OCT 27, 2020
Ignorance, the root and the stem of
Multiple Choice and Essay
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
 THREE FORMS OF LEARNING
COGNITIVE (Knowledge)
- aims to develop the mental skills and the
acquisition of knowledge of the individual.
The cognitive domain encompasses of six
categories which include knowledge;
comprehension; application; analysis;
synthesis; and evaluation
AFFECTIVE (Valuing)
- includes the feelings, emotions and
attitudes of the individual
- The ability of the student to prioritize
a value over another and create a unique value
system is known as organization. This can be
assessed with the need to value one’s academic
work as against their social relationships.
PSYCHOMOTOR (Behaviour)
- includes utilizing motor skills and the
ability to coordinate them. The sub domains of
psychomotor include perception; set; guided
response; mechanism; complex overt response;
adaptation; and origination
 THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
PHILIOSOPHY
GREEK PHILOSOPERS
 SOCRATES
1. Strong minds discuss ideas, average
minds discuss events, weak minds discuss
people.
2. I cannot teach anybody anything. I can
only make them think.
3. The only true wisdom is in knowing you
know nothing.
4. Smart people learn from everything and
everyone, average people from their
experiences, stupid people already have all
the answers.
5. The secret of happiness, you see, is not
found in seeking more, but in developing the
capacity to enjoy less.
6. He who is not contented with what he
has, would not be contented with what he would
like to have.
7. Why should we pay so much attention to
what the majority thinks?
8. Understanding a question is half an
answer.
9. Every action has its pleasures and its
price.
10. Falling down is not a failure. Failure
comes when you stay where you have fallen.
11. By all means marry; if you get good
wife, you’ll become happy; if you get a bad
one, you’ll become a philosopher.
12. In every person there is a sun. Just
let them shine.
*PLATO
1. A grateful mind is a great mind which
eventually attracts to itself great things.
2. Knowledge which is acquired under
compulsion obtains no hold on the mind.
3. Wise men speak because they have
something to say; fools because they have to
say something.
4.
every evil.
5. Happiness springs from doing good and
helping others.
6. Life must be lived as play.
7. The penalty that good men pay for not
being interested in politics is to be governed
by men worse that themselves.
8. Opinion is the medium between knowledge
and ignorance.
9. The first and best victory is to conquer
self.
10. I never did anything worth doing by
accident, nor did any of my intentions come by
accident; they came by work.
11. Love is the pursuit of the whole.
12. Be kind, for everyone you meet is
fighting a harder battle.
*ARISTOTLE
1. Human beings are curious by nature.
2. The energy of the mind is the essence of
life.
3. Those that know, do. Those that
understand, teach.
4. The educated differ from the uneducated
as much as the living from the dead.
5. Happiness is the meaning and the purpose
of life, the whole aim and end of human
existence.
6. Happiness does not consist in pastimes
and amusements but in virtuous activities.
7. It is not always the same thing to be a
good man and a good citizen.
8. He who cannot be a good follower cannot
be a good leader.
9. We are what we repeatedly do.
Excellence, therefore, is not an act, but a
habit.
10. Through discipline comes freedom.
11. Love is composed of a single soul
inhabiting two bodies.
12. What is the essence of life? To serve
others and to do good.
 THE SELF AS VIEWED FROM THE SELF FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
1. SOCIOLOGY & POSITIVISM BY: AUGUSTE COMTE
 AUGUSTE COMTE
- “Father of Sociology”
- French philosopher
 SOCIOLOGY
- is the scientific study of society and
human behavior
 POSITIVISM
- Positivism is the view that social
phenomena (such as human social behavior and
how societies are structured) ought to be
studied using only the methods of the natural
sciences. - Positivism is a view about the
appropriate methodology of social science,
emphasizing empirical observation.
- It is also associated with empiricism
(the view that knowledge is primarily based on
experience via the five senses), and it is
opposed to metaphysics — roughly, the
philosophical study of what is real — on the
grounds that metaphysical claims cannot be
verified by sense experience.
- Positivism was developed in the 19th
century by Auguste Comte, who coined the term
"sociology."
- Many contemporary thinkers criticize
positivism, claiming for example that not all
data is empirically observable.

2. MODERN CAPITALISM BY: EMILE DURKHEIM
 believed that capitalism was productive as
it made countries richer
 and in certain ways was liberating
 believed that the economic system was doing
something to people’s minds... it was
literally driving them to suicide
 once a nation become industrialized
(developing of countries), suicide rates
went up. He made comparisons with nations
in his time
 Suicide theory was to shed light on the
unhappiness in societies: mental distress
created by capitalism
 Why people become so unhappy in modern
societies due to capitalism (5 factors)
 Individualism
 Excessive hopes
 More freedom
 Religion: Atheism
 Weakening of the nation and family
3. Theory of Social Inequality by: Max
Weber
 No single characteristics defines a
person’s position in stratification system
 3 components of Stratification:
 Class
- refers to a group of people who have
similar level of wealth and income
- people who share the same economic
interests
- Ownership of the means of production
- Market situation
*LIFE CHANGES
- health
- education
- income
- crime
- leisure
- job satisfaction
*Class groupings within Capitalism
C.) Social Class
1. The propertied upper class
2. The property less white-collar workers
3. The petty bourgeoisie
4. The manual working class
 *Status
- refers to people who have the same
prestige or lifestyle
- high social status/ low social status
 Party
- Parties are concerned with power.  They
are usually some combination of class and
status, but they need not be.  Weber wants to
call parties a whole separate dimension. The
whole goal of parties is to gain power, to
gain control.
 Power
- the ability to exercise one’s will over
others
4. Alienation by: Karl Marx
 Believes that work at its best is what
makes human: it fulfills our species
essence as he put it;
 Work allows us to live to be creative, to
flourish
 In 19th century Europe, work destroyed
workers particularly those who had nothing
to sell but their labor
 That to factory owners, a worker was a
simply an abstract idea with a stomach that
needed to be filled
 The workers had no choice but to toil long
hours for a pitiful wage. What was worse,
their labor alienated them.
 Alienation is a disorienting sense of
expulsion and separation
 Factory labor under capitalism alienated
the workers from the product of their labor
 They made stuff they couldn’t afford to buy
which disappeared to shops in far-off
places to make money for the people who
paid them next to nothing
 The factory production line splits jobs
into meaningless tasks that made the hours
at work tedious,empty and bleak. They
became cogs in a gigantic machine workers
lived for the few hours at home
 When they could eat, sleep and relax the
rest of the time
 They weren’t fully alive
 This work also alienated them from each
other. The only way out of this jaggery
Marx argued was for the workers to organize
and revolt. They need to seize the means of
production leading to his famous rallying
cry “workers of the world unite. You have
nothing to lose but your change”
5. Survival of the Fittest: Herbert Spencer
 “Survival of the fittest” is a phrase
that’s nearly synonymous with the theory of
evolution. ; refers to the most adaptable
species being able to live and reproduce
 Wasn’t actually coined by Charles Darwin
 But by Herbert Spencer
 He thought that Darwin’s evolutionary
theory could also be applied to economic
theory
 “Social Darwinism” is the conflict between
social groups which results in the most
socially capable or fit group coming out on
top as the winner, usually n terms of
influence and wealth ; rich people would
succeed and poor people would fail
 He believed that by taking care of the
poor, elderly and the sick. Humanity does
itself a disservice by “favoring the
multiplication of those worst fitted for
existence
 Because keeping these so-called “weak
links” around led to their
“weaknesses”living on in the society for
generations to come.
 He claimed that any actions which aimed to
help these people arose from, “a radically
wrong understanding of human existence”
 This focus on niches and cooperation not
only paints a more reasonable picture of
how evolution and ecosystem works. It also
makes for a better model on how we as
humans should treat each other in society.
There is noting wrong with little
competition , it has its place both in
nature and in society but if we really want
to thrive we need to identify and refine
our personal strengths and find others whom
we can work with, to improve our situation
and maintain our happiness.
 THE SELF AS VIEWED FROM THE SELF FROM THE
PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY

Early European Sociologists
Auguste Comte – coined the term “sociology”
and wrote positive philosophy.
Harriet Martineau – wrote “How to observe
Manners and Morals”
Herbert Spencer – developed a theoretical
approach to understanding society . “survival
of the fittest”
Emile Durkheim – he believed that social
solidarity create social order.
Max Weber – his most important contribution
to sociology is the concept of “ideal type”, a
conceptual model or typology constructed from
the direct observation of a number of specific
cases and representing the essential qualities
found in those cases.
 THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS
Socialization – a process in which we learn
and internalize the attitudes, values,
beliefs, and norms of our culture and develop
a sense of self.
Influence of nature (heredity) versus
nature (heredity) in personality development.
Personality development: a Psychological view
 DEVELOPING A SOCIAL SELF: A SOCIOLOGICAL
APPROACH
George Herbet Mead (1934) contended that an
individual’s mind and concept of self are
inseparable from society and social
interaction.
Self – a person’s conscious recognition
that he or she is a distinct individual who is
part of a large society.
I – in Mead’s schema, the unsocialized self
as a subject.
Me – in Mead’s schema, the socialized self
as object.
The sense of “me” represents people’s
ability to realize that they are members of a
social world, and that they act in a way that
has an impact on others.
Through effective socialization, the I and
me work in harmony to allow the individual
act, react, and interact with other.
 “LOOKING-GLASS SELF”
- developed by Charles Horton Cooley
- A concept that individuals use others
like mirrors and base their conceptions of
themselves on what is reflected back to
them during social interaction.
 Three (3) steps in the process of the
Looking-Glass Self:
1. Imagination of our appearance to others.
2. Imagination of their judgment of that
appearance.
3. Development of feelings about and
responses to their judgment.
*The opinions of family and friends are
likely to have a greater impact on our concept
of self than the opinions of strangers.
*It is possible to misinterpret the
feedback we receive from others.
Situated Self – the self that emerges in a
particular situation. Social interaction
requires that the selves we present to others
vary from situation to situation; that is we
all have multiple selves.
Social perception – is the process by which
we form impressions of others and of
ourselves.
Our initial impressions of others depend on
our perceptions of people’s social identities.
Stereotypes – are static and oversimplified
ideas about a group or social category.
*People are identified as belonging to a
particular category.
 MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
~ Family
~ School
~ Religion
~ Peers
~ Workplace
~ Media
 SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE COURSE
Social Learning Theory – The idea that much
human behaviour is learned from modelling
others.
Socialization is a lifelong process
according to sociologist Arnold Van Gennep.
Life course – a process in which
individuals move from one biological and
social stage to another as they grow and
develop.
Rites of passage - are ceremonies that
symbolically acknowledge transitions from one
life stage to another.
*Mead and Cooley focused on primary
socialization, the learning of human
characteristics and behaviours and the
development of a concept of self.
*Beginning at birth and extending thru
childhood, primary socialization is extremely
important because it provides the foundation
for our personality development and the
development of our social selves.
Role taking – the ability to anticipate
what others expect of us, and to act
accordingly.
Significant others – are specific people
with whom we interact and whose response has
meaning for us.
Generalized others – the dominant attitudes
and expectations of most members of society.
*Mead viewed the developmental process as
purely social. By interacting with others, an
individual develops a self; then, as a result
of further social experience, he or she learns
the world thru the eyes of others.
Developmental socialization – learning
better to fulfil the roles we already occupy.
Desocialization – the “unlearning” of
previous normative expectations and roles.
Resocialization – learning a radically
different set of norms, attitudes, values,
beliefs and behaviours.
Total institutions – are places where
people carry out virtually all of their
activities.
Degradation ceremony - a process in which
an individual is stripped of his or her former
self, publicly stigmatized, and assigned a new
identity.
An example of which is the criminal trial, in
which criminals are publicly charged and
convicted and their identities changed.
 STAGES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
According to Mead, there are three
developmental stages.
1. Imitative Stage
- Imitate significant others 1. Symbols
- Mimic social roles 2. Language
- Awareness of self 3. Beliefs
2. Play Stage 4. Values
- Anticipatory socialization 5. Norms
- Pretend to fill social roles 6. Material objects
- Learn norms and role expectations
3. Game Stage Symbol – is anything to which group members
- Assume social roles assign meaning.
- Anticipate actions of significant and
generalized others Humans use signs and symbols to express
- Conform to norms and role expectations emotions and
communicate messages.
 STAGES OF COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT:
JEAN PIAGET (1954) Language – is a complex system of symbols with
conventional
- Sensorimotor stage meanings that people use for communication.
- Preoperational stage
- Concrete operational stage There are an estimated 3,000 – 5,000 spoken
- Formal operational stage languages
worldwide today.
 ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Body language is often used to reinforce
PSYCHO SOCIAL STAGE VIRTUE spoken messages.
Stage 1 Trust vs mistrust hope
Stage 2 Autonomy vs shame will Beliefs – assertions about the nature of
Stage 3 Initiative vs guilt purpose reality.
Stage 4 Industry vs inferiority competency
Stage 5 Identity vs role confusion fidelity Values – shared ideas about what is socially
Stage 6 Intimacy vs isolation love desirable.
Stage 7 Generativity vs stagnation care
Stage 8 Ego integrity vs despair wisdom The following are the mostly widespread
core values:
 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THREE DISTINCT LEVELS
OF MORAL REASONING 1. Individualism and Freedom
2. Equality
Level 1 : Pre-conventional Morality 3. Achievement
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment 4. Efficiency and Practicality
Stage 2: Individualism and exchange 5. Progress and Technology
Level 2 : Conventional Morality 6. Material comfort and Consumerism
Stage 3: Good interpersonal 7. Work and Leisure
relationship
Stage 4: Maintaining social order Culture shock – feelings of confusion and
Level 3: Post conventional Morality disorientation that
Stage 5: Social contract and individual occur when a person encounters a very
rights different culture.
Stage 6: Universal Principles
Ethnocentrism – the tendency to evaluate the
 THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF customs of other groups according to one’s own
ANTHROPOLOGY cultural standard.

CULTURE is the learned set of beliefs, values, Cultural relativism - a perspective which
norms, and material goods shared by group asks that we evaluate other cultures according
members. to their standards, not ours.

• The self and person in contemporary Norms – are expectations and rules for proper
anthropology. conduct that guide behavior of group members.

2 Major Components: Taboos – are prohibitions against behaviors

Material culture : artifacts, art,
architecture, and other tangible
goods that people create and assign meanings.
Nonmaterial culture: Mental blueprints that
serve as guidelines for group behavior. They
include the collective assumptions, languages,
beliefs, values, norms, and attitudes of
groups.
Today, most human behaviors are learned
and culturally patterned within groups.
The first clear evidence of culture is from
about 2 million years ago on the plains of
Africa.
Components of Culture
that most members of a group consider to be so
repugnant they are unthinkable.
Mores – are norms that people consider
essential to the proper working of society.
Laws – formal rules enacted and enforced by
the power of the state, which apply to members
of society.
Folkways – informal rules and expectations
that guide people’s everyday lives.
Sanctions – penalties or rewards society uses
to encourage conformity and punish deviance.
GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Subcultures – groups that share many elements
of mainstream culture but maintain their own
distinctive customs, values, norms and
lifestyles.
Countercultures – groups that reject the
conventional wisdom and standards of behavior
of the majority and provide alternatives to
mainstream culture.
Multiculturalism – encourages respect and
appreciation for cultural differences.
Postmodern values are associated with
prosperous high-tech societies. They emphasize
quality of life and greater openness to change
and diversity.
High Culture includes tastes and creations
supported and used
Ideal Culture – what people should do,
according to group norms and values.
Real culture – what people do in everyday
social interaction.
Cultural lag – inconsistencies in a cultural
system, especially in the relationship between
technology and nonmaterial culture.
Cultural Ecological Approach – an approach
that examines the relationship between a
culture and its total environment.
 THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY BY: SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud
 Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) a method for
treating mental illness and also a theory
which explains human behavior.
 Freud believed that events in our childhood
have a great influence on our
adult lives, shaping our personality. For
example, anxiety originating from
traumatic experiences in a person's past is
hidden from consciousness, and
may cause problems during adulthood (in the
form of neuroses). Thus, when
we explain our behavior to ourselves or others
(conscious mental activity),
we rarely give a true account of our
motivation. This is not because we are
deliberately lying. While human beings are
great deceivers of others; they are
even more adept at self-deception.
 The id, ego, and superego have most
commonly been conceptualized as three
essential parts of the human personality.
 The id is the primitive, impulsive and
irrational unconscious that operates solely
on the outcome of pleasure or pain and is
responsible for instincts to sex and
aggression.
 The ego is the “I” people perceive that
evaluates the outside physical and social
world and makes plans accordingly.
 The superego is the moral voice and
conscience that guides the ego; violating
it results in feelings of guilt and
anxiety.
 Freud believed that children are born
with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge.
 There are a number of stages of
childhood, during which the child seeks
pleasure from a different ‘object.’
 Freud (1900) considered dreams to be
the royal road to the unconscious as it is in
dreams that the ego's defenses are lowered so
that some of the repressed material comes
through to awareness, but in distorted form.
 THE ARCHETYPES BY: CARL JUNG

Carl Jung, in full Carl Gustav Jung, (born
July 26, 1875, Kesswil, Switzerland—died
June 6, 1961, Küsnacht), Swiss psychologist
and psychiatrist who founded analytic
psychology. Jung proposed and developed the
concepts of the extraverted and the
introverted personality, archetypes, and
the collective unconscious. According to
Jung there are two mutually exclusive
attitudes – extraversion and introversion.
 Are images and thoughts which have
universal meanings across cultures which
may show up I dreams, literature, art or
religion. For Jung, our primitive past
becomes the basis of the human psyche,
directing and influencing present behavior.
Jung claimed to identify a large number of
archetypes but paid special attention to
four.
 “Each person seems to be energized more by
either the external world (extraversion) or
the internal world (introversion).”
 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Carl Rogers was one of the founding figures of
humanistic psychology
 Client-centered therapy
Client-centered therapy, also known as person-
centered therapy, is a non-
directive form of talk therapy that was
developed by Humanist Psychologists
 Developing the notion of the fully-
functioning person
According to Carl Rogers, a fully functioning
person is one who is in touch
with his or her deepest and innermost feelings
and desires. These individuals
understand their own emotions and place a deep
trust in their own instincts
and urges
 Concept of Unconditional Positive Regard
According to Rogers, unconditional positive
regard involves showing
complete support and acceptance of a person no
matter what that person
says or does.

 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 Albert Bandura is an influential social
cognitive psychologist who is perhaps best-
known for his social learning theory, the
concept of self-efficacy, and his famous
Bobo doll experiments.
 According to Bandura's social learning
theory, learning occurs through
observations and interactions with other
people. Essentially, people learn by
watching others and then imitating these
actions.
 According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy
is "the belief in one’s capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action
required to manage prospective situations."
In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s
belief in his or her ability to succeed in
a particular situation.
 THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION
 always want to talk to you because you are
William James
used
the term
“the
empirical self” or “me” to refer to all of
the various ways people answer the
question “Who am I?”
 “The Empirical Self of each of us is all
that he is tempted to call by the name of
“me”. But it is clear that between what a
man calls me and what he simply calls mine
the line is difficult to draw. We feel and
act about certain things that are ours very
much as we feel and act about ourselves.
Our fame, our children, the work of our
hands, may be as dear to us as our bodies
are, and arouse the same feelings and the
same acts of reprisal if attacked.”
 James went on to group the various
components of the empirical self into three
subcategories: (a) the material self, (b)
the social self, and (c) the spiritual
self.
 THE JOHARI WINDOW
 The Johari Window is a psychological tool
created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in
1955. It’s a simple and useful tool for
understanding and training:
• self-awareness
• personal development
• improving communications
• interpersonal relationships
• group dynamics
• team development; and
• inter group relationships
 The balance between the four quadrants can
change. You might want to tell someone an
aspect of your life that you had previously
kept hidden. For example, maybe you are not
comfortable contributing ideas in large
groups. This would increase your open area
and decrease your hidden area.
 It is also possible to increase your open
area by asking for feedback from people.
When feedback is given honestly to you it
can reduce the size of your blind area.
Maybe you interrupt people before they have
finished making their point which can cause
frustration. Alternatively people may
a good listener. Sometimes you don’t
realize these aspects of your character
until it is pointed out.
 By working with others it is possible for
you to discover aspects that neither of you
may never have appreciated before.
 THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS BY: ABRAHAM MASLOW
 Abraham Maslow arranged human needs in a
hierarchy from stronger and lower to weaker
and higher. The essence of Maslow’s study
suggested that what people really want is
more of everything.
 People desire a better situation for
themselves. They want only what they do not
have and thus, satisfied needs do not
motivate behavior. Needs or wants can be
arranged in a hierarchy according to
importance. Thus, when needs on the lower
level are fulfilled, those on the higher
level emerge and demand satisfaction.
 THE E-R-G THEORY BY: CLAYTON ALDERFER
Alderfer’s
ERG Theory
 Alderfer
agrees
with Maslow
that individual
needs are
 arranged in hierarchy. His need hierarchy
includes three sets of needs.

1. Existence: needs satisfied by such factors

as food, air, water, pay, working condition
2. Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful
social and interpersonal relationship
3. Growth: needs satisfied by making creative
or productive contribution