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1.j Define ͚evolution͛ and ͚natural selection͛.
a.j Evolution is any change the in the frequency of alleles within a gene pool from
one generation to the next.
b.j Natural selection is the variation in hereditary traits between and within
populations that determine probabilities of survival until reproduction.
2.j Explain how natural selection leads to evolution, including the conditions required for
natural selection to occur.
a.j As animals of a species that have suitable traits for their environment survive to
reproduce, over time suitable traits will become more and more common until
most of a population has the trait. The population will then be a new species and
we say that the population has evolved by natural selection.
b.j Natural selection will only occur if there are:
Êj pelective pressures by the environment.
Êj More offspring than the environment can support.
Êj Diversity within a species.
Êj There must be competition among the species.
3.j ptate the consequence of the overproduction of offspring.
a.j More offspring than the environment can support creates competition within a
population.
4.j Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.
a.j Meiosis allows a huge variety of genetically different gametes to be produced by
each individual.
b.j Fertilization allows alleles from two different individuals to be brought together
in new combinations in one new individual.
5.j Contrast Lamarck͛s theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics with Darwin͛s
theory of natural selection.
a.j Lamarck͛s theory: a species will adapt to its environment in order to survive by
gaining or losing a trait and passing the traits on to their offspring. He said that a
trait was gained lost through organ use/disuse and the gained or lost trait would
show in the offspring.
b.j Darwin͛s theory: an individual does not evolve, a population does. Evolution is a
process that happens over generations. Organisms that do not have suitable
traits for their environment will be less likely to pass on their traits. Organisms
with suitable traits for their environment will pass on their traits, as they are
more likely to survive. After many generations, most of the population will have
the suitable trait and will form a new species that can no longer reproduce with
the original species due to a change in their gene pool, as the unsuitable trait will
no longer be existent.
c.j MAIN DIFFERENCEp:
Êj phort time vs. long time
Êj Organ use/disuse vs. survival of successful traits
c c
6.j Distinguish, with examples, between homologous, analogous and vestigial structures.
a.j Homologous structures are formed in similar ways during embryonic
development and share similar arrangements; however, they have somewhat
different forms and functions.
Êj human, bat, chicken, cat
b.j Analogous structures - pome apparently unrelated animals have organs with
similar functions, yet are very different in structure and form.
Êj bats and butterflies
c.j Vestigial structures - Gradual changes have occurred through time that have, in
some cases, reduced or removed the function of some body structures and
organs.
Êj penguins wings
7.j Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution, including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
a.j Gradualism - Over a short period of time it is hard to notice. pmall variations that
fit an organism slightly better to its environment are selected. Very gradually,
over a long time, the population changes. Change is slow, constant, and
consistent.
b.j Punctuated equilibrium - change comes in spurts. There is a period of very little
change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in
the genes of a few individuals. Because these mutations are so different and so
helpful to the survival of those that have them, the proportion of individuals in
the population who have the mutation/trait and those who don't changes a lot
over a very short period of time. The species changes very rapidly over a few
generations, then settles down again to a period of little change.
8.j Explain why transitional fossils are a particularly important piece of evidence in support
of evolution as a gradual process.
a.j Transitional fossils show that animals and plants became more complex and
diverse over time. The shallower the layer, the more diverse the fossils are
showing that animals and plants evolved over time to become less and less
related to each other.
b.j Allele Frequency - the frequency of an allele, as a proportion of all the alleles of
the gene in the population.
c.j Genotype Frequency - the frequency of the genotype, as a proportion of the all
genotypes for a particular trait in an interbreeding population.
d.j Gene Pool - total collection of the genes in an interbreeding population.
2.j Define evolution in terms of allele frequencies.
a.j Evolution always involves a change in the allele frequency in the population͛s
gene pool: These bring about small changes in population: evolution at a smaller
scale called microevolution.
3.j Explain three ways in which natural selection can affect allele frequencies.
a.j ptabilizing pelection
Êj Typically occurs in stableenvironments.
Êj puch environments tend to reduce variation in phenotypes.
Êj The extreme ends of the traits are eliminated resulting in the organisms
having a reproductive disadvantage.
Êj ptabilizing selection prevails most of the time in most populations.
Êj E.g. ptabilizing selection keeps most human new borns in range 3-4 kg.
Lighter weight and heavy weight babies have higher mortality rates.
b.j Directional pelection
Êj It is most common during periods of environmental change or when
members of species move to a new location.
Êj E.g. insects exposed to insecticides, Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
c.j Disruptive pelection
Êj Typical when environmental conditions favor organisms at extreme
ends of phenotype range.
Êj It leads to a population having two or more contrasting phenotypes for
a trait in the population.
Êj E.g. In a population of African seed crackerfinches, [feed by cracking
seeds], large billed birds and small billedbirds would be at an advantage.
4.j Explain the meaning of the terms in the HardyʹWeinberg equation.
a.j p and q are two different alleles.
b.j p2 is the frequency of homozygous dominant.
c.j 2pq is the frequency of heterozygous.
d.j q2 is the frequency of homozygous recessive.
5.j Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the
HardyʹWeinberg equation.
6.j ptate the assumptions made when the HardyʹWeinberg equation is used.
a.j There is random mating in the population.
b.j Natural selection is NOT at play: no higher mortality of one specific allele
individuals.
c.j There is NOmutation
d.j The population Iplarge [not small]
e.j There is no immigration or emigration [no gene flow between populations]
c c
4.j Distinguish between transient and balanced polymorphisms using an example for each.
a.j POLYMORPHIpM is when a population has two alleles of a gene in the gene pool.
b.j When one allele is gradually replacing the other, then the population is showing
TRANpIENT POLYMORPHIpM.
Êj e.g. Peppered moth: ´
In Britain and Up: melanic
[
and
] form was more common in 19th century: recall
industrial revolution- air was polluted and dark- dark forms had
reproductive advantage. The dominant allele was favored.
c.j pometimes two alleles of a gene can persist indefinitely in the gene pool for a
long period of time. This is called balanced polymorphism.
Êj e.g. sickle cell anemia is the best studied example.
Dominant individuals do not have sickle cell anemia
but are susceptible to malaria.
Recessive individuals develop sickle cell anemia and
areresistant to malaria [ alllele produced by gene
mutation]
Heterozygous individuals do not develop sickle cell
anemia and are resistant to malaria.
j pince heterozygous individuals have a reproductive advantage
over the other two, both the alleles have remained in the gene
pool of population.
j In malaria stricken areas, about 40% of individuals are
heterozygous
Êj Many sibling species have been found- that is species that cannot
interbreed even if they have no significant differences in appearance.
Êj pome pairs of species will interbreed even if they show different
characteristics.
Êj pome species always reproduce asexually and DO NOT interbreed. These
are classified using Morphological species concept.
Êj Fossilscannot be classified according to biological species definition as it
is impossible to determine if they could have interbred.
c.j Ecological species concepts͙.ecological niches͙where they live and what they
feed on.
Êj This concept identifies species in terms of their ecological niche.
Êj It focuses on their unique adaptations.
d.j Phylogenetic species concepts͙.morphology and DNA sequence
Êj It defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a
common ancestor and forms one branch in the tree of life.
Êj The phylogenetic history is traced using morphology and DNA sequence.
2.j Explain the mechanisms of speciation and the biological barriers to reproduction
between different species.
a.j Prezygotic Isolation
Êj Prevention of Mating
j ecological isolation ʹ species occupy separate habitats so do not
encounter one another to reproduce
j temporal isolation ʹ the species reproductive cycles occur at
different times
j mechanical isolation ʹ structural differences in reproductive
organs
Êj Prevention of Fertilization
j gametic isolation ʹ gametes are unable to fuse to form a zygote
j behavioural isolation ʹ a distinct mating ritual by one species does
not attract members of another species
b.j Postzygotic Isolation
Êj zygote mortality ʹ after fertilization, some incompatibility (usually
chromosomal) results in the zygote failing to develop properly
Êj hybridinviability ʹ if the embryo develops, the resulting hybrid
experiences severely reduced fitness and does not live long
Êj hybrid infertility ʹ hybrids that become strong and fit adults are likely to
be infertile, failing to undergo successful meiotic division
3.j Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.
a.j Tetraploid plant will have all parts of its
b.j body with tetraploidcells.
c.j Gametes produced will be diploid [2n].
d.j pelf fertilization will produce tetraploids.
e.j Tetraploids can reproduce with tetraploids.
f.j But tetraploids cannot produce fertile offspring with diploids.
c c