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multitasking
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on children’s learning & development
© The Joan Ganz Cooney Center and Stanford University 2010. All rights reserved.
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Suggested citation: Wallis, C. (2010). The impacts of media multitasking on children’s learning and development:
Report from a research seminar, New York, NY: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop.
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media multitasking | iii
Contents
1 Preface 1
2 The Seminar 3
Media Multitasking: Defining & Tracking an Information Age Phenomenon . . . . . 5
Cause for Alarm? Media Multitasking, Learning, & Development. . . . . . . . . . 7
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Setting Research Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Designs for a Multitasking Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Appendix 15
Appendix A: Seminar Participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Appendix B: Background Paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Appendix C: Research Questions Generated at the Seminar. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Appendix D: References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Appendix E: About Us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
iv |
media multitasking | 1
1 Preface
New technology sometimes brings change that is so swift and so sweeping, that the impact and implica-
tions are hard to grasp. So it is with the rapid expansion of media use by children and adults—at work and
at play, alone and in groups, for ever larger portions of their waking hours. Media multitasking—engaging
in more than one media activity at a time—has rapidly become a way of life for American youth, accord-
ing to a 2005 report from the Kaiser Family Foundation (Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2005), and yet little
is known about how this behavior affects their learning and development, their ability to attend, to plan, to
think, and to relate to other people. The same may be said for adults, many of whom have taken to me-
dia multitasking to the point of “crackBerry” obsession. Aside from the recent alarming reports about the
dangers of cell phone use while driving1 or the impact of web surfing on worker productivity, little is known
about the larger implications of this now ubiquitous behavior.
To begin to address this gap in knowledge and to frame a coherent research agenda, a multidisciplinary
group of scholars in the emerging field of multitasking assembled for a one-day seminar on media mul-
titasking and its impact on children’s learning and development at Stanford University on July 15, 2009.
With grants from the National Science Foundation and the Spencer Foundation, the seminar was jointly
organized by Principal Investigator Clifford Nass, the CHIME (Communication between Humans and
Interactive Media) Lab Director and the Thomas M. Storke Professor at Stanford University; co-Principal
Investigator Roy Pea, representing the LIFE (Learning in Informal and Formal Environments) Center and
Professor of Education at Stanford University; and co-Principal Investigator Michael Levine, Executive
Director of the Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop. Participants included recognized scholars
from neuroscience, child development, cognitive science, communication, and education fields, along with
business, policy, and advocacy leaders.
This report summarizes the ideas brought to light at the seminar, including an agenda for next steps by
participants and for the larger research community. A glossary of terms, list of seminar participants, a
background paper, and a list of questions generated at the seminar appear in the Appendices. Brief memos
written by seminar participants on media multitasking in advance of the seminar may be downloaded from
http://multitasking.stanford.edu/artifacts.html#memos and http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/.
1 See the New York Times’ 2009 series “Driven to Distraction” at http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/technology/series/
driven_to_distraction/index.html
2 | Seminar Report
media multitasking | 3
2 The Seminar
Media multitasking is a young area of inquiry. It sectors. Not surprisingly, participants brought a
lacks a common language and agreed-upon defini- variety of perspectives2. While some focused on new
tions of the most basic terms—including multitask- opportunities for efficiency, shared experience, and
ing itself. And yet the phenomenon has become creativity, others pointed to potential threats to child
ubiquitous so fast that there is an anxious, urgent development and learning, to unreasonable expecta-
demand for guidance and understanding coming tions for workers, and to the broader fraying of the
from many quarters: parents, educators, employers, social fabric. The meeting proceeded with a series of
workers, marketers. “If you mention multitasking, overview remarks and topical sessions designed to
people go insane—it’s all they want to talk about,” elicit ideas and identify critical issues and research
observed Stanford’s Clifford Nass, in his opening questions concerning media multitasking (MM)
remarks at the Seminar on the Impact of Media and, in particular, its educational significance for
Multitasking, convened at Stanford University’s children. The sessions included:
Wallenberg Hall on July 15, 2009.
♦♦ Cognitive and social effects of media
Roy Pea of Stanford University and the LIFE Cen- multitasking
ter perceives a “moral panic about the evolution of
♦♦ Media multitasking in informal and formal
norms.” Children are texting at the dinner table; se-
learning environments
rious professionals are checking BlackBerrys during
meetings and at the wheel of a car—behaviors that ♦♦ Designing educational tools that leverage media
evolved rapidly and for which there is no common multitasking and multitaskers
etiquette or even common sense. As individuals, we
♦♦ Building a research agenda: Funding and policy
all contribute to this tidal wave of change and yet,
discussion
collectively, we often feel pulled along with little
control over the devices, messages, and 24/7 tasks
and expectations that compete for attention. Indeed,
as Pea pointed out, attention seems to be the scarc-
est resource of the Information Age: it is pulled, 2 These perspectives are captured in short memos that
stretched, split, and scattered. participants wrote in preparation for the seminar. You
may access these memos at the seminar website (http://
The daylong seminar brought together three dozen
multitasking.stanford.edu/artifacts.html#memos) or from
professionals from a variety of academic disciplines, the Joan Ganz Cooney Center’s website (http://www.
as well as the business, education, and advocacy joanganzcooneycenter.org).
4 | Seminar Report
Five themes emerged from the seminar discussions: people can disagree. Dye pointed out that to some
people, doing one thing really well is the highest
1. There is a need for clearer definitions and a
value. Others may value getting more things done
common vocabulary in this emerging, multi-
less well. Context matters. For an air traffic control-
disciplinary field to facilitate both research and
ler, for instance, work quality cannot be compro-
public discussion.
mised by secondary tasks.
2. Panic and fear should not be permitted to
A day of lively exchange made it clear that there
obscure the upsides and creative potential
are far more questions than answers about media
unleashed by multitasking technology. Research
multitasking. There were frequent calls for more
must look at all sides.
longitudinal research, more studies that look at
3. Media multitasking is changing childhood and child development and that leverage brain imaging
changing the workplace. Both present chal- technology and, especially, research methodologies
lenges that schools have yet to meet. Research that more accurately replicate real-life multitasking.
can help fill the gap. And yet amid the expected calls for more and better
research, there were repeated pleas to help a public
4. New tools and research methodologies must
worried about the impact of media multitasking
be developed. Current survey techniques don’t
on child development, learning, family life, office
adequately capture fast-evolving behaviors and
productivity, the communication of vital informa-
current dual-task studies do not adequately
tion on public health, safety, and other civic matters.
represent real-life multitasking.
“We can’t wait for the longitudinal research. We
5. A careful, long-term research agenda must be need guidance now,” insisted Rebecca Randall of
balanced with the demand for timely guidance Common Sense Media. Parents are most concerned,
for parents, educators, and businesses. she believes, when kids are multitasking during
homework. “What are the best practices around
The mixed blessings of digital multitasking, as well
multitasking, how does that inform schools, homes,
as different angles of vision represented by the com-
game design? We need some answers.”
mercial and academic sectors, were succinctly cap-
tured in a few choice phrases at the seminar. To Pea, Other participants, including Milton Chen of
today’s multitaskers are “always elsewhere”; they are the George Lucas Educational Foundation and
continuously “distracted from the physical presence Susan Schilling of the New Technology Founda-
of the here and now.” To Don Roberts, emeritus tion, argued that schools need help adapting to the
professor of Communication, they are “never alone” multitasking world. They must teach students better
and never unoccupied, perhaps missing out on vital management of time and attention, how to make
contemplative experiences. But to Tico Ballagas of creative use of multitasking technology without
Nokia Research Center, media multitaskers are “al- getting lost in distractions, while also making school
ways together”—continuously enjoying the support, more appropriately engaging to a generation accus-
companionship, and creative input of others in their tomed to a multi-channel level of stimulation.
mediated social network.
Participants from industry were eager to play a role.
Weighing the costs and benefits of media multitask- “Technology is finally ready to help in learning,”
ing inevitably involves value judgments, noted Matt said Dennis Frezzo of Cisco Systems. They were
Dye of the University of Rochester, and reasonable also eager for research to guide product develop-
media multitasking | 5
it introduced the term “media multitasking.” The connected, and even integrated: text, video/film,
key finding of the study was that time spent with photos, animation, graphics, diagrams, simulations,
media by American children was holding steady at and more (Pea & Gomez, 1992). Perhaps the term
6.5 hours a day, but that kids were packing in 8.5 “media multitasking” should give way to “digital
hours of media exposure within those 6.5 hours by multitasking” or simply “multitasking.” Another
engaging with more than one medium at a time. An definitional question: does multitasking necessarily
updated report will be out in 2010. Roberts, a co- entail many goals—say, doing your holiday shopping
author of the report, noted that the rapid evolution online, while working on a project and chatting with
of media has meant that these surveys are always friends? Or, are you also multitasking when pursu-
“a technology behind.” Thus, the 2005 survey failed ing a single task in multiple ways—for example,
to ask about cell phone use; a new one, scheduled surfing the web for information, reading a document
for release in early 2010, includes cell phones but or book, and checking emails that are relevant to the
doesn’t ask about Twitter. Fast-evolving media will task at hand?
inevitably pose a challenge to any longitudinal stud-
To frame the discussion on the cognitive and social
ies.
effects of the behavior, session chair and UCLA
Ulla Foehr, who also worked on the 2005 KFF professor Patricia Greenfield identified three types
survey, reviewed some of its findings: Eighty percent of media multitasking. The first is combining a
of young people engage in media multitasking. mediated task with a real-life interaction, such as
And, whereas television is the least multitasked texting while at the dinner table. The second is
medium—only 17 percent of TV time is paired with combining tasks on two or more media, as when
another medium—computers, predictably, are the one listens to the radio while text messaging. The
most multitasked medium. In fact, two-thirds of the third is when one engages in multiple tasks within
time kids are on computers, they are engaged with a single medium, such as listening to iTunes while
other media, and those who have a computer and checking email and doing research online. Univer-
can see a TV from that computer do more media sity of Oregon’s Ulrich Mayr, presenting a different
multitasking. Foehr noted that it will be interesting perspective, emphasized that multitasking is actually
to see if this distinction is maintained as TV and rapid task switching, since the human brain does
computer converge. Finally, a significant minority of just one thing at a time.
youth—15 to 20 percent—do not engage in media
multitasking. Roberts urged that this group be stud-
ied: “Let’s not forget them.”
While seminar participants agreed on the preva-
lence of media multitasking, definitional concerns
surfaced throughout the day. Do you need to use
Media Multitasking Website
more than one medium to be engaged in media Visit the Media Multitasking website to read the bios
multitasking? In one important respect, this idea of seminar participants, download their pre-seminar
seems dated in that video, radio, music, and chat memos, see the agenda for the day, and learn more
have converged on the computer and on smart about individual sessions.
phones. Indeed, as a representational technology par
http://multitasking.stanford.edu
excellence, the computer is a meta-medium, in which
all previously disparate media can be replicated,
media multitasking | 7
than those who multitasked less, but the quality of academic work. Reading is self-paced and allows
the work was not significantly different (Calvert & for reflection. The question is whether engaging
Wells, 2007). Early literacy scholar Adams discussed with streaming media or multitasking while reading
the importance of reading as a foundational skill for could possibly allow for that kind of deep, reflective
thought.
Switch costs
Macro-multitasking
Costs in time and efficiency of toggling between
Juggling numerous projects, assignments, or tasks
tasks.
with overlapping due dates.
Trait multitasking
Media multitasking
A marked preference for multitasking over
At least three types: (a) between medium and
single-tasking. It is not clear how much this is an
face-to-face interaction; (b) between two or more
acquired preference or an inherent preference.
media; and (c) within a single medium.
media multitasking | 9
would be discussion-based, and adults would play a control our world come from.” We are called upon
wider range of roles: teacher, mentor, career coach, to adapt to a buzzing, distracting world of 24/7
etc. Kids might find this type of environment to be multitasking, but there may be a need to push back
at least as invigorating as their media lives at home. rather than hop on board. Consider the long-term
effects of “commercial exploitation—a new Tay-
Jim Gray of Leapfrog, Dennis Frezzo of Cisco, and
lorism—to squeeze out every available bit of value
Coe Leta Stafford of IDEO said that their com-
from a worker across every hour of the day. Con-
panies were eager to develop products that would
sider personalized attention marketing from media
promote this kind of digital creativity and learning.
and advertising designed to be intensely customized
“Technology is finally ready to help in learning,”
to your data on histories of web browsing and media
said Frezzo, who is interested in how multi-user
use.” Projecting out current trends, Pea suggests
games could be used in school. But Stafford also
that we may be heading toward a world in which in-
noted frankly that businesses take their cues from
dividuals are “always elsewhere”—always distracted
the market, not from ideals. “We designers are
or distractible “from the social and physical presence
pretty responsive to what people want, as opposed
of here and now to a more appealing attentional
to whether it’s good for them,” she said.
target.”
Pea suggested that educators and designers think
The ensuing discussion picked up on this theme.
about media multitasking as a continuum of en-
Tico Ballagas of Nokia was quick to see a positive
gagement ranging from passive (listening to music,
in the always-mediated world. “Instead of always
watching video), to active (surfing the web, select-
elsewhere,” he said, “how about always together?”
ing content), to the creative (editing and upload-
Ballagas gave the example of a parent using Skype
ing video, managing one’s identity on Facebook).
to share a book with a child when the two were
Educators are clearly most interested in promoting
physically apart. Communications technologies, he
creative engagement. The Oracle Education Foun-
noted, can enhance social interactions, which is a
dation’s Bernie Trilling cited Singapore’s new motto
big part of their allure. “Kids want to make every-
for educators: “Teach less, learn more.” He sug-
thing social”—homework as well as the dinner table.
gested that U.S. schools leverage MM technology to
That observation prompted Don Roberts to ask
achieve a better mix “between direct instruction and
about the implications of being “never alone” and
media-rich, student-driven learning.”
“never down time.” Said Roberts, “Maybe the most
The New Technology Foundation’s Susan Schilling important time that kids have is down time, when
mentioned the New Technology Foundation’s work they are sitting staring at a wall.”
with 50 schools around the country that do exactly
what Trilling is suggesting. The curriculum, she said,
is “wall-to-wall project-based learning.” Kids learn
how to manage digital tools and their own atten-
tional habits because it is part of the curriculum and
assessment. “They are graded on critical thinking,
collaboration, and time management. We blur the
line between school and what comes next.”
On a more philosophical note, Roy Pea asked the
group to consider “where the values and norms that
12 | Seminar Report
media multitasking | 13
The group did not attempt to reach consensus on a Seminar participants proposed the following areas
comprehensive follow-up plan for research and de- as high priorities for government funding agencies
velopment initiatives. Instead, participants suggested and foundations to consider:
a set of high-priority next steps for funders, industry
♦♦ An early childhood research group to examine the
leaders, and practitioners to consider:
roots of multitasking behavior among preschool
children. The group could examine key concerns
such as the differences between children growing
Research and Development up in heavy media consumption environments
and those with limited early exposure, and how
Priorities multitasking may offer benefits and/or disadvan-
tages as young children enter school.
The federal research agencies responsible for under-
♦♦ Behavioral and social effects of multitasking. What
standing children’s well-being, development, and
are the effects of the three types of multitasking:
education should help a multi-disciplinary array
within-medium (e.g., multiple windows open on
of scientists and practitioners study and define the
the computer), between media (e.g., talking on a
impact of media multitasking. The National Science
cell phone while at the computer), and between
Foundation, the National Institute for Child Health
media and human beings (e.g., talking on the
and Development, and the United States Depart-
cell phone when having a family dinner)? How
ment of Education should deepen the seminar’s ini-
do these behaviors affect social interactions and
tial exploration with their own convening activities
relationships with family and friends? We also
and assess areas where research partnerships will be
need to empirically assess the costs and benefits
most productive. In addition, research associations
of multitasking on cognitive, social, even cultural
such as the National Academies of Science and
planes.
the National Academy of Education, and profes-
sional societies such as the American Educational ♦♦ The development of new data systems and instru-
Research Association and the Society for Research ments to assess media multitasking across develop-
in Child Development, should define new areas of mental periods. Measurement is the cornerstone
inquiry on the frontiers of research in media multi- of good research: there is currently no gold
tasking and the underlying developmental, cogni- standard to measure media multitasking across
tive, and neurobiological functioning. developmental periods. There is also a lack of
regularly collected data sets on children’s digital
14 | Seminar Report
media access and use: a national survey on a bi- ♦♦ An online clearinghouse and networking com-
annual basis should be added to an appropriate munity for researchers to define study topics,
vehicle such as the National Education Longitu- share instruments, review research findings and
dinal Study (NELS: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ prepare public engagement strategies, mod-
NELS88). eled after other research networks convened by
government agencies such as NSF and private
♦♦ Expanded studies that target the question of causal-
foundations such as MacArthur, WT Grant, and
ity. This would include both experimental (e.g.,
the Carnegie Corporation.
withdrawal designs) and longitudinal study
designs. Research is needed to determine cause- ♦♦ Guidance for parents. Public engagement organi-
and-effect, and in particular how media multi- zations such as the Joan Ganz Cooney Center
tasking may impact core neurobiological systems and Common Sense Media develop basic “rules
that support reward-based learning, addictive of thumb” for children using media, to be vetted
behavior, and the allocation of attention. by a research advisory board.
♦♦ Brain imaging studies. Such research would ♦♦ Guidance for educators. Industry leaders in gam-
greatly advance understanding of the physiologi- ing and mobile platforms should bridge the for-
cal mechanisms in play during multitasking. mal and informal learning environments so that
Imaging studies would, for example, comple- these platforms can be better adapted for use in
ment behavioral assessments of impact, of mul- schools. These industry leaders should work with
titasking on attention, and executive function educators to create curriculum and assessments
development. that leverage the power of media for learning.
They should also collaborate on using games
Over the course of the day, participants offered
and other kid-friendly media to teach time and
dozens of questions—covering a wide variety of dis-
attention management in a digital age. (For ex-
ciplines and methodologies—to drive new research
tended analyses of these issues of learning across
on the media multitasking phenomenon. These
settings, see publications of the NSF-funded
questions are listed in Appendix C.
LIFE Center at http://www.life-slc.org.)
♦♦ Brief large-scale survey researchers to shape public
Dissemination and Public support for more experimentation in this area. The
Kaiser Family Foundation, for example, updated
Engagement Priorities its baseline assessment of children’s media multi-
tasking behaviors in early 2010 and the work of
this group can complement the KKF’s find-
As results from longitudinal studies will take a long
ings. Participants also called for a more regular,
time to develop, seminar participants, other scholars,
wide-scale accounting of children’s digital media
and their affiliates should aggressively disseminate
habits and its consequences for healthy develop-
what is currently known from cognitive, devel-
ment and learning.
opmental, and neuroscientific research to provide
guidance to parents, teachers, and industry. Among
the priorities suggested by participants:
MEDIA MULTITASKING | 15
4 Appendix
16 | Appendix
Prepared for the Seminar on Impacts of and human development. Our intention is to spur
Media Multitasking on Childrens Learning research on media multitasking in youth and adults
and Development by defining key questions for interdisciplinary
research and stimulating the formation of a com-
By Vanessa Vega, M.A. munity where more coordinated research efforts and
Stanford University, June 2009 future collaborations can take place.
The purpose of the first NSF-sponsored seminar
Executive Summary on media multitasking in youth, to be held on July
15th, 2009 at Stanford University, in collaboration
Children are growing up in a rapidly changing, with the Joan Ganz Cooney Center, is to:
information-rich age in which communication tech-
♦♦ Create a forum for interdisciplinary explora-
nology has become more affordable, accessible, and
tion of available research and agenda setting for
available than ever before. Today, American children
future inquiry;
ages 8 to 18 spend approximately the same amount
of time with media per day as they did before the ♦♦ Understand the theoretical and experimental
recent explosion of digital tools (around 6.5 hours), base from which to launch cutting-edge basic
but they have increased the amount of media con- and applied research on media multitasking; and
tent they consume by approximately two hours per
♦♦ Increase public awareness and drive policymaker
day (Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2005). According
interest in the implications of media multitask-
to the Kaiser Family Foundation, approximately
ing for children’s learning and development.
one-third of children say they usually absorb some
other medium while watching TV, listening to mu- The purpose of this background paper is to: (1)
sic, using the computer, or reading (Roberts, Foehr, briefly describe the current state of knowledge
& Rideout, 2005). The phenomenon of “media mul- on media multitasking, as it relates to cognitive
titasking” and its inherent mental habits of dividing development and learning in children; (2) define
attention, switching attention, and keeping multiple questions and topics for interdisciplinary discussion
trains of thought in working memory have signifi- and research coordination, focusing on the devel-
cant implications for the way young people think, opment of new methods, models, and theories for
learn, socialize, and understand the world. studying media multitasking effects on learning and
development; and (3) catalyze discussion at the July
Scholars know a great deal about the mechanisms of
15 seminar.
human development that support children’s acqui-
sition of new knowledge and skills. As the media Part 1 of this paper provides a brief overview of
environment that surrounds children grows more the existing literature on media multitasking, as it
ubiquitous, and children’s media activity contin- relates to learning and cognition. We suggest three
ues to grow in terms of exposure and complexity, major categories of research that will benefit greatly
it is important to reexamine and reframe existing from interdisciplinary knowledge sharing and
theories and practices in the realms of education coordination of future research efforts: (a) media
18 | Appendix
multitasking and cognition; (b) media multitasking Media multitasking & cognitive
and learning in informal and formal environments; development
and (c) designs that leverage media multitaskers. A significant topic for future study is how media
Part 2 discusses the goals of the seminar. multitasking affects the development of neural
structures in children’s brains and cognitive abili-
ties, as well as identifying neural structures involved
1. Overview of Existing Literature in children’s media multitasking performance.
Research in the adult population has indicated
Media multitasking is defined as engaging in that multitasking is supported by cognitive and
multiple media activities simultaneously, including neuroanatomical systems in the pre-frontal cor-
multiple windows on a single media platform and/ tex region of the brain (Burgess, 2000; Koechlin,
or multiple media (e.g., web surfing on a computer Basso, Pietrini, et al., 1999). Depending on the
while watching TV). Media multitasking behaviors task, additional systems, such as the striatum, likely
can be measured using an index that quantifies time also support multitasking (Foerde, Knowlton, &
spent using various media simultaneously relative to Poldrack, 2006). The pre-frontal cortex is broadly
total media use (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, in submis- associated with “executive control,” which refers to
sion), although the advantages and disadvantages “the ability to coordinate thought and action and
of different measures of multitasking is not under- direct it toward obtaining goals” (Miller & Wal-
stood. Media multitasking can also be classified lis, 2009). Research has shown that the ability to
along a continuum, ranging from concurrent tasks multitask is limited in adults by numerous cogni-
with rapid switching to sequential tasks with longer tive “bottlenecks” that can appear in various stages
time between switching (Salvucci, Taatgen & Borst, of perceptual, cognition, and motor processing,
2009). In considering the effects of media multi- depending on particulars of the task domain (Meyer
tasking on learning and cognition, it is important to & Kieras, 1997). Multiple-resource theories (e.g.
consider the educational content of media (Schmidt Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 2002) specify
& Vandewater, 2008), and the extent to which how tasks using separate resources may proceed
media is semantically related, or requires conflicting simultaneously without interference, but when
information processing resources. Previous re- there is a resource conflict, the needed resource can
search has shown that children with media in their allocate part of its processing time to each task. A
bedrooms, girls, and high sensation seekers are more key limitation on multitasking is that the ability to
likely to engage in media multitasking (Foehr, 2006; perform more than one decision-making process at
Jeong & Fishbein, 2007). Thus, media multitask- any given moment is limited by a “response selec-
ing may be influenced by contextual factors, such tion bottleneck.” When performing concurrent
as bedroom media and parental mediation, as well tasks, regions in the pre-frontal cortex involved in
as individual differences, such as age, gender, SES, response selection seem to queue responses, result-
sensation seeking, attention problems, selective ing in task delays (Dux, Ivanoff, Asplund & Marois,
exposure, and Internet addiction (Block, 2008). In 2006). However, there is evidence to suggest that
sum, accurate measurement of media multitasking, individuals can perform two tasks efficiently if tasks
and consideration of the content, context, and indi- are well-rehearsed or familiar, suggesting a potential
vidual differences involved will aid in understanding for “adaptive executive control,” which transforms
the impact of media multitasking on learning and condition-action production rules into procedural
cognitive development in youth. knowledge (Schumacher, Seymour, Glass, et al,
media multitasking | 19
2001). Since people can only handle one decision tion in college students (Greenfield, Dewinstanley,
making process at a time, the way to handle two & Kaye, 1994; Green & Bavelier, 2003). While the
simultaneous processes is to make one of them use of electronic visual media may enhance skills
automatic (so it requires no decision making). of visual attention and visual-spatial processing, it
Reducing task interference may require extensive may not adequately cultivate higher order cognitive
practice with the task, and can also be modulated processing skills (Greenfield, 2009).
by instructions about differential task priorities and
A key set of open questions are the causes and ef-
the (daring) personal preference for scheduling tasks
fects of long-term and chronic media multitasking
concurrently versus sequentially (cautious) (Schum-
with respect to cognitive processing. The results of
acher, Seymour, Glass, et al., 2001). When and how
one study (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, in submission)
such skills in dual task performance are acquired is a
showed that heavy media multitaskers are more sus-
significant topic for future inquiry.
ceptible to interference from irrelevant environmen-
Few studies have examined the cognitive mecha- tal stimuli and from irrelevant representations in
nisms and neural structures involved in children’s memory. This led to the surprising result that heavy
media multitasking, or the extent to which cogni- media multitaskers performed worse on a test of
tive “bottlenecks” exist in children. Recent fMRI task-switching ability, likely due to reduced ability
studies suggest that children are better at multitask- to filter out interference from the irrelevant task set.
ing than adults, presumably due to their enhanced
ability to allocate attention and filter out irrelevant Media multitasking in informal & formal
information, as compared to middle-aged and older learning environments
adults (Grady, Springer, Hongwanishkul, et al., Studies that examine the relationship between
2006; Hamilton, 2008). Limitations in the ability electronic media use and learning generally indicate
to multitask have been documented among chil- that “the content delivered by electronic media is
dren diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity far more influential than the media themselves”
disorder (ADHD) ages 7 - 13, indicating deficits (Schmidt & Vandewater, 2008). However, few
in monitoring ongoing behaviors, goal-directed studies to date have examined media multitasking
planning, and generating useful strategies for task and learning in youth. Research on multitasking
completion (Siklos & Kerns 2004; Chan, Guo, Zou, in the adult population generally indicates that
et al., 2006). multitasking impairs the speed and quality of task
Researchers have found evidence for small positive performance when compared to performing tasks
links between heavy electronic media use and mild serially (Rubinstein, Meyer, & Evans, 2001; Iqbal &
attention problems among youth, particularly for Horvitz, 2007; Posner & Boies, 1971).
entertainment content; however, the link between In one study that examined the effects of media
ADHD and electronic media use is complex and multitasking in the classroom, college students in
requires further research (Schmidt & Vandewater, one group were allowed to use their laptops during
2008; Schnabel, 2009). Playing video games has lectures while those in the other group were not.
been shown to improve visual attention in youth Students with laptops were obviously distracted by
ages 7 - 22, in terms of allocating attention and having access to the Web, e-mail, IM, and other
filtering out irrelevant information (Dye & Bevalier, digital tools, and suffered decrements on traditional
in press). In addition, playing video games has been measures of memory for lecture content (Hem-
shown to enhance the ability to divide visual atten- brooke & Gay, 2003).
20 | Appendix
In general, dividing attention has been shown to children’s interests. Several children in the Kaiser
disrupt memory encoding and reduce subsequent Family Foundation’s time-diary studies (Roberts,
recall (Naveh-Benjamin, Craik, Guez, & Krueger Foehr, & Rideout, 2005) expressed that media mul-
2000). Especially when two channels of informa- titasking warranted the “slight” reduction in produc-
tion convey semantically different information, tivity because it helped them avoid boredom. Dewey
viewers can recall less information, and often only (1915) theorized that “the divided mind” represents
focus on one channel (Bergen, Grimes, & Potter, a division between interest and effort, “External
2005; Drew & Grimes, 1987; Grimes, 1991; Lang, mechanical attention to a task as a task is inevitably
1995; Reese, 1984; cited in Foehr, 2006). Cable accompanied by random mind-wandering along the
news shows frequently feature divided screens lines of the pleasurable,” (p. 9). Meanwhile, children
with tickers and running headlines of semantically learn “the exact amount of attention that has to be
unrelated information, and the presence of news given to the external material to satisfy the require-
tickers has been shown to reduce memory for news ments of the teacher, while saving up the rest of
content among college students (Bergen, Grimes, his powers for following lines of suggestion that
& Potter, 2005). However, when different informa- appeal to him,” (p. 10). In Outliers, Gladwell (2008)
tion channels require non-conflicting processing notes frequently that extraordinarily successful
resources, multitasking may not necessarily impair people have dedicated at least 10,000 hours worth
task performance. Youths’ performance on a home- of practice in their area of expertise. The relation-
work task was reduced when multitasking with soap ship between media multitasking and the ability and
operas on television, but their performance was not desire to focus, or to unify interest and effort, is an
affected when multitasking with music or music important topic for future inquiry in the domain of
videos (Pool, Koolstra, & van der Voort, 2003). learning.
Finally, learning under multitasking versus focused
Barron’s (2006) work on learning ecologies for
attention conditions may result in different types of
youth development of technological fluency, as well
memory, with different implications for knowledge
as Hidi and Renniger’s (2006) model of interest
transfer. In a recent study of adults, learning while
development, provide theoretical frameworks for
maintaining focused attention resulted in declara-
understanding conditions that promote interest and
tive memory, which is associated with hippocampal
learning across informal and formal settings. In par-
activity and considered to produce richer, more flex-
ticular, intimate social relationships play an impor-
ibly applied memories. Learning while multitasking
tant role in developing interests that lead to learning
resulted in procedural memory, a form of memory
across informal and formal boundaries (Barron,
associated with activation of the striatum and used
2006). There is evidence to suggest that media use is
to support habitual task performance, which tends
displacing family interactions in the home (Wallis,
to generalize poorly to new situations (Foerde,
2006) and cultivating impersonal social relation-
Knowlton, & Poldrack, 2006). Thus, if information
ships (Turkle, 2007). However, the content of media
is learned under multitasking conditions, the flexible
and the context of use are important considerations.
application of knowledge associated with creativity
When media displace educational activities, they
and adaptive problem solving may be less likely to
have been shown to adversely impact scholastic
occur.
achievement, but when media provide educational
Media multitasking during lectures and homework opportunities, they have been shown to promote
may indicate that these tasks are failing to engage scholastic achievement (Schmidt & Vandewater,
2008).
media multitasking | 21
Finally, the non-linear and decentralized structure nology than ever before to automate and reduce the
of information on the web, which is potentially burden of routine processes of thought, it is failing
contributing to media multitasking behaviors, has to exploit its newfound time for creative thought
potential to promote learning and creativity. In and acts of leisure that nurture creative thought
Everything is Miscellaneous: the Power of the New (Levy, 2007). When considering the role of media
Digital Disorder (2007), Weinberger argues that multitasking in our lives, considering the ratio of
by breaking down established orders of ordering creative to automated thought processes may serves
information, individuals exposed to a concept in as a useful heuristic or design principle.
multiple decentralized contexts may gain deeper and
A recent longitudinal study revealed that, although
more complex understandings of that concept (also
young people demonstrate an apparent ease and fa-
see “cognitive flexibility theory” from Spiro & Jengh,
miliarity with computers, they rely heavily on search
1990 for related prior work). Perhaps through re-
engines, view rather than read, and do not uniformly
vealing multiple and simultaneously true meanings
possess the critical and analytical skills to assess the
of a concept, media multitasking might cultivate
information they find on the web (CIBER, 2008).
“dialectical” reasoning (e.g. Nisbett, Peng, Choi, &
The youth of today need effective strategies, tools,
Norenzayan, 2001). In sum, preliminary research in
and techniques with which to navigate the sea of
informal and formal learning environments suggests
information surrounding them. Teaching young
media multitasking may well detract from learning,
people how to organize and manage information
but it also has potential for enhancing learning. In
could help them improve their productivity and
considering the effects of media multitasking on
develop more intentional media use. Parents, teach-
learning, it will be important to define the context
ers, and youth need to know how to leverage media
of learning, how learning is measured, and the out-
multitasking habits to enhance learning. Guidelines
comes of learning that are valued.
for effective media multitasking could be derived
from multiple resource theories, which specify when
designs to enhance learning multitasking might result in information process-
Many of today’s digital tools were inspired by the ing-resource conflicts, thus reducing learning and
highly influential 1945 Atlantic Monthly essay “As productivity. Furthermore, tasks involving routine
We May Think” by President Roosevelt’s Science thought processes might be completed effectively
Advisor, Vannevar Bush. In this vision of the future while multitasking, but tasks involving higher level
of computing, Bush proposed that using technology cognitive skills, creative, or original thought require
to automate the routine aspects of thought would total focus. Salvucci & Taatgen (2008) propose a
help to free up more time for scholars to devote to model for effective multitasking, which entails plan-
the creative aspects of thought (Bush, 1991; cited ning out an entire multitasking situation, suggesting
in Levy, 2007), solving what was referred to then as individuals can move between tasks relatively auto-
the “library problem,” but which has more recently matically, and specifies principles for interruptions
been reincarnated as “information overload” and the and keeping goals in working memory. Educational
“data deluge” (NSF, 2008). Bush distinguished be- curriculum will need to incorporate different media
tween the “routine” processes of thought, which he activities to address the development of a variety of
believed could be automated, and the creative work cognitive skills (Greenfield, 2009). Reading has been
of deep and original thinking, which could not be shown to develop imagination, induction, reflection,
automated. While modern society has better tech- critical thinking, and vocabulary, while visual media
22 | Appendix
affords the development of visual-processing skills. encouraging a new academic community that will
Jenkins, Clinton, & Purushotma, et al. (2006) argue engage in interdisciplinary knowledge sharing,
that the participatory media culture, enabled by the agenda-setting, and collaborative research. The
web and wikis, blogs, and media-sharing sites such seminar will provide a venue as well as online tools
as Flickr and YouTube, cultivates skills which are to share preliminary findings on media multitasking
critical to participation in a global society perme- from our research labs. Furthermore, the seminar
ated by Information and Communication Technol- will catalyze research on this topic, promoting it
ogy (ICT). Among the cultural competencies he among key decision-makers who may be able to
describes are “transmedia navigation: the ability to advance investment in a new frontier of inter-disci-
follow the flow of stories and information across plinary research.
multiple modalities” and “multitasking: the ability to
One of the key outcomes for the seminar is to
scan one’s environment and shift focus as needed to
develop a coherent agenda for future research on the
salient details.”
effects of media multitasking on learning and cogni-
Finally, a media multitasking literacy curriculum tive development in informal and formal learning
should address how media distractions can strain environments, as well as the effects on social interac-
social relations, particularly in the home (Wallis, tion and social relations. Through transparency and
2006). Parents and teachers need to model effective knowledge sharing facilitated by the conference ses-
multitasking and communicate the value of face-to- sions, and extensive public dissemination activities,
face interactions. Developing media multitasking the seminar aims to create a more informed com-
literacy has the potential to improve family interac- munity that will ultimately shape the future conduct
tions in the home as well as the quality of learning of research on media multitasking and children’s
in informal and formal environments. As research- learning and development. These conversations will
ers elucidate how learning and cognitive develop- have the potential to introduce new ways to invest
ment are supported in media multitasking contexts, government and philanthropic funds, influence state
designers of educational tools and strategies can and national policy, and change practices in K-12
incorporate this knowledge to promote effective classrooms. The LIFE Center, MediaX, and the
uses of media multitasking. Media multitasking can Joan Ganz Cooney Center, with generous support
be like walking without looking where you’re going, from the National Science Foundation and Spencer
but if used consciously, it can perhaps help us get to Foundation will ensure that the results of the work-
where we’re going and realize our creative visions shop will reach a wide community of researchers, as
more efficiently. well as policy and education stakeholders.
Overall, we hope to create a solid theoretical and
experimental base from which to launch both basic
2. Goals of the Seminar and cutting-edge applied research on media multi-
tasking.
By focusing on the increasingly prevalent and evolv-
ing behavior of media multitasking, the seminar
intends to create a forum for interdisciplinary dia-
logue about the frontiers of research. Leaders from
fields related to media multitasking, child develop-
ment, and learning will convene at the conference,
media multitasking | 23
Methodological/Epistemological Developmental/Cognitive
How do we define multitasking and media multi- How does our multitasking environment affect the
tasking? Do we define it by the number of media primary learning tasks of childhood (i.e., empathy,
used? The number of tasks? If one is using a variety language learning, motor development, executive
of media in the service of a single task, should this function)? What are the potential costs and benefits
be considered media multitasking (e.g., calling for (e.g., increased cognitive flexibility, creativity)?
directions while driving)? If one is using a single
Are there developmental windows for introducing
medium—e.g., the computer—for multiple tasks,
media and media multitasking? And are there opti-
is this media multitasking? Is the computer really
mal levels of exposure at certain points in develop-
one “medium” when audio, video, photos, interactive
ment?
games, text, animations can all be integrated on it
– or ought we to consider each of those media and How does the development of executive control
not the “computer” as a medium? competencies relate to multitasking?
Alternately, should the word “media” be dropped In what ways do the specific media matter in terms
in favor of “digital” now that multiple media have of task interference, memory, learning, and other
converged on the computer and smart phones? processing (e.g., games vs. text vs. video vs. audio-
only, etc.)?
How should researchers distinguish between social/
communicative multitasking and solo multitasking? Are we inherently capable of moving easily from
How do they differ in terms of task interference, en- focused attention to dispersed attention? Does it
gagement, and other aspects of cognitive processing? need to be learned? (Stephanie Carlson notes that
young children often overestimate their abilities to
How can we design studies that better match
remember to do things, to manage multiple goals,
real-world experience? Forced multitasking in lab
and to resist temptation.)
settings may not approximate the more volitional
nature of everyday multitasking. What are the roles of motivation and reward sys-
tems in multitasking?
How can we design and fund large-scale ethno-
graphic and longitudinal studies (e.g., following How and when does task switching activate circuits
infants raised in TV-constant homes vs. low-media involved in addiction? For example, do people feel
homes)? a compulsion to check email? Do different media
activate reward systems differently?
Are there valid animal models for multitasking?
How do we design imaging studies to look at brain
How can we study the long-term effects of multi-
activity during different types of MM and in differ-
tasking on brain development?
ent individuals?
24 | Appendix
How are individual differences in executive function Media multitasking is often used to fill interstices
related to media multitasking performance? and waiting time during tasks. This may seem cost-
free, but is it? What about the loss of downtime or
How does trait multitasking develop? What are recovery time?
the differences between people who actively prefer
multitasking and those who prefer to avoid it? What are the effects of background media on learn-
ing (e.g., television and music during homework, for
Do efficient multitaskers seek out multimedia envi- example)?
ronments or is it the other way around, in that they
have difficulty resisting them? As reading print is displaced, the pause-to-reflect
moments, the pause-to-reread moments, may be
Do we get better at multitasking? Do only some get lost. Continuously streaming media do not allow for
better? Or only with some types of multitasking? it—though pause buttons on video and audio do.
What is the role of capacity to delay gratification in What are the effects on comprehension, retention,
optimizing multitasking? meta-cognition, and other aspects of learning?
How do self-awareness, monitoring, and strategic Should media literacy programs be developed to
organization influence media multitasking and its teach best practices, priority setting, efficient self-
costs/benefits? management of time and attention?
What can we learn from non-multitaskers? (KFF What is the relationship between engagement/
report shows 15-20 percent of kids do not MM.) motivation and the allocation of attention? Students
say they multitask through boring assignments. Do
What can we learn about MM from special popula- we need a higher proportion of assignments that de-
tions like those with attention deficit hyperactiv- mand focused attention so that students learn how?
ity disorder (ADHD) or pervasive developmental Do we need more assignments that leverage their
disorder (PDD)? ability to multitask and use media creatively?
How does the role of teachers change as schools
Learning & Education incorporate more project-based learning in which
students use media for research, communication,
How do we guide students now and in the future and creative production?
to develop healthy, productive, collaborative, and
creative media lifestyles?
media multitasking | 25
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media multitasking | 29
Appendix E: About Us
Vanessa Vega
Vanessa Vega is a doctoral candidate in the Communication Department at Stanford University. She
received her B.A. in Communication from UCLA, where she conducted survey research on the role of
pornography in sexual aggression. Vega recently designed and implemented an experiment on the effects of
multitasking on visual-spatial processing, working memory and cognitive control using an undergraduate
sample, which she presented at the International Communication Association Conference 2008, in Mon-
treal. Vega is the lead author of the project’s background paper, and is providing logistical support for the
seminar as well as the seminar website.
Acknowledgements
Principal Investigators
Clifford Nass, Stanford University
Michael Levine, Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop
Roy Pea, Stanford University
Report Reviewers
Stephanie Carlson, University of Minnesota
Patricia Greenfield, University of California at Los Angeles
Ulrich Mayr, University of Oregon
Victoria Rideout, Kaiser Family Foundation
Anthony Wagner, Stanford University
Ellen Wartella, University of California at Riverside
Funding Agencies
The Seminar on the Impacts of Media Multitasking on Children’s
Learning and Development and the publication of its meeting
report was made possible by the generous support of the National
Science Foundation under grant number 0841556 and the Spencer
Foundation under grant number 200900191.