated in Figure 4.2.
Stainless steels are grades of steel
with a mass fraction of chromium of at
least 10,5 % and a maximum of 1,2 %
of carbon.
Other alloyed steels are steel grades
which do not comply with the definition
of stainless steels and where one
alloying element exceeds the limit
value indicated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 33

As far as the main quality classes are concerned, the steels are classified in accor-
dance with their main characteristics and main application properties into unalloyed,
stainless and other alloyed steels.
As regards unalloyed steels a distinction is made between unalloyed quality steels
and unalloyed high-grade steels.
Regarding unalloyed quality steels, prevailing demands apply, for example, to the
toughness, the grain size and / or the forming properties.
Unalloyed high-grade steels are characterised by a higher degree of purity than
unalloyed quality steels, particularly with regard to non-metal inclusions. A more
precise setting of the chemical composition and special diligence during the manufac-
turing and monitoring process guarantee better properties. In most cases these
steels are intended for tempering and surface hardening.
Stainless steels have a chromium mass fraction of at least 10,5 % and maximally
1,2 % of carbon. They are further classified in accordance with the nickel content and
the main characteristics (corrosion resistance, heat resistance and creep resistance).
Other alloyed steels are classified into alloyed quality steels and alloyed high-grade
steels.
Special demands are put on the alloyed quality steels, as, for example, to toughness,
grain size and / or forming properties. Those steels are generally not intended for
tempering or surface hardening.
The alloyed high-grade steels comprise steel grades which have improved properties
through precise setting of their chemical composition and also through special manu-
facturing and control conditions.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 34

The European Standard DIN EN 10027-1 (September 1992) stipulates the rules for
the designation of the steels by means of code letters and identification numbers.
The code letters and identification numbers give information about the main applica-
tion field, about the mechanical or physical properties or about the composition.
The code designations of the steels are divided into two groups. The code designa-
tions of the first group refer to the application and to the mechanical or physical
properties of the steels. The code designations of the second group refer to the
chemical composition of the steels.

l S = Steels for structural steel engineering


e.g. S235JR, S355J0 According to the utilization of the
l P = Steels for pressure vessel construction
e.g. P265GH, P355M
steel and also to the mechanical or
l L = Steels for pipeline construction physical properties, the steel grades
e.g. L360A, L360QB

l E = Engineering steels of the first group are designated with


e.g. E295, E360
different main symbols (Fig. 4.3).
l B = Reinforcing steels
e.g. B500A, B500B

l Y = Prestressing steels
e.g. Y1770C, Y1230H

l R = Steels for rails (or formed as rails)


e.g. R350GHT

l H = Cold rolled flat-rolled steels with higher-strength


drawing quality
e.g. H400LA

l D = Flat products made of soft steels for cold reforming


e.g. DD14, DC04

l T = Black plate and tin plate and strips and also specially
chromium-plated plate and strip
e.g. TH550, TS550

l M = Magnetic steel sheet and strip


e.g. M400-50A, M660-50D
br-er05-03.cdr © ISF 2004

Classification of steels in accordance


with their designated use

Figure 4.3
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 35

An example of the code designation structure with reference to the usage and the
mechanical or physical properties for “steels in structural steel engineering“ is ex-
plained in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 36

For designating special features of the steel or the steel product, additional symbols
are added to the code designation. A distinction is made between symbols for spe-
cial demands, symbols for the type of coating and symbols for the treatment con-
dition. These additional symbols are stipulated in the ECISS-note IC 10 and depicted
in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.

Symbol1)2) Coating

+A hot dipped
+ AR aluminium, cladded by rolling
+ AS coated with Al-Si alloy
+ AZ coated with Al-Tn alloy (>50% Al)
+ CE electrolytically chromium-plated
+ Cu copper-coated
+ IC inorganically coated
+ OC organically coated
+S hot-galvanised
+ SE electrolytically galvanised
+T upgraded by hot dipping with a lead-tin alloy
+ TE electrolytically coated with a lead-tin alloy
+Z hot-galvised
+ ZA coated with Al-Zn alloy (>50% Zn)
+ ZE electrolytically galvanised
+ ZF diffusion-annealed zinc coatings (galvannealed, with diffused Fe)
+ ZN nickel-zinc coating (electrolytically)

1
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
2
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure S may precede,
for example +SA
br-er-05-05.cdr © ISF 2004

Symbols for the coating type

Figure 4.5

Symbol1)2) treatment condition

+A softened
+ AC annealed for the production of globular carbides
+C work-hardened (e.g., by rolling and drawing), also a distinguishing
mark for cold-rolled narrow strips)
+ Cnnn cold-rolled to a minimum tensile strength of nnn MPa/mm²
+ CR cold-rolled
+ HC thermoformed/cold formed
+ LC slightly cold-drawn or slightly rerolled (skin passed)
+Q quenched or hardened
+S treatment for capacity for cold shearing
+ ST solution annealed
+U untreated

1
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
2
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure T may precede,
for example +TA

br-er-05-06.cdr © ISF 2004

Symbols for the treatment condition

Figure 4.6
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 37

Figure 4.7 shows an example of the novel designation of a steel for structural steel
engineering which had formerly been labelled St37-2.

The steel St37-2 (DIN 17100) is, according to the new standard (DIN EN 10027-1),
designated as follows:

S235 J 2 G3

Steel for structural steel engineering further property


(RR = normalised)

ReH ³ 235 MPa/mm2 test temperature 20°C

impact energy ³ 27 J

S = steels for structural steel engineering


P = steels for pressure vessel construction
L = steels for pipeline construction
E = engineering steels
B = reinforcing steels
br-er-05-07.cdr © ISF 2002

Steel designation in accordance with DIN EN 10027-1

Figure 4.7

Steel
Stahl C Si Mn P S Cr Al Cu N Mo Ni Nb V
S355J0
£0,20 £0,55 £1,60 0,040 0,040 / / / £0,009 / / / /
(St 52-3)
S500N
0,21 0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7 0,035 0,030 0,30 0,020 0,20 0,020 0,1 1 0,05 0,22
(StE500)
P295NH
£0,26 £0,35 ³0,6 £0,05 £ 0,05 / / / / / / / /
(HIV)
S355J2G1W 0,40 - 0,25 - 0,02 -
£0,15 £0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035 0,035 / / £0,30 £0,65 /
(WTSt510-3) 0,80 0,5 0,12
S355G3S £0,1 -
£ 0,18 0,7 - 1,5 £0,05 £ 0,05 / / / / / / / /
(EH36) 0,35

Steel
Stahl Tensile strength
Zugfestigkeit RmRm yield point ReeHH
Streckgrenze Bruchdehnung
elongation A A
after fracture impact energy AVV
Kerbschlagarbeit
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] [%] [J]
0°C -20°C
S355J2G3
510-680 355 20-22 27 27
(St 52-3)
S500N
610-780 500 16 31-47 21-39
(StE500)
P295NH
460-550 285 >18 49 (bei +20°C)
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
510-610 355 22
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
400-490 355 >22 76 (bei -10°C)
(EH36)
br-er-05-08.cdr © ISF 2004

Chemical composition and mechanical


parameters of different steel sorts

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.8 depicts the chemical composition and the mechanical parameters of dif-
ferent steel grades. The figure explains the influence of the chemical composition on
the mechanical properties.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 38

The steel S355J2G2 represents the basic type of structural steels which are nowa-
days commonly used. Apart from a slightly increased Si content for desoxidisation it
this an unalloyed steel.

S500N is a typical fine-grained structural steel. A very fine-grained microstructure


with improved tensile strength values is provided by the addition of carbide forming
elements like Cr and Mo as well as by grain-refining elements like Nb and V.

The boiler steel P295NH is a heat-resistant steel which is applied up to a temperature


of 400°C. This steel shows a relatively low strength but very good toughness values
which are caused by the increased Mn content of 0,6%.

S355J2G1W is a weather-resistant structural steel with mechanical properties similar


to S355J2G2. By adding Cr, Cu and Ni, formed oxide layers stick firmly to the work-
piece surface. This oxide layer prevents further corrosion of the steel.

S355G3S belongs to the group of shipbuilding steels with properties similar to those
of usual structural steels. Due to special quality requirements of the classification
companies (in this case: impact energy) these steels are summarised under a special
group.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 39

The steel grades are classified into four subgroups according to the chemical com-
position (Fig. 4.9):

● Unalloyed steels (except free-cutting steels) with a Mn content of < 1 %

● Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn content > 1 %, unalloyed free-cutting


steels and alloyed steels (except high-speed steels) with individual alloying
element contents of less than 5 percent in weight

● Alloyed steels (except high-speed steels), if, at least for one alloying element
the content is ≥ 5 percent in weight

● High-speed steels

The unalloyed steels with Mn con-


tents of < 1% are labelled with the
code letter C and a number which
complies with the hundredfold of the
mean value which is stipulated for the
carbon content.
Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn
content > 1 %, unalloyed free-
cutting steels and alloyed steels
(individual alloying element con-
tents < 5 %) are labelled with a num-
ber which also complies with a
hundredfold of the mean value which
is stipulated for the carbon content,
the chemical symbols for the alloying
elements, ordered according to the
decreasing contents of the alloying
Figure 4.9
elements and numbers, which in the
sequence of the designating alloying
elements give reference about their content. The individual numbers stand for the
medium content of the respective alloying element, the content had been multiplied
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 40

by the factor as indicated in Fig. 4.9 / Table 4.1 and rounded up to the next whole
number.
The alloyed steels are labelled with the code letter X, a number which again com-
plies with the hundredfold of the mean value of the range stipulated for the carbon
content, the chemical symbols of the alloying elements, ordered according to de-
creasing contents of the elements and numbers which in sequence of the designating
alloying elements refer to their content.
High-speed steels are designated with the code letter HS and numbers which, in the
following sequence, indicate the contents of elements:: tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co).

The European Standard DIN EN 10027-2 (September 1992) specifies a numbering


system for the designation of steel grades, which is also called material number
system..
The structure of the material number is as follows:

1. XX XX (XX)

Sequential number
The digits inside the brackets are intended
for possible future demands.

Steel group number (see Fig. 4.10)

Material main group number (1=steel)


4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 41

Figure 4.10 specifies the material numbers for the material main group „steel“.

Figure 4.10
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 42

The influence of the austenite grain size on the transformation behaviour has been
explained in Chapter 2. Figure 4.11 shows the dependence between grain size of the
austenite which develops during the welding cycle, the distance from the fusion line
and the energy-per-unit length from the welding method. The higher the energy-per-
until length, the
bigger the austen-
ite grains in the
13
Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm HAZ and the width
Austenite grain size index according

11
9 12 18 36 of the HAZ in-
9 creases. Such
to DIN 50601

7
coarsened austen-
ite grain decreases
5
the critical cooling
3
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 mm 1,0 time, thus increas-
Distance of the fusion line
br-er-05-11.cdr © ISF 2004 ing the tendency of
Influence of the energy-per-unit the steel to harden.
length on the austenite grain size

Figure 4.11

With fine-grained structural steels it is tried to suppress the grain growth with alloying
elements. Favourable are nitride and carbide forming alloys. They develop precipita-
tions which suppress undesired grain growth. There is, however, a limitation due to
the solubility of these precipitations, starting with a certain temperature, as shown in
Figure 4.12. Steel 1 does not contain any precipitations and shows therefore a con-
tinuous grain growth related to temperature. Steel 2 contains AIN precipitations which
are stable up to a temperature of approx. 1100°C, thus preventing a growth of the
austenite grain.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 43

With higher temperatures, these

mm -4 precipitations dissolve and cannot


1
8
6 -2 suppress a grain growth any more.
Grain size index according to DIN 50601

4
0 Steel 3 contains mainly titanium car-
2
bonitrides of a much lower grain-
Medium fibre length

-1
10
8 4 refining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4
6

4 6 is a combination of the most effective


2 8 properties of steels nos. 2 and 3.
Steel 1
10-2 10 Steel 2
Steel 3
The importance of grain refinement
8
-3
Steel 4
6 10
12 for the mechanical properties of a
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 °C 1400
Austenitization temperature
steel is shown in Figure 4.13. Pro-
Steel %C % Mn % Al %N % Ti vided the temperature keeps con-
1 0,21 1,16 0,004 0,010 /
2 0,17 1,35 0,047 0,017 / stant, the yield strength of a steel
3 0,18 1,43 0,004 0,024 0,067
4 0,19 1,34 0,060 0,018 0,140 increases with decreasing grain size.
br-er05-12.cdr © ISF 2004

This influence on the yield point Rel is


Austenite grain size as a function
of the austenitization temperature specified in the Hall-Petch-law:
1
Figure 4.12 Rel = σ i + K ⋅
d
According to the
above-mentioned 900
N/mm²
law, the increase of 800
Temperature in °C:
the yield point is
Yield point or 0,2 boundary

-193
700
-185
-180
inversely propor- 600 -170

-155
tional to the root of 500

the medium grain 400


-100

diameter d. σi 300 -40

stands for the inter- 200


+20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 mm-1/2 10
-1/2
Grain size d
nal friction stress of
br-er-05-13.cdr © ISF 2004

the material. The Connection between


yield point and grain size
grain boundary
resistance K is a Figure 4.13
measure for the
influence of the grain size on the forming mechanisms. Apart from this increase of the
yield point, grain refinement also results in improved toughness values. As far as
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 44

structural steels are concerned, this means the improvement of the mechanical prop-
erties without any further alloying. Modern fine-grained structural steels show im-
proved mechanical properties with, at the same time, decreased content of alloying
elements. As a consequence of this chemical composition the carbon equivalent
decreases, the weldability is improved and processing of the steel is easier.

The major advan-


Steel type
Stahlsorte
S235JR S355J2G3 S690Q S890Q S960Q Verhältnis
Ratio tages of microal-
(St37-2) (St52-3) (StE690) (StE890) (StE960) S235JR - S960Q
N/mm2
Streckgrenze
Yield
Plate
point
thickness
Blechdicke mm
215 345 690 890 960 1:5 loyed fine-grained
50 31 14,4 11 10 5:1
Weld cross-section
Nahtquerschnitt mm2
Welding wire Øø1.2
Schweißdraht 1.2 mm
870 370 100 60 50 17 : 1
structural steels in
SG2 SG3 NiMoCr X 90 X 96 -
Welding wire costs
Schweißdrahtkosten Ratio
Verhältnis 1 1 2,4 3,2 3,3 1 : 3,3
Steel costs
Stahlkosten Ratio
Verhältnis 1 1,2 1,9 2,3 2,4 1 : 2,4
comparison with
Weld metal costs
Schweißgutkosten Ratio
Verhältnis 5,3 2,3 1,5 1,16 1 5,3 : 1
Special weld costs
Spez. Schweißnahtkosten Ratio
Verhältnis 12 5,1 1,8 1,18 1 12 : 1
conventional struc-
Costs ratio inclusive
Kostenverhältnis base
inklusive
materials
Grundwerkstoffe
5:1
tural steels are
Randbedingungen:
Boundary condition: Schweißverfahren
welding = MAG
process = MAG shown in Figure
Abschmelzleistung
Deposition rate = 3 kg=welding
3 kg Schweißdraht
wire/h, weld /shape
h, Nahtform
X -60° X - 60°
Costs
Lohn-ofund
labour and equipment == 60
Maschinenkosten 30€/h
DM / h 4.14. Due to the
Special
Spez. weld costs = weld filler
Schweißnahtkosten materials + welding
= Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe + Schweißen
Berechnungsgrundlage
Calculation =szul = Re / 1.5
base = szul = Re/1.5 considerably better
br-er-05-14.cdr © ISF 2004

Influence of the steel selection on the mechanical proper-


producing costs of welded structures
ties of the fine-
Figure 4.14 grained structural
steel in comparison
with unalloyed structural steel, substantial savings of material are possible. This
leads also to reduced joint cross-sections and, in total, to lower costs when making
welded steel constructions.

steels
Based on the
unalloyed alloyed

classification of low-alloyed high-alloyed

mild steel higher-carbon steel hardening


Figure 4.2, Fig- Hardening special properties are corrosion tool steels
Underbead cracking achieved, for example: resistant steels Hardening,
heat resistance, special properties
ure 4.15 divides the tempering resistant, are achieved
high-pressure hydrogen resistance,
steels with regard rimmed steel killed steel duplex killed steel
toughness at low temperatures,
surface treeatment condition, etc.
cutting of
to their problematic segregation
zones
ferritic pearlitic-martensitic austenitic
grain increase in hardening grain desintegration
the weld interfaces embrittlement stress corrosion
processes during cold brittleness formation cracking hot cracks
(coarse-grained recrystallization of chromium (sigma phase
after critical treatment) carbide embrittlement)
welding. When it stress corrosion cracking
safety from brittle fracture
Post-weld treatment for
comes to unalloyed highest corrosion resistance
br-er-05-15.cdr © ISF 2004

steels, only ingot Classification of steels with


respect to problems during welding

Figure 4.15
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 45

casts, rimmed and semi-killed steels are causing problems. “Killing” means the re-
moval of oxygen from the steel bath.

Figure 4.16 shows cross-sections of ingot blocks with different oxygen contents.
Rimming steels with increased oxygen content show, from the outside to the inside,
three different zones after solidification: 1.: a pronounced, very pure outer envelope,
2.: a typical blowhole formation (not critical, blowholes are forged together during
rolling), 3.: in the
centre a clearly
segregated zone
where unfavourable
elements like sul-
phur and phospho-
0,025 rus are enriched.
0,012
0,003
During rolling, such

fully killed steel semi-killed steel rimmed steel


zones are stretched
Figures: mass content of oxygen in %
br-er-05-16.cdr © ISF 2004
along the complete
Ingot cross-sections length of the rolling
after different casting methods
profile.
Figure 4.16

Figure 4.17 shows important points to be observed during welding such steels. Due
to their enrichment with alloy elements, the segregation zones are more transforma-
tion-inert than the
outer envelope a b

and are inclined to


hardening. In
addition, they are
sensitive to hot-
cracking, as, in B D C
E
these zones, the
elements phospho-
rus and sulphur br-er-05-17.cdr © ISF 2004

are enriched. Example of unfavourable (a) and


favourable (b) welds

Figure 4.17
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 46

Therefore, “ touching” such segregation zones during welding must be avoided by all
means.
In the case of low-
alloy steels, the
Microstructures Average Brinell Hardness (Approximately)
problem of HAZ
Ferrite 80
hardening during
Austenite 250

Perlite (granular) 200 welding must be


Perlite (lamellar) 300
observed. Figure
Sorbite 350
4.18 shows hard-
Troostite 400

Cementite 600 - 650 ness values of


Martensite 400 - 900
various microstruc-

Br-er-05-18.cdr © ISF 2004


tures. The highest

Hardness of Several Microstructures


hardness values
can be found with
Figure 4.18 martensite and
cementite. Hardness values of cementite are of minor importance for unalloyed and
low-alloy steels because its proportion in these steels remains low due to the low C-
content.
However, hardening because of martensite formation is of greatest importance as the
martensite proportion in the microstructure depends mainly on the cooling time.

Figure 4.19 shows


the essential influ- strength, with maximum
maximum hardness calculated at martensite
ence of the mart- max. hardness content
HV HRC N/mm2 %
ensite content in root cracking
400 41 1290 70
presumable
the HAZ on the root cracking
400 - 350 41 - 36 1290 - 1125 70 - 60
possible
crack formation of
no root cracking 350 36 1125 60
welded joints. sufficient operational safety
280 28 900 30
without heat treatment
Hardening through If too much martensite develops in the heat affected zone during welding (below or next to the weld),
a very hard zone will be formed which shows often cracks.
martensite forma-
tion is not to be
Br-er-05-19.cdr © ISF 2004

expected with pure


Influence of Martensite Content
carbon steels up to
about 0,22%, Figure 4.19
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 47

because the critical cooling rate with these low C-contents is so high that it normally
won’t be reached within the welding cycle. In general, such steels can be welded
without special problems (e.g., S. 235).
In addition to car-

Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni
bon, all other alloy
IIW C - Äqu. = C + + +
6 5 15
elements are im-
Mn Cr + Mn
Mo Ni Cu
Stout C - Äqu. = C + + + +
6 10 20 40 portant when it
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
Ito and Bessyo PCM = C +
30
+
20
+ + + + 5B
60 15 10 comes to marten-

C - Äqu.PLS = C +
Si Mn + Cu Cr Ni Mo V
+ + + + +
site formation in
Mannesmann 25 16 20 60 40 15
the welding cycle,
Si + Mn + Cu + Cr + Ni + Mo + V
Hoesch C - Äqu. = C +
20
as they have sub-
Mn + Mo Cr + Cu Ni
Thyssen C ET = C+ + +
10 20 40 stantial influence

Br-er-05-20.cdr
C-Äqu.= carbon equivalent (%) PLS = pipeline steels PCM = cracking parameters (%)
© ISF 2002
on the transforma-
tion behaviour of
Definition of C - Equivalent
steels (see
Figure 4.20 Fig. 2.12 ). It is not
appropriate just
to take the carbon content as a measure for the hardening tendency of such steels.
To estimate the weldability, several authors developed formulas for calculating the
so-called carbon equivalent, which include the contribution of the other alloy ele-
ments to hardening tendency, (Fig. 4.20). As these approximation formulas are em-
pirically determined 250
Tp ==750
Tp 750CET - 150- 150
CET
100
delta Tp
delta Tp= 62
= 62
0,35
HD HD0,35
- 100- 100
200 80

and as for the


delta Tp [°C]

150 60
Tp [° C]

hardening tendency 100 40

50 20

the general condi- 0


d = 30
HD HD
mm
d = 30
= 4= 4
mm

Q = Q1=kJ/mm
1 kJ/mm
0
CET = =0,33
CET
d =d30
= 30mmmm
Q =Q1= 1kJ/mm
kJ/mm
%
0,33 %

0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Kohlenstoffäquivalent
Carbon aquivalent CET [%] Wasserstoffgehalt
Hydrogen contentHDof des
theSchweißgutes
weld metal [%]

tions like plate 60 40


delta TpTp
delta = 160 tanhtanh
= 160 (d/35) (d/35)
- 110 - 110 delta Tp
delta Tp= (53 CETCET
= (53 - 32)-Q32)
- 53Q
CET + 32
- 53 CET + 32
20

thickness, heat
50 CET = 0,4 % CET = 0,2 % CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,4 % CET = 0,2 % CET = 0,2 %
0
40
delta Tp [°C]
delta Tp [°C]

-20

input, etc., are also 30


-40

20
-60

of importance, the 10
CET
CET ==0,4
HD
HD =
2 2
0,4
%%
-80
d =d50
= 50mm
mm
QQ== 11kJ/mm
kJ/mm HDHD=8=8
0 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5

carbon equivalent Plate thickness


Blechdicke d [mm]

0,35
Heat input Q [kJ/mm]
Wärmeeinbringen

Tp =697 CET + 160 tanh (d/35) + 62 HD + (53 CET - 32) Q - 328


cannot be a com- br-er05-21.cdr Source:
Quelle: DIN EN 1011-2 © ISF 2005

mon limit value for


Calculation of the preheating temperatures
the weldability.
For the determina- Figure 4.21
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 48

tion of the preheating temperature Tp, the formula as shown in Figure 4.21 is used.
The effects of the chemical composition which is marked by the carbon equivalent
CET, the plate thickness d, the hydrogen content of the weld metal HD and the heat
input Q are considered.
The essential factor
to martensite forma-
Tmax
tion in the welding

°C
cycle is the cooling
Temperature T

time. As a measure
800
of cooling time, the
DT
time of cooling from
500
t8/5 800 to 500°C (t8/5) is
defined (Fig. 4.22).
t800 t500 s
Time t The temperature
br-er-05-22.cdr © ISF 2004

range was selected


Definition of t8/5
in such a way that it
Figure 4.22 covered the most
important structural transformations and that the time can be easily transferred to the
TTT diagrams.

Figure 4.23 shows


2000
measured time-
°C
temperature distri- B
1500 A C
butions in the vicin-
Temperature T

A 10mm
ity of a weld. Peak 1000

values and dwell B

times depend obvi- 500

ously on the loca- C

tion of the 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 s 300
measurement and Time t
br-er-05-23.cdr © ISF 2004

are clearly strongly Temperature-time curves


in the adjacence of a weld
determined by the
heat conduction Figure 4.23
conditions.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 49

With the use of thinner plates with complete heating of the cross-section during weld-
ing, the heat conductivity is only carried out in parallel to the plate surface, this is the
two-dimensional heat dissipation.
With thicker plates, e.g. during welding of a blind bead, heat dissipation can also be
carried out in direction of plate thickness, heat dissipation is three-dimensional.

These two cases


3 - dimensional: K3
h U ×I æ 1 1 ö
universal formula: t8 / 5 = × ×ç - ÷
2 × p × l v çè 500 - T0 800 - T0 ø÷
are covered by the
extended formula
(
t8 / 5 = 0,67 - 5 ×10 - 4 T0 × ) Uv× I × æçç 5001- T -
1 ö
÷ ×h ¢ × N 3 formulas given in
For low-alloyed steel:
è 0 800 - T0 ø÷

Figure 4.24, which


2 - dimensional: K2
h2 æ U × I ö 1 éæç
2
1
2
ö æ 1 ö ù
2 provide a method
universal formula: t8 / 5 = ×ç ÷ × ×ê ÷ -ç ÷ ú
4 × p × l × r × c è v ø d 2 êçè 500 - T0 ÷ø çè 800 - T0 ÷ø ú
ë û
of calculating the
æ U × I ö 1 éæç ö ù 2
2 2 2
ö æ
extended formula (
t8 / 5 = 0,043 - 4,3 ×10 -5 T0 × ç ) ÷ × 2 ×ê
1
÷ -ç
1
÷ ú ×h ¢ × N 2
For low-alloyed steel: è v ø d ëêçè 500 - T0 ÷ø çè 800 - T0 ÷ø ûú
cooling time t8/5 of
0,043 - 4,3 ×10 -5 T0 U ×I æ ö
formula for the transition
thickness of low-alloyed steel:
dü =
0,67 - 5 ×10 - 4 T0
×h ¢ ×
v
× çç
1
+
1
÷÷
è 500 - T0 800 - T0 ø
low-alloyed steels.
In the case of a
br-er-05-24.cdr © ISF 2004

three-dimensional
Calculation equation for two- and
three-dimensional heat dissipation heat dissipation,

Figure 4.24
t8/5 it independent
of plate thickness.
In the case of two-dimensional heat dissipation it is clear that t8/5 becomes the shorter
the thicker the plate thickness d is. Provided, the cooling times are equal, the plate
thickness can be calculated from these relations where a two-dimensional heat dissi-
pation changes to a three-dimensional heat dissipation.

Figure 4.25 shows


welding methods
the influence of the TIG-(He)-welding

welding method on TIG-(Ar)-welding

the heat dissipa- MIG-(Ar)-welding

tion. With the same MAG-(CO2)- welding

heat input, the Manual arc welding

energy which is SA welding

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1


transferred to the
Relative thermal efficiency degree h‘
base material Br-er-05-25.cdr © ISF 2004

depends on the Relative thermal efficiency degree


of different welding methods

Figure 4.25
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 50

welding method. This dependence is described by the relative thermal efficiency ŋ’.

The influence of
weld factor
Type of weld 2-dimensional 3-dimensional
the groove ge- heat dissipation heat dissipation

ometry is covered 1 1

by seam factors
0,45 - 0,67 0,67
according to
Fig. 4.26. Empiri-
0,9 0,67

cally determined,
these factors were 0,9 0,9

introduced for an
br-er-05-26.cdr © ISF 2004

easier calculation.
Weld factors for different
For other groove weld geometries

geometries, tests Figure 4.26


to measure the
cooling time are recommended.

Fig. 4.27 shows the transition of the two-dimensional to the three-dimensional heat
dissipation for two different preheating temperatures in form of a curve according to
the equation of Fig. 4.24. Above the curve, t8/5 depends only on the energy input, but
not on the plate thickness, heat dissipation is carried out three-dimensionally.

5
cooling time t8/5 [s] cooling time t8/5 [s]
10 15 20 25 10 20 30 40 50
cm
TA=20°C TA=200°C
Plate thickness

3 60
30 80
3-dimensional 3-dimensional
40 100
2
150
60
100
1

2-dimensional 2-dimensional
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat input E.h.Nn [kJ/cm]

Br-er-05-27.cdr © ISF 2004

Transition From Two to Three


Dimensional Heat Flow

Figure 4.27
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 51

Fig. 4.28 shows the


possible range of
20
heat input depend-
kJ/cm
-spray
ing on the elec-
arc
12 trode diameter. It is
Heat input

8 clear that a rela-

4
tively large working
-short arc
range is available
3,25 4 5 6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,6 2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0
Manual metal arc welding MAGC-, MAGM- SA-welding
for arc welding
method

br-er-05-28.cdr © ISF 2004


procedures. A
Heat Inputs of variation of the
Various Welding Methods
energy-per-unit
Figure 4.28 length can be
carried out by alteration of the welding current, the welding voltage and the welding
speed.

Fig. 4.29 depicts variations of the heat


Stick electrode
(mm)
2,5 3,25 4,0 5,0 6,0 input during manual metal arc weld-
Current intensity (A) 90 135 180 235 275 ing. The shorter the fused electrode
Current intensity (A) 75 120 140 190 250 distance, i.e., the shorter the ex-
tracted length, the higher the energy-
35
per-unit length.
kJ/cm

25
Energy-per-unit length

20
Æ6,0mm x 450mm

15

Æ5,0mm x 450mm
10 Æ4,0mm x 450mm
Æ3,25mm x 350mm
5 Æ2,5mm x 350mm

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 mm 600
run-out length
br-er05-29.cdr © ISF 2004

Energy-per-unit length as a
function of the run-out length

Figure 4.29
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 52

In order to minimize calculation efforts in practice, the specified relations were


transferred into nomograms from which permissible welding parameters can be read
out, provided some additional data are available. Fig. 4.30 shows diagrams for two-
dimensional heat dissipation, where a dependence between energy-per-unit length,
cooling time and preheating temperature is given, depending on the plate thickness. .

50
40
T0 200°C
30
150°C
20 100°C

20°C

10
d = 7,5 mm
7
50
40
Cooling time t8/5 in s

30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C

20°C
10
d = 10 mm
7
50
40
30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C

20°C
10 d = 15 mm
7
50
40
30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C
transition to 20°C
3-dimensional
10 heat flow d = 20 mm
7
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
br-er05-30.cdr
Heat input E © ISF 2004

Dependence of E, t8/5 and


d During SA - Welding

Figure 4.30

If a fine-grained structural steel is to be welded, the steel manufacturer presets a


certain interval of cooling times, where the steel characteristics are not too negatively
affected. The user lays down the plate thickness and, through the selection of a
welding method, a specified range of heat input E. Based on the data E and t8/5 the
diagram provides the required preheating temperature for welding the respective
plate thickness.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 53

50
With the transition to thicker plates,
mm
Transition thickness dÜ 40
aera of
the diagrams in Fig. 4.31 apply. The
3-dimensional
30 0 °C
heat flow
2 50
°C 20 °C
00
upper part of the figure determines
T0 ° C 1
1 50
20 °C whether a two-dimensional or a three-
20
15

area of
dimensional heat dissipation is pre-
2-dimensional
10
heat flow sent. For the three-dimensional heat
9
8
7
dissipation, the lower diagram applies
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
Heat input E where the same information can be
50
s
40 determined, independent of plate
30 thickness, as with Fig. 4.30.
Cooling time t8/5

20 °C
0
25 °C
15 0
T 20 °C
0

0
15 °C
0
10 °C
20
10
9
8
7
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
br-er05-31.cdr
Heat input E © ISF 2004

Dependence of
E, T0, t8/5 And dÜ

Figure 4.31

The relation be-


gas composition:
35 C1 100% CO2
tween current and V
M21 82% Ar + 18% CO2 C1
M23 92% Ar + 8% O2
M21
voltage for MAG 30
M23
welding is shown
Welding voltage

25
in Fig. 4.32 and
20
the used shielding
gas is one of the 15
short arc mixed arc spray arc

parameters. Weld- contact tube distance ~15mm contact tube distance ~19mm

150 200 250 A 300


ing voltage and Welding current

welding current, or 3,5 4,5 5,5 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,5 m/min
br-er-05-32.cdr
Wire feed © ISF 2004

wire feed speed, Dependence of Current And Voltage During


determine the type MAG-Welding, Solid Wire, Æ1.2 mm

of arc. Figure 4.32


4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 54

The diagram in Fig. 4.33 demon-


h'UP = 1 F3 = 0,67 t8/5 max = 30 s Emax = 66 kJ/cm
h'MAG = 0,85 F2 = 0,67 t8/5 min = 6 s Emin = 14 kJ/cm
strates the dependence of plate thick-
dU max = 32 mm
dU min = 15 mm ness, heat input E and cooling time
60 70 t8/5 for fillet welds at a preheating
fillet welds
kJ/cm T0= 150 °C kJ/cm
30s temperature of T0 = 150°C. If d and
50 59
toughness affection 25s t8/5 are given, the acceptable range of
45 53
heat input can be determined with the

MAG - weldind
40 47

Heat input E
SA - welding
Heat input E

20s

35 41 help of this diagram. The kinks of the


30 35
15s
curves mark the transition between
25 29
two-dimensional and three-
20 10s 23
dimensional heat dissipation.
15 18
6s
10 12

5 cracking tendency 6

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
Plate thickness
br-er05-33.cdr © ISF 2004

Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding

Figure 4.33

Fig. 4.34 shows the same depend-


ence for butt welds with V groove h'UP = 1 F3 = 0,9 t8/5 max = 30 s Emax = 49 kJ/cm
h'MAG = 0,85 F2 = 0,9 t8/5 min = 6 s Emin = 10 kJ/cm
dU max = 34 mm
preparation. dU min = 15 mm

60 70
butt welds
kJ/cm T0= 150 °C kJ/cm

50 59
toughness affection
45 53
30s
MAG - welding

40 47
Heat input E
SA - welding
Heat input E

25s
35 41

30 20s 35

25 29
15s
20 23

15 10s 18

10 6s 12

5 cracking tendency 6

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
Plate thickness
br-er05-34.cdr © ISF 2004

Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding

Figure 4.34
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 55

The curve family in Fig. 4.35 shows the dependence of the heat input from the weld-
ing speed as well as the acceptable working range. The parameters of the curves 1
to 8 in the table
curve 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
have been taken
V 29 27 24 22 20 19 18 17

25 A 300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125


from Figures 4.32
kJ/cm
20 1
vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0 5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0 and 4.34 and apply
2
wor
3
king
rang
only for related
15 4 e
Heat input E

5
7
6 conditions like wire
10
8
diameter, wire
5
feed, welding
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 cm/min 60
Welding speed vS voltage, etc.
MAG/ M21 (82% Ar, 18% CO)
br-er-05-35.cdr © ISF 2004

E as a Function of Welding Speed,


Solid Wire, Æ1.2mm

Figure 4.35

Figure 4.36 shows


a reading example 60 70
curve 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
butt welds
kJ/cm T0= 150 °C kJ/cm V 29 27 24 22 20 19 18 17
for such diagrams 50 59 A 300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125
MAG - welding

toughness affection vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0 5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
SA - welding

45 53
(according to DVS- 40
30s

47
25s
Reference Sheet 35 41
Heat input E

Heat input E

30 20s 35 25
kJ/cm
Nr. 0916). 25 29 20
2
1
15s work
16
heat input E

20 23 3 ing
rang
15
In this example, a 15 10s 18
13
6
5
4 e

16 10 7

12 13
8
10
plate thickness of cracking tendency
6s
5
5 6
33 41
0
15 mm and a cool- 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 cm/min 60
Plate thickness Welding speed vS

ing time t8/5 be- br-er-05-36.cdr © ISF 2004

tween 10 and 20 s Determination of Welding Speed


for MAG - Welding
are given. In this
Figure 4.36
case, the maximum
cooling time for MAG welding is 15 s. A solid wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm at 29V
and 300A is used.
The left diagram provides heat input values between 13 and 16 kJ/cm, based on the
given data. Using these values, the acceptable range of welding speeds can be
taken from the diagram on the right.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 56

Fig. 4.37 presents a simplification of 800


°C
the determination of the microstruc- 700
F
600

Temperature
tural composition and cooling time B
P

500

subject to peak temperatures which 400


M
Peak temperature
1000°C
occur in the welding cycle. In the 300 1400°C

200
lower diagram, the point of the plate HV30=400 300 200
1400

thickness at the top line is linked with °C M B+M F+B F+P

Peak temperature
1200

the point of heat input at the lower


1000

line. The point of intersection of the Arc3

800
Arc1
linking line with the middle scale
600
1 10 100 s 1000 t8/5
represents the cooling time t8/5 . plate thickness
40 30 25 20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 mm 4

If the peak temperature of the welding three-dimensional


300 200 100

two-dimensional
t8/5
cycle is known, one can read from the 1 2 3 5 10 20 50 100 200 400 s 1000

preheating temperature
0 100 °C 200

middle diagram in which transition energy-per-unit length


6 8 10 20 30 40 50 kJ/cm 70
bie5-37.cdr © ISF 2004
field the final microstructures are
Peak temperature/cooling time
formed. The advantage of the deter- – diagram for the determination
of t8/5 and the structure
mination of microstructures compared
with the upper TTT diagram is that Figure 4.37
a TTT diagram applies only for exactly one peak temperature, other peak tempera-
tures are disregarded. The disadvantage of the PTCT diagram (peak temperature
cooling time diagram) is the very expensive determination, therefore, due to the
measurement efforts a systematic application of this concept to all common steel
types is subject to failure.

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