EMF awareness in the Japanese

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

EFL/EMI context
Tomokazu Ishikawa

The notion of English as a multilingua franca (EMF) positions English within

multilingualism, and EMF awareness prepares students to communicate
effectively in this multilingual world of mobility. The present paper explores
how, if ever, EMF-aware pedagogic intervention influences Japanese students’
perceptions of their communicative practices, particularly for English-major
undergraduates in L1-shared classrooms. This intervention was made by
providing opportunities for participants to engage in EMF and by examining
their first-hand experiences and published EMF communication extracts in the
classrooms. Empirical data from an open-ended questionnaire demonstrate that
multilingual and transmodal accommodation was a way for them to notice
and take advantage of global networks, develop capability and confidence in
communication, and foster sensitivity to interactants’ backgrounds. The data
also illustrate the invaluable role of individual multilingual experiences as
classroom ‘materials’, and suggest that discussing these experiences potentially
turns L1-shared classrooms into EMF scenarios through foregrounding students’
multilingual repertoires. 
Introduction English as a lingua franca (ELF) is a key research field for ELT and
more recently for English-medium instruction (EMI). A leading ELF
handbook devotes one section to the pedagogic applications of ELF
across geographical boundaries, and another section to the heightened
complexity of English and literacy in international academia (Jenkins,
Baker, and Dewey 2018). In both areas, the ELF research field has
identified the gap between the established EFL approach and the reality
of prevalent social contacts for which English functions as a global lingua
franca (Seidlhofer 2011). After all, ELF has long documented that English
and multilingual resources are used dynamically and contextually for
effective communication. Along this line, a prominent notion in the
field, English as a multilingua franca (EMF), foregrounds the inherent
multilingualism of global encounters through English (Jenkins 2015).
Unlike in multilingual communication scenarios today, in some contexts
around the world instructors and all students share their mother tongue
in ELT and EMI. Against this backdrop, the present paper discusses
the possibility of raising what it terms EMF awareness (see below) in

ELT Journal; doi:10.1093/elt/ccaa037  Page 1 of 10

© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
 L1-shared EMI classrooms to prepare students for today’s mobility and
English-within-multilingualism.
From English as ELF as a field of research has enquired into what an observable
a monolingual communicative phenomenon is like in global encounters among

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

construct to English users. They are often multilinguals, and the working definition
multilingual of EMF is: ‘Multilingual communication in which English is available
influences and as a contact language of choice, but is not necessarily chosen’ (Jenkins
practices 2015: 73). EMF is related to translanguaging, the study of which usually
involves how bilinguals or multilinguals use their whole linguistic
resources as one unified repertoire (Li 2018). EMF features all English
users, including so-called monolinguals’ translanguaging, in other
words, ‘multilanguaging’ (Jenkins 2015), i.e. learning and exploiting
previously unfamiliar multilingual resources as communicatively effective
(Ishikawa 2017a). Correspondingly, the term multilingual in this paper
includes ‘multilanguaging’. In addition, while translanguaging (and
multilingualism) can dispense with English, EMF is concerned with
this prominent lingua franca. Without it, global communication would
be more difficult. At the same time, EMF problematizes the danger
of conflating Standard English in EFL with English in its entirety and
ignoring the multilingual reality.
The monolingual Standard English is a convenient fiction for pedagogy. Nonetheless, it
construct of is not equal to anyone’s repertoire or totality of individually available
Standard English linguistic resources. As Hall (2018) contends, on the one hand, L1 English
speakers only become familiar with national Standard English through
schooling. On the other hand, most English learners are exposed to
Standard English as their additional language. In either case, Standard
English never stands alone in anyone’s mind.
In addition, widely marketed Standard English in EFL is based on an
idealized monolingual speech community, usually of the United States
or the United Kingdom. However, the real-world objective to acquire L2
English is to be bi/multilingual in a globalizing world, ‘rather than to
replace the learner’s L1 to become another monolingual’ (Li 2018: 16) in a
particular locale.
Reality of EMF illustrates what English-knowing agents actually do around the
multilingual globe. It addresses the empirical evidence that ‘the best solutions [for
influences mutual understanding] need not be the most standardised-like or
and practices native-like … [or] even English’ (Mauranen 2018: 114), and that global
with English communication brings out multilingualism with varying degrees of
overtness (Cogo 2018) across different linguistic levels (e.g. phonology,
lexicogrammar, pragmatics, and discourse structure). Thus, EMF
highlights how malleable and permeable English and other languages are.
Indeed, over the last two decades, ELF research has documented mutual
accommodation (i.e. adjusting and adapting the way you speak according
to the situation) as crucial for mutual understanding among multilingual
English users (Jenkins 2015).
EMF may include an L1-shared classroom in its research targets, although
ELF research normally targets ‘any use of English among speakers
of different first languages’ (Seidlhofer 2011: 7). EMF attaches more

Page 2 of 10 Tomokazu Ishikawa

 importance to emergent multilingual influences or practices and dynamic
repertoires than the English language itself and L1 status. As a corollary,
EMF includes communication among English-knowing multilingual
speakers of the same L1s or L1 varieties (Ishikawa 2017a).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

Transcultural EMF coincides with today’s transcultural communication. Empirically,
and transmodal global interaction easily blurs and transcends the boundaries (e.g.
communication gender and generation) and scales (i.e. local, national, and global) of
named cultures (Baker 2015). For instance, cosplay, hip-hop, and many
food cultures are associable with different people at different scales.
Accordingly, interactants may transform and enrich their cultural
understandings.
Such situated meaning-making is usually transmodal, i.e. orchestrating
multiple verbal and non-verbal modes (e.g. emoticon, gesture and posture,
image, and sound). Communication is not just about language, and
meaning is created and interpreted through these blended modes. Due to
advances in communication technologies, mode indexes are ‘continuously
shifting and re-shaping in their contexts and mobility’ (Hawkins 2018:
64), and the same internet meme, for instance, may develop different
meanings in different times and spaces.
In summary, EMF advocates a shift to the reality of multilingual
influences and practices among English users for transcultural and
transmodal communication. The next section turns to consider the
pedagogic application of EMF awareness in my study.
EMF awareness: To meet the cognitive, affective, and communicational needs of
pedagogic individuals for global communication, EMF awareness integrates
intervention study conceptual understanding, motivational attitudes, and communicative
practices. To be precise, it does not only aim to raise students’ linguistic
and cultural awareness and nurture confidence as English users. It also
aims to enable students to connect this conscious understanding to their
own transcultural and transmodal communication by appropriating
English and multilingual resources. It is hoped that they will continue
developing the ability to communicate through actual experiences and
reflections on them.
So far, a number of ELF studies have investigated how ELF-oriented
classroom instruction and activities affect students’ attitudes positively
(e.g. Fang and Ren 2018; for the construct of ELF awareness, see Sifakis
2019). What has not been investigated is the notion of EMF in relation
to pedagogy, and more specifically whether and how exposure to EMF
scenarios affects students’ views of their communication outside the
classroom. Also, an L1-shared scenario is untypical, and not yet thoroughly
operationalized in ELF enquiry. As a first step to fill these gaps, the
following research question is explored via an open-ended questionnaire:
How, if ever, does EMF-aware pedagogic intervention (see below) in L1
Japanese classrooms influence the students’ views of their out-of-class
communicative practices?
Participants and The study targeted undergraduates who had selected my semester-long
settings EMI sociolinguistics module on global communication, which was given

EMF awareness in the Japanese EFL/EMI context Page 3 of 10

 at both a humanities faculty of a top comprehensive institution in Tokyo
(University A) and a university of foreign studies in the suburbs of Tokyo
(University B). Again, everyone’s strongest language was Japanese in both
classes. In total, 91 students (out of 108, from Years 1 to 4) and 15 students
(out of 15, from Years 3 and 4) were willing to fill in the questionnaire.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

All 106 participants were English majors. Unlike University B, which
attracted exchange students from Asia, Australasia, Americas, and Europe
on its small campus throughout the academic year, University A’s faculty
in question consisted almost exclusively of Japanese students. At the
same time, the class at University A was run in collaboration with that
of an international university in Taiwan found through an ELF research
network. While not intending to compare and contrast the questionnaire
data between the two settings, I acknowledge that substantial differences
may emerge.
Types of The module was designed according to two principles: (i) providing
intervention students with experiences of EMF scenarios, and (ii) encouraging
their critical thinking about language and culture in reference to
their experiences and in reference to published research. To provide
multilingual experiences, students at University A studied a similar
syllabus to a class at the Taiwanese university and exchanged ideas via
Skype during three in-class video conferences followed by individual
discussions at home. However, I did not make any similar efforts at
University B because all the 15 students had regular contact, mainly in
English, with exchange students.
At both universities, I gave an occasional mini-lecture on the development
of ELF research, including accommodative processes attested by corpora
(see Jenkins 2015). Meanwhile, in every class meeting, I encouraged
proactive discussion, debate, or presentation about language and culture,
based on either students’ individual experiences during the semester or
communication extracts from publications, such as the two examples
below. Example 1 is an extract adapted from Pennycook and Otsuji
(2015: 79).

Example 1
[Nabil, floor staff, talking to a Japanese customer at a French restaurant
in Tokyo]
Nabil: Voilà. Yasai to anchovy kuro olive sauce. (Here it is. Vegetable
and anchovy black olive sauce.)
Customer: Ha::i. (Ye::s.)
Nabil: Bon appétit! (Enjoy your meal!)
The customer most probably saw the menu with a Japanese translation
(i.e. 野菜のアンチョビ黒オリーブソース [yasai no anchobi kuro orību
sōsu]), and Nabil could have used more Japanese. Indeed, the customer
replied in Japanese (i.e. ‘Ha::i’). Students in small groups were asked to
imagine and explain this situation before sharing their ideas with the
class. Some of them noticed that Nabil’s behaviour, or non-verbal modes,
complemented his multilingual practices, which opened up a virtual
French space during this brief contact. Others suggested the mediating
role of English since both ‘anchovy’ and ‘olive sauce’ are English words.

Page 4 of 10 Tomokazu Ishikawa

 Example 2 is adapted from Baker (2015: 96).
Example 2
[Philippe from Belgium talking with Nami at a café in her city of
Bangkok]

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

Philippe: Marseilles is really nice city south of France … they play err
petanque
Nami: ahh petanque … there’s some people from my school that
Philippe: you know that the French embassy they organize err a
championship every year in Thailand
Nami: yeah … do you play
Philippe: no. I’m shit
Nami: ((laughs)) you’re really young ((laughs))
Philippe: I know you have to be really old to play that game
Nami: NO ((laughs))
Philippe: maybe I’m not old enough
Nami: no at school a lot of young students play petanque
Philippe: maybe they think it’s cool … uhu
Nami and Philippe had a friendly conversation in an urban café. Like
Example 1, small-group and subsequent class discussions examined
how a casual atmosphere facilitated their dynamic interpretation of
the culture surrounding the game of petanque (also pétanque and
เปตอง) within a short space of time in association with different
generations and communities. During the class discussion, students
all recognized that Philippe transformed his orientation at the end of
this extract.
Research method I administered a questionnaire in each classroom at Universities A and B
towards the end of the semester. The questionnaire had three open-ended
items which encouraged participants to recall their own communicative
experiences (they had shared them already with peers in class) and
reflect on the most memorable ones. The following were the three open
questions.
Reflect on one or a few recent intercultural communication1
opportunities you had.
1 Is there anything you would learn from your own experience?
2 What does English mean for you as (future) English users?
3 What do you think a capable user of English is like in the 21st century?
Analytical With the help of NVivo 12 software, the collected data were subjected to
procedure qualitative content analysis (e.g. Schreier 2012), which proceeds by coding
what is in the data, grouping the codes under overarching categories,
and interpreting the relationships between the categories. There was no
predetermined code or category, but the whole analytical procedure was
inevitably driven by the research question.
Findings and Below are the findings for each questionnaire item, followed by an overall
discussion discussion. Hereinafter, a participant’s ID (P01–P19) and university (A or
B) are given parenthetically after every quotation.

EMF awareness in the Japanese EFL/EMI context Page 5 of 10

Q1: Reflection Participants unequivocally recalled that they learnt mutual
on experience: accommodation as key for perceived success in communication. Their
learning responses fell into the following three categories:
Importance of mutual accommodation

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

ππ by use of multilingual resources
ππ via multiple meaning-making modes
ππ as a catalyst for more communicative participation.
It was interpreted that accommodating to each other was the act of going
beyond English resources and verbal modes, and that this action led not
only to mutual understanding but also to more active engagement in
communication.
To be specific, participants at University A would text in Chinese
characters as a ‘quick method’ (P01 A) or talk about how they used
language in their classes. They began to doubt the discreteness of
linguistic boundaries; the following extract is as an illustrative case:
I never thought that Japanese words are used as Taiwanese between
teenagers. So, a plenty of languages exist in the world and affect each
language? (P02 A)
P02’s second sentence (i.e. So, … ?) implies that she was inclined to
extrapolate her observation to numerous different languages.
More saliently, participants at University B said that they often slipped
into Indonesian, Spanish, or Korean all the more so because ‘it gives
us affinity’ (P03 B), ‘a sense of familiarity’ (P04 B), and ‘deeper
understanding’ (P05 B). One of them recalled that even when Korean
was suspended, ‘I can get her English because I know her English is
influenced by Korean’ (P05 B).
In addition, participants would use image or voice translation on
smartphones ‘to support communication’ (P06 B) as necessary, or find
facial and bodily expressions so indispensable as to say, for instance:
I learned what [my Skype partner] thought about intercultural
communication … and how difficult to communicate without using full
body language. (P07 A; emphasis added)
As such, it appears that what participants had to say was embedded in
multiple modes blended for communication either via Skype or face to face.
Notably, over 40 per cent of the participants from University A (n = 39 out
of 91) described how multilingual Tokyo was with opportunities for them
to communicate either in cyberspace or with students, residents, and
visitors from abroad. More to the point, they reported taking advantage of
‘even small opportunities’ (P08 A). Concise statements include:
These days, I use English more actively even outside [this] class because
l learned that important is negotiating without hesitation. (P09 A)
I was really afraid of making mistakes but I’ve become not scared to use
other languages [than Japanese]. … Now I have many foreign friends.
(P10 A)

Page 6 of 10 Tomokazu Ishikawa

 Arguably, multilingual and transmodal accommodation allowed P09, P10,
and other participants to venture into EMF scenarios as more fully fledged
communicators. As time went by, in-class discussions at both universities
seemed to become more energetic and substantive. Not surprisingly,
together with apparently enhanced confidence in communication,

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

students had increasingly more to share from their experiences.
Q2: Reflection It was evident that participants viewed English as a communication tool
on experience: for people with different social, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds.
English for Where applicable, perceived benefits were ascribed in the following ways:
participants English as a beneficial tool
ππ to express ourselves
ππ to share our views beyond nations and cultures
ππ for our future careers.
In brief, English was expected to connect participants with a globalized
world in a positive way, prospectively serving career purposes.
More precisely, the benefits foreseen by participants were substantial
and far-reaching, as shown in the following representative and succinct
instances: English ‘is a tool for expressing our own identities’ (P11 A;
emphasis added), ‘the greatest bridge that [can] combine cultures’ (P12
A), and thus ‘the brighting [sic] [or shining] star for me!’ (P13 A). Clearly,
this image of English is not linkable to any particular groups, cultural
or otherwise, but is associated with all English users, perhaps entailing
multilingual influences. In other words, the ‘star’ status of this global
language presumably stemmed from acts of communicating who
interactants were.
Q3: Reflection All participants agreed that accommodation skills were crucial to be
on experience: capable users of English as a global language. Again, their responses fell
capable into three categories:
English users Skilful in accommodation
ππ by use of multilingual resources
ππ without social, linguistic, and cultural prejudgments
ππ as curious and respectful interactants.
Interpretation was made as an extension of what participants learnt in
Q1. To begin with, effective accommodation was often expected to involve
taking advantage of multilingual resources. In addition, while actively
engaging in communication with available meaning-making modes (Q1),
capable English users were not expected to have been judgemental of who
interactants were, but should have embodied an interest and respect for
what interactants had to say.
Conversely, accommodation would not always be practical ‘if we
stick to English only’ (P14 B) or to its particular varieties. In one
participant’s words:
I feel that today’s societies focus on boundaries. To give an example, we
tend to distinguish English [from other languages] and then we often
prefer American or British English to other English. [But] we should

EMF awareness in the Japanese EFL/EMI context Page 7 of 10

 produce new communities, ideas and customs by using English in
multilingual environment. (P15 A)
Remarkably, P15 seemed to associate flexible use of English and
multilingual resources with achieving a new, broader understanding

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

of language and the world. She did not give any examples, but clearly
discouraged having an insular mindset.
Likewise, accommodation would be more likely to fail ‘if we stick to
stereotypes of other cultures’ (P14 B) or ‘kind of prejudice or stereotype
to English … by non-English or American people’ (P16 A). Instead,
accommodation would work in a manner as summarized below:
Our differences [in social background] are characteristics and identities,
so … to want to know and understand them is important. (P17 A)
I think [accommodation] is one of the ways to show my respect to others
and show my feelings to want to know more about them and to be close
to them. (P18 B)
Comments like these echo an interviewee’s argument in Ishikawa
(2017b: 254) that accommodation contributes to ‘sympath[etic]’ human
relationships and even ‘our development as human beings’.
Among the spontaneous thank-you notes at the end of the questionnaire,
how one participant concluded was uniquely metaphoric with a final
emoticon.
I got more confident in my English … I learned a lot and now I can fly!
Thank you! ☺ (P19 A)
P19 felt happy as if he could fly from the nest, probably because he had
learnt the significance and practice of accommodation in EMF scenarios.
Discussion The current research has provided a number of insights across the
two settings. First, EMF-aware intervention may open students’ eyes
to the existence of global networks (see Q1), and encourage them
to engage in the networks actively by practising multilingual and
transmodal accommodation. Additionally, in so doing, they may better
express themselves and exchange ideas, develop their confidence as
language users, and thereby perceive English to be beneficial for their
future careers. Moreover, this series of experiences may contribute to
going beyond the cultural and other preconceptions of interactants to
understand and respect each other as individuals. In this regard, it is
important to note that what participants did not mention was any cultural
misunderstanding. This adds empirical support to the argument that
cultural differences as obstacles to achieving meaning are not always
salient in transcultural communication (Ishikawa 2017a), and that
eschewing essentialist accounts of cultural ‘differences’ and ‘problems’ in
ELT is crucial (Baker 2015).
Still further, students’ first-hand experiences in EMF scenarios were
interpreted not only as being invaluable for enhancing communication
but also as being classroom ‘materials’ in their own right. More
specifically, students can share and reflect on their own experiences

Page 8 of 10 Tomokazu Ishikawa

 as ‘materials’ to substantiate linguistic and cultural understanding.
Finally, such a discussion of multilingual experiences among English-
knowing students possibly creates another EMF scenario by itself when
they disassociate English from monolingualism via their multilingual
repertoires. To this effect, an L1-shared classroom can be an authentic

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020

site for emergent multilingual influences and practices in present-day
communication.
The main limitation of the present research is that during the four months
I spent with participants as a practitioner-researcher, the semester-end
questionnaire was the only documented evidence. Regarding classroom
instruction, I gave students some examples from publications, which
might be challenging for those who are not familiar with the research
field of ELF. It should also be admitted that the findings might be
different with non-English major participants. To document further
evidence, future research could be conducted in ELT and EMI settings
across disciplines and incorporate other data sources, such as classroom
recordings, student and teacher journals, and interviews. It could also
concentrate on classroom interactions as possible EMF scenarios or
take an ethnographic approach to a smaller number of students without
confinement to the classroom.
Conclusion EMF awareness seeks the integration of linguistic and cultural
understanding, empowered attitudes, and emancipated communicative
practices among multilingual English users. The current research testifies
to the synergy between these integrative components when students
have access to EMF scenarios and regularly share and reflect on EMF
experiences and examples in the classroom. That is, the conceptual
understanding of EMF, especially as it pertains to multilingual and
transmodal accommodation, may work to lead students not just to have
positive attitudes but also to participate actively in multilingual practices.
This participation may strengthen their confidence and capability in
communication, and learning from their own and their peers’ first-
hand experiences may complement their understanding of EMF. Such
a virtuous circle is the hallmark of EMF awareness, for which individual
EMF experiences are likely to be essential classroom ‘materials’. With a
view to facilitating EMF awareness, ELT and EMI instructors might like
to place a high premium on students’ outside-of-the-classroom learning
inside the classroom, whether in the form of pedagogic intervention
research or not.
EMF awareness has the potential to turn L1-shared classrooms themselves
into EMF scenarios, where multilingualism is the norm as with today’s
global encounters through English. ELT practitioners should always
be sensitive to this EMF awareness which enlightens, empowers, and
emancipates, subverting the ideological monolingualism that still
circulates in many societies.

Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion
of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity Start-up (nos.
18H05585 and 19K20794).

EMF awareness in the Japanese EFL/EMI context Page 9 of 10

Note
1 ‘Intercultural communication’ is used as a generic
term for my module.
References
Baker, W. 2015. Culture and Identity through English
as a Lingua Franca: Rethinking Concepts and Goals
in Intercultural Communication. Berlin: De Gruyter
Mouton.
Cogo, A. 2018. ‘ELF and multilingualism’ in
J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey (eds.). The
Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca.
Abingdon: Routledge, 357–68.
Fang, F. and W. Ren. 2018. ‘Developing students’
awareness of global Englishes’. ELT Journal 72/4:
384–94.
Hall, C. 2018. ‘Cognitive perspectives on English as a
lingua franca’ in J. Jenkins, W. Baker, and M. Dewey
(eds.). The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua
Franca. Abingdon: Routledge, 74–84.
Hawkins, M. R. 2018. ‘Transmodalities and
transnational encounters: fostering critical
cosmopolitan relations’. Applied Linguistics 39/1: 55–77.
Ishikawa, T. 2017a. ‘Conceptualising English as a global
contact language’. Englishes in Practice 4/2: 31–49.
Ishikawa, T. 2017b. ‘Japanese university students’
attitudes towards their English and the possibility of
ELF awareness’. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca
6/2: 237–63.
Jenkins, J. 2015. ‘Repositioning English and
multilingualism in English as a lingua franca’.
Englishes in Practice 2/3: 49–85.
Page 10 of 10 Tomokazu Ishikawa
Jenkins, J., W. Baker, and M. Dewey (eds.). 2018. The
Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca.
Abingdon: Routledge.
Li, W. 2018. ‘Translanguaging as a practical theory of
language’. Applied Linguistics 39/1: 9–30.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/eltj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/elt/ccaa037/5892757 by University of Connecticut user on 17 August 2020
Mauranen, A. 2018. ‘Second language acquisition,
world Englishes, and English as a lingua franca
(ELF)’. World Englishes 37/1: 106–19.
Pennycook, A. and E. Otsuji. 2015. Metrolingualism:
Language in the City. Abingdon: Routledge.
Schreier, M. 2012. Qualitative Content Analysis in
Practice. London: Sage.
Seidlhofer, B. 2011. Understanding English as a Lingua
Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sifakis, N. C. 2019. ‘ELF awareness in English
language teaching: principles and processes’. Applied
Linguistics, 40/2: 288–306.
The authors
Tomokazu Ishikawa is an Assistant Professor
at Tamagawa University’s Center for English
as a Lingua Franca, Tamagawa University,
Tokyo, Japan and a postdoctoral member at the
University of Southampton’s Centre for Global
Englishes. Prior to that, he taught English at
Japanese institutions for university entrance exam
preparation. He has published on ELF mainly in
relation to multilingualism, language attitudes and
ideologies, and ELT. He is currently co-writing, with
W. Baker, a university coursebook on transcultural
communication to be published in 2021 by
Routledge.
Email: t.ishikawa@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp