FI-2103

Special Theory of Relativity

Triyanta
FMIPA-ITB

1
 Program of the Course
• Syllabus
Review of classical physics and background of the
birth of SR, Postulates of Relativity and its
consequences. Minkowski space-time dan
Lorentz transformations. Relativistic dynamics and
applications. Some experiments supporting SR.
Covariant Formulations and force equation in
relativistic mechanics. Special topics on SR.
Introduction to general relativity

2
• References
– In principle, any textbooks on SR
– Suggested refs. by the curiculum:
• Rindler, W., Introduction to Special Relativity, 2nd Edition,
OUP, 1991.
• L D Landau, L. D., Lifshitz, E. M., The Classical Theory of
Fields, Pergamon Press, 1959.
• Schroder, U. E., Special Relativity, World Scientific, 1990.
• Naber, G. L., The Geometry of Minkowski Spacetime,
Springer-Verlag, 1992.

3
 – Some other refs. suggested:
• A.P. French, Special relativity, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984
(main reference)
• B.F. Schutz, A First Course in General Relativity, Cambridge
University Press, 1986
• Relevant websites (Lecture course from Virginia Tech)
• Student Evaluation
– Mid semester exam
– End semester exam
– Homeworks
– Quizes 4
 I. Background: Physics Before SR
• Newtonian Mechanics
• Maxwell’s electromagnetics

5
 Newtonian Mechanics
• Natures of Newtonian Mechanics (mid 17th century)
– Objects regarded as point particles
– Motion of a particle is described by its position in
space as a function of time
– Position and velocity of a body is defined with respect
to the other:
concept of relativity
already defined in Newton theory

6
– Acceleration a of a body is an absolute/
fundamental quantity. This absolute value then
relates to forces F from the environment
Fa
Inertial mass m is defined as the propotionality
m=| F/a |
– Time t is also assumed to be an absolute/
fundamental quantity.
– Conservation of momentum for an isolated object
– Conservation of energy: work done by
environment changes kinetic energy of the object
7
• Newton’s 1st Law
Objects with no influence from its environment
(isolated objects) keep moving with constant
velocity (including zero velocity)
– The law implies that inertial frames of reference
(frames that move one with respect to the others
with constant velocity) should be taken into
account.
– The law does not work for non-inertial frames

8
 v

S frame

An object moves with constant velocity v according to S frame

9
 v’

The object moves with constant

velocity v’ according to S’ frame
V

S’ inertial frame
(w.r.t. S)

10
 V“

The object moves with non-constant

velocity v” according to S” frame
V,A

S’’ non-inertial frame

moves with acceleration A
(velocity V is not constant)

11
• Newton’s 2nd Law
Influence from the environment leads to
momentum change of an object
 dp  
F , p  mv
dt
– F represents the influence of the environment to
the object.
– F =0 corresponds to isolated objects fulfilling the
1st law Inertial frame as the basis of the
Newton’s law.
12
  dp
F
dt

Frame S

 dp ' 
dp ' dp

F' 
dt dt dt
 
F' F
Inertial frame S’
(w.r.t. S)

13
  dp
F
dt

Frame S

 
dp ' dp

 dp ' dt dt
F'  
dt F' F

Non-inertial frame S’ Newton’s law does not work

(w.r.t. S) on non-inertial S’ frame

14
• Galileo transformations
(Relates inertial frames S and S’)
Along the motion of S’:

Initial condition:
x’(0) = x(0)
x’=x-Vt
x x=x’+Vt
Absolute time Frame S

t’ = t Perpendicular to the
motion of S’:
V
Vt
y’=y, z’=z
x’

Frame S’
15
• Invariance of Newton’s law under Galileo
transformation
dpx d 2x
Fx  m 2
dt dt
2 2 2
d ( x ' Vt ) d x' d x'
m 2
 m 2  m 2  Fx '
dt dt dt '

16
 • Non-inertial frame
x’=x-f(t), f(t) non-linear
d 2x d 2 ( x ' f (t ))
Fx  m 2  m
dt dt 2
2 2 2 2 2
d x' d f d x' d f d f
 m 2  m 2  m 2  m 2  Fx ', 2
0
dt dt dt ' dt dt
d2 f Virtual force
Fx '  Fx  m
dt 2
17
• Rule of velocity addition

x’=x-Vt
dx ' d ( x  Vt ) d ( x  Vt ) dx
   V
dt ' dt ' dt dt

v '  v V
Speed can be infinite

18
• Can speed be infinite ?
An object moves from rest under the force that equal to
gravitational force at the surface of the Earth
(its acceleration is 9.8 m/s2)

v=9.8t
t (year) v (m/s) v/c
1 309052800 1.0301760
2 618105600 2.0603520
3 927158400 3.0905280
4 1236211200 4.1207040

19
• Data experiment on electron speed
(Linac apparatus)
Kinetic Energy, Flight time, t Speed, v v2 K/v2
K (MeV) (10-8 s) (108 m/s) (1016 m2/s2) (MeVs2/m2)
0.5 3.23 2.60 6.8 13.6
1.0 3.08 2.73 7.5 7.5
1.5 2.92 2.88 8.3 5.53
4.5 2.84 2.96 8.8 1.96
15 2.80 3.00 9.0 0.6

20
 Maxwell’s Electromagnetics and
Photons
• Maxwell’s equations in empty space

 E  0  Gauss'law

 B  0  No magnetic monopole

 1 B
 E    Faraday's law
c t

 1 E
 B    Ampere's law
c t

E: electric field, B: magnetic (induction) field

21
• Electromagnetic field as a wave
 
 1 B 1   B
  (  E )    
c t c t
  1  2 
( E )   2 E   2 2 E
c t

 1  2 
2 E  2 2 E  0
c t E,B act as waves
analogously with speed of c at
 1  2 
empty space
2 B  2 2 B  0
c t 22
As all other waves need media to propagate it was
proposed that empty space as stated before should
contain a medium called aether. This enable sun light
propagates and reaches Earth
Waves Media
Sea waves Sea water
Sound waves Air
String waves Strings
Electromagnetic Ether
waves

23
• Michelson-Morley Experiment (1887)

Mirror2 Ether speed v

Semitransparent
metal
l2

Mono- Source
chromatic
Light Mirror1
l1
source
Telescope
Telescope

24
 Time needed for light to propagate from semi-transparent metal to
mirror 1 and back to semi-transparent

l1 l1 2cl1
t1    2 2
cv cv c v
Time needed for light to propagate from semi-transparent to mirror 2
and back to semi-transparent

2l2 2l2 / c
t2  2 2 1/2  2 2 1/2
.
(c  v ) (1  v / c )
Time difference

2l1  v 2  2l2  v 2  2(l1  l2 ) v2

t  t1  t2  1  2   1  2    (2l1  l2 ) 3
c  c  c  2c  c c
25
 When the apparatus is rotated 90

2l1  v 2  2l2  v 2  2(l1  l2 ) v2

t '  t1 ' t2 '  1  2   1  2    (l1  2l2 ) 3 .
c  2c  c  c  c c

Time difference leads to interference patern shift  (between two different

configurations of apparatus):

c(t  t ') (l1  l2 )v 2

  .
 c 2

Setting the apparatus l1=l2,

2(v / c) 2
 .
 /l
26
Assume ether is stationary in the universe

Ether speed w.r.t.earth

v/c10-4
= earth speed orbiting the sun
= 30km/s
Setting l=1,2 m and =610-7 m
Michelson obtained (1881) theoretically
0,04 and experimentally 0,02

Setting l=11 m (light is allowed to repeatedly

reflected back and forth along the arm)
Michelson-Morley (1887) obtained
theoretically =0,4 m and experimentally
<0,01 (1/40 of the expected)
27
Experiment showed  is about 1/40 of the expected
thus ether speed is about 1/6 of the expected.
Because this value is within the experimental error it
was cocluded that acutally the speed of ether be
zero w.r.t. earth.
Other experiments in the following years concluded
the same results. (Wikipedia)

As Earth is not a special object in Universe, that is

Earth is not the center of the universe, appearance
of ether which is at rest w.r.t earth is impossible. (If
it was, all objects, except earth, in the universe
move with some speed w.r.t. ether thus earth was
so special object among millions of millions of
millions objects in the universe)

28
Conclusion of M-M Experiment:

•Hipothesis on ether is wrong

•Light propagates without the need of medium

•In some circumstances light acts like particles

and in other circumstances light acts as a wave.
Particle theory and wave theory (of light) are no
longer complementary, one to the other.

29
No Particle Model Wave/ether model
Light travels in straight lines  Ok if << beam width

Interference and diffraction effects No convincing 

explanation
Polarization of light No convincing 
explanation
Light velocity independent of source Definite 
velocity disagreement
Speed of light greater that in water Definite 
disagreement
Fizeau experiment and Airy (water- Requires partial drag Requires partial drag
filled telescope) experiment of light medium of light medium
Stellar aberation (Bradley)  Ok if earth moves
with respect to ether
Michelson-Morley experiment  Implies that earth
does not move with
respect to earth

30
• Energy-Momentum relation for photon
– As particles lights are called photons
– As particles photons should have momenta (even
they have zero (rest) mass)
– What is the relationship between momentum and
energy of a photon?
– Experiment showed that the relationship is of the
form (Problem: find out from any references,
experiments that prove this expression)

E=pc
31
• Enertia of energy
– Matter has an inertia property through its mass
– How about photon that has no (rest) mass?

Einstein
Gedanken/Thought/hypothetical/Fictitious
Experiment (1906)

M
E
Einstein box
L

E
x
32
•Photon with energy E is emitted from the left
end of the Einstein’s box of mass M and
length L
•The box recoils from its initial to final position
(as a result of burst radiant energy) with
velocity v
E (derived from conservation
v of total momentum)
Mc

•The box move to the left

33
•After interval time t photon reaches and hits
right end of the box, with (approximately)

L
t 
c
•During the interval time t the box moves to
the left through a distance x

EL
x  vt   2
Mc

34
•The box and the radiating photon constitutes
an isolated system
•Initially the system is at rest, resulting to the
center of mass of the system is at rest.
•Recalling the concept in mechanics Einstein
postulated that the radiation has carried with
it the equivalent of a mass m, such that

EL
0  ( M  m) R  mxm  M xM  mL  M
Mc 2
E=mc2
Energy has its inertia property
35
•Changing energy leads to changing the
inertia mass (inertia mass is no longer
constant)
E=(m)c2

•Equivalence of energy and mass leads to

unification of two independent conservations
(conservation of energy and conservation of
mass) into one principle of conservation:
conservation of energy-mass

36
•Consequences (examples)
•Moving ball has more mass than the same ball
when it is at rest
•Heated filament lamp more mass than the same
filament when cold
•As it radiates 1.35103 watt/m2 of energy
(according to observer on earth (earth-sun
distance is 1,51011 m) the sun loss of its mass
about
(1,35103 watt/m2)(4(1,51011)2m2)/( 3108)2
=4,24109kg/s.

So huge but still much less that sun’s mass (21030kg)

37
• Energy, mass, and momentum relationship
– As energy is related to mass and also to
momentum it is interesting to combine the three
quantities into a single relationship.
– Consider a photon
E=cp, E=mc2
– These combine to give similar expression in
Newtonian mechanics p=mv:
p=mc

38
– Furthermore, assume E=mc2 is a universal
equivalence of energy and mass for any objects
c 2
p Ev
E  mc  2
cp  .
v c
– Change of (kinetic) energy is equal to work done
by total force
dp
dE  Fdx  dx  vdp.
dt
c2 p
EdE  vdp  c 2 pdp
v

E 2  c 2 p 2  E0 2 .
E0: integration constant, energy of object at rest
39
Consequences of E 2  c 2 p 2  E0 2 .

( Ev ) 2
E0
E 2  2  E0 2 E (v )  .
c 2
1 v / c 2

 v2  1  E0  2
E (v)  E0 1  2   E (v)  E0   2  v (v  c).
 2c  2 c 

Difference between energy of object

when it moves and when it is at rest

In order to harmonize with Newton’s mechanics at low

speeds, we identify E0/c2 as classical inertial mass m0.

40
 m0
m(v )  .
2 2
1 v / c

m0v
p  m( v )v  .
2 2
1 v / c

 1   1 
K  E ( v )  E0  E 0   1  m0 c 2   1 .
2 2 2 2
 1 v / c   1 v / c 

41
m   m0 ,
p   m0v,
E   m0 c ,
2

K  m0 c (  1).
2

1
   (v )  1
2 2
1 v / c

42
Obtained using excell

43
 1.2

 2 1  0.8

K  m0 c   1 .

v2 /c2
0.6
2 2
 1 v / c  0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
2 2 2 2 1
K / m0c v / c  1  {K / m0c  1} K/moc2

0.1 0.090909091

0.2 0.166666667

0.3 0.230769231

0.5 0.333333333

1.0 0.500000000

2.0 0.666666667

5.0 0.833333333

10.0 0.909090909

30.0 0.967741935
44
Linac
Experiment 10

6
Kinetic 5
2 16 2 2 Series1
Energy, K v 10 m /s 4

(MeV) 3

0.5 6.8 2

1
1 7.5 0
0 5 10 15 20
1.5 8.3
4.5 8.8
15 9
Theory of kinetic energy is
in accordance with
experiment

45
Example: Motion of an object with constant force

If initially at rest, momentum theorem gives

m0 v
Ft  mv 
(1  v 2 / c 2

v 2 m0 2 v 2 v 2  m0 2 c 2 
1  2  2 2  1  2 1  2 2 
c F t c  F t 

1/2
 m0 c  2 2
 v(t )  c  1  2 2 
 F t 

46
Case Ft<<m0c (Weak force and at early times)

1/ 2
 m0 c 
2 2
F
v (t )  c  2 2   t In accordance with
 F t  m0 Newton’s

Case Ft>>m0c (Strong force and/or at very long

times in the future)

v (t )  c. Speed of an object has

upper limit c

Not in accordance to Newton

47
Detailed feature of speed

1.2
v(t)/c for motion with constant force (m0c/F1)
1

0.8
v/c

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

t (s)

48
 II. Einstein Postulates and
Lorentz-Einstein Transformation
• Fitzgerald and Lorentz contraction
• Einstein Postulates
• Simultaneity is relative
• Space-time coordinates in two different frames
• Picture of synchronization in space-time diagram
• Lorentz-Einstein Transformations
• Space-time invariant
• Minkowski space-time

49
• Fitzgerald and Lorentz contraction
– the Michelson-Morley (M-M) experiment and others
experiments after it showed that nature yield up no
information about state of motion with respect to a
supposed fundamental frame of reference (ether).
– After the M-M experiment some physicists still
believed that the ether existed and the motion
through it was real. However, in order to be in
agreement with the M-M result compensating effects
would be introduced/should happen.

50
– Considering the above view G.F. Fitzgerald and
H.A. Lorentz (independently, 1892) tried to explain
the result of the M-M experiment by introducing a
hypothesis that contraction of a body takes place
when the body moves along the direction of ether
– Contraction by a factor (1-v2/c2)1/2 leads zero
fringe shift

51
 – As has been discussed, the times for the light to
travel along its two possible path in the
Michelson-Morley experiment are

2cl1
t1  2 2 (parallel to ether velocity)
c v

2l2 / c
t2  (perpendicular to ether velocity)
(1  v 2 / c 2 )1/2

52
– When the initial length of the arms in the
apparatus is l10 and l20 the hypothesis of
contraction gives

2 2 1/2
l1  l10 (1  v / c ) l2  l20

Thus
2l10 / c 2l20 / c
t1  t2 
(1  v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2 (1  v 2 / c 2 )1/ 2

53
 2(l10  l20 ) / c
t1  t2  2 2 1/ 2
(1  v / c )
90 rotation exchanges the role of the two arms,
l10l20, and does not change the absolute value
of time different, and thus in accordance to the
M-M experiment.

Any degree of rotations also gives the same result.

(show it)

54
• Einstein Postulates
– Even though Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction
hypothesis (where ether is kept to exist) is in
accordance with the M-M experiment, Einstein
disagrees with the appearance of special frame
(ether).
– The basic idea of the disagreement is that in
(Newtonian) mechanics all physical observables
depend only on relative motions

55
– (Considering that time is observable just like
position the dependence of observables with
relative motions leads to discarding the idea of
absolute time)
– Recalling that laws of (Newtonian that we have
discussed) mechanics are valid in all (inertial)
frames of reference Einstein suggests that laws of
electrodynamics and optics should also be valid in
all (inertial) frames of reference (this is a kind of
unification of physical theories (mechanics,
electrodynamics and optics))

56
– This leads to Einstein postulate:
Laws of physics should be valid in all (inertial)
frames of reference
– Einstein also introduce another postulate
Light is always propagated with definite speed c in
empty space, independent with the state of
motion of the emitting body.

57
The equivalent statements of Einstein’s postulates
are

1. All inertial frames of reference are

equivalent with respect to all the laws of
physics
2. The speed of light in empty space always
has the same value of c

58
Notes:
– Postulate 1 states the invariance of physical laws
with all inertial frames.
– Relationship between two inertial frames is given
by a set of transformations between coordinates
and times
– Thus physical laws is said to be invariant with
respect to the above set of transformations
– The quantitative values of physical quantities vary
(not invariant) but the laws (e.g Newton’s law) is
invariant. This is the essence of relativity
59
– Newtonian relativity only consider
dynamics/mechanics, and time is assumed to be
absolute. Accodingly, principle of Newtonian relativity
is associated with Galileo transformations as frames
connector.
– Einstein relativity consider all physics, not only
mechanics, and time is assume relative (no longer
absolute) like space coordinates. Accordingly, also by
considering the 2nd postulate, principle of Einstein
relativity cannot be associated with Galileo
transformations. It should be associated with other
set transformations (that is the Lorentz-Einstein,
simply the Lorentz, transformations)
60
• Synchronizing clocks at two different places
– Relativity of time leads to some aspects to be
considered
– All judgments in which time plays a part always
judgments of simultaneous events

61
Events at the
same place

The train arrives here

at 7 o’clock

 Jojon
Meaning:
The pointing of Jojon’s watch to 7
and the arrival of the train are
simultaneous events

62
 Events at the
different places
Average velocity of a body

 
Arrival the Arrival the  r2  r1
body at r1 body at r2 v
t2  t1
A clock reading t1 and arrival
the body at r1 are two To compare these two set of
simultaneous events events we have to define the
meaning of sametime at
A clock reading t2 and arrival
the body at r2 are two different places.
another simultaneous events

63
 Einstein definition of
same time at different places
(Synchronizing clocks at difference places).
Clock at A can
record time Universal speed of light c as the basics:
differences time required for a light signal to travel
between events
that occur in the
A from A to B = time required for a light
signal to travel from B to A
vicinity of A

Clock at B can
If signal start out from A at time t=0,
record time reflected by mirror at B and back to
B
differences A at time t=t0 then the time at which
between events signal reach at B is defined as
that occur in the being t0/2.
vicinity of B

64
• Simultaneity is relative (not absolute)
– This relativity of simultaneity is a consequence of
the prescription of synchronizing clocks at
different places

Consider stations A, B, C equally spaced along x axis of

inertial frame S and are all at rest.

Construct x-t coordinate system and draw lines on it

associated with each station. The lines are called the
world lines of the associated objects/ stations

65
 t
World lines
of A, B, C
A, B, C
at rest in S
xA, xB, xC
B sends signals to all
C1 constants
A1 direction at time t=0
Line BA1 is path of
x
O A B C signal that reaches A
Line BC1 is path of
signal that reaches C

Line BA1: x=xB-ct A1 is the arrival of

signal at A
Line BC1: x=xB+ct C1 is the arrival of
signal at C

Simultaneity at A and C is defined by line

A1C1, parallel to x axis. The line joins all
point possessing the same value of t.
66
 t
World lines
of A, B, C
A, B, C
at rest in S
xA, xB, xC
C1 constants
A1

x
O A B C

Time axis = world line of the origin of space-time

coordinates
Coordinate axis = line connecting simultaneous events at initial
time (at time 0)

Time axis = parallel to world lines of stationary objects

Coordinate axis = parallel to lines connecting simultaneous
events
67
 t
A, B, C
World lines
of A, B, C at rest in S’

Curves of A, B, C
signals are
t1
A’1
move with speed
t2 as before
C’1 v (to +x) in S
x
O A B C
S’
B sends signals to all direction at time t=0 moves with speed
v w.r.t. S.
Line BA’1 is path of signal that reaches A:

x=xB-ct
A’1 is the arrival of signal at A
Line BC’1 is path of signal that reaches C: C’1 is the arrival of signal at C
x=xB+ct

68
 t
A, B, C
World lines
of A, B, C at rest in S’

Curves of A, B, C
signals as
t1
A’1
move with speed
t2 before
C’1 v (to +x) in S
x
O A B C
S’
A’1C’1 is not parallel to x-axis, moves with speed
v w.r.t. S.
thus A’1 and C’1 are not simultaneous
according to S.
Signal reaches A is earlier than that reaches B

Motion of A and signal coming to A: in opposite direction

Motion of C and signal coming to C: in same direction
Problem: sketch similar
diagram when S’ moves to
the left (-x) 69
 t S frame t S’ frame

t1
A’1 A’1 C’1
t2 C’1
x x
O A B C O A B C

A, B, C A, B, C
Move in S at rest in S’

A’1 and C’1 are not simultaneous A’1 and C’1 are simultaneous
according to S. according to S’.
Signal reaches A is earlier than that Signal reaches A and B at the same
reaches B time

Simultaneity is relative
(frame dependent)
70
• Space-time coordinates in two different
inertial frames
A, B, C (x,t): coordinate axes in S
at rest in S’ t (x’,t’): coordinate axes in S’
t’
A, B, C Axis x’ parallel to lines
move with speed v (to of simultaneous events
+x) in S (lines t’=const)
Axis t’ = worldline of O
S’ (parallel to x’=const)
moves with speed v
w.r.t. S. C’1
A’1
x’
S and S’ coincides at
t=t’=0 x
O A B C
71
t Frame S
Simultaneous lines
of events

World lines of
objects at rest

72
Moving frame S’ in +x direction
Simultaneous lines
t t’ of events
(according to S’)

World lines of
objects at rest
x’ (according to S’)

73
Moving frame S’’ to -x direction

t
t’’
Simultaneous lines
of events

World lines of
objects at rest

x’’

74
•Picture of synchronization in space-time
diagram

Clocks synchronized in
the ground frame

75
Clocks synchronized in
the car frame

76
• Coordinates of an event in two different
inertial frames
(xP,tP): coordinates of P in S
(x’P,t’P): coordinates of P in S’
S’
moves with speed v t
w.r.t. S. Any event P can
t’
be characterized
S and S’ coincides at equivalently by
t=t’=0 (x,t) or (x’,t’)
tP P
Events: points in
t’P
space-time
coordinate system x’

x’P
x
Problem: sketch similar O xP
diagram when S’ moves to
the left (-x) 77
 How to draw coordinate x and time t of an event?

t Event P is specified by coordinates

t’ (xP,tP) according to frame S and
(x’P,t’P) according to frame S’

xP is a point of intersection
tP P between axis x and a line parallel
to axis t that passing through P
t’P
x’ tP is a point of intersection
between axis t and a line parallel
x’P to axis x that passing through P
x
O xP

78
 How to draw coordinate x and time t of an event?

t
t’ x’P is a point of intersection
between axis x’ and a line parallel
to axis t’ that passing through P

tP P
t’P is a point of intersection
t’P between axis t’ and a line parallel
to axis x’ that passing through P
x’

x’P
x
O xP

79
• Lorentz-Einstein transformations

t Coordinates (x,t) and (x’,t’)

t’ representing an event can be
related each other.
The relationship is linear to
guaranty inertia property,
tP P inertial frames are equivalent
to each other.
t’P
x’

x’P
x
O xP

80
Linear relationship
 b  a,b constant of coordinate and
x  ax ' bt '  a  x ' t '  time (can depend on speed of
 a  the moving frame (S’)
with
This condition is defined to make
 b  the relationship has a close
x '  ax  bt  a  x  t  . possible form with the Galileo
 a  transformation and enabling the
transformation reduces to Galileo
transformation for low speeds.
The motion of the origin O of S as measured in S’ is
defined by putting x=0 in 1st equation
 b  b
0   x ' t '   x '   t '
 a  a
O moves to the left w.r.t. frame S’ with speed b/a
81
The motion of the origin O’ of S’ as measured in S is
defined by putting x’=0 in 2nd equation

 b  b
0 x t x  t
 a  a
O’ moves to the right w.r.t. frame S with speed b/a

Take v as the speed of S’ w.r.t. S, v=b/a

x  a  x ' vt ' 

x '  a  x  vt  .

82
Consider light signal traveling in the +x direction from O

As speed of light signal is independent of frames, the

equation fulfilling the motion of signal in S and S’
respectively are

x=ct, x’=ct’
This can be used to eliminate x and x’ in 

ct  a  ct ' vt '   (ac  av )t '

ct '  a (ct  vt )  (ac  av )t

83
Eliminating t and t’:
2 2 2 2
c  ( ac  av )( ac  av )  a (c  v )
1
a   (v )
1  v2 / c2
We obtain

x    x ' vt ' 
x '   ( x  vt ) t   (t ' vx '/ c )2

t '   (t  vx / c 2 )
As S’ moves parallel to x axis
we conclude that
y’=y, z’=z
84
 Finally we have a complete set of Lorentz-
Einstein transformations

x '   ( x  vt ) x   ( x ' vt ')

y' y y  y'
z' z z  z'
t '   (t  vx / c 2 ) t   (t ' vx '/ c 2 )

For v<<c we have 1 and v/c20 leading to transition:

Lorentz transformationsGalileo transformations

85
Example: Light burst

Consider light burst at t=0 on the origin O of frame S.

At later time t the light reaches points on a

sphere or radius r=ct.

Observer on S’ (S and S coincide at t=t’=0) also sees the light on a

sphere (not on other forms) but with radius r’=ct’. This is because
the universal value of c.

According to observer on S’, the first sphere is related to point with

different time. This is in contrast to observer point of view on S.
According to this observer, the sphere consists of simultaneous
events

Problem: do both spheres have the same radius?

86
 Burst according to S fulfill the sphere equation

2 2 2 2 2
r  ct  x  y  z  c t
Using Lorentz transformations, unprimedprimed

 2 ( x ' vt ') 2  y '2  z '2  c 2 2 (t ' vx '/ c 2 ) 2

 2 x '2 (1  v 2 / c 2 )  y '2  z '2   2t '2 (c 2  v 2 )
 (1  v / c )  1
2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2
x '  y '  z '  c t '  r '  ct '
87
 S frame: burst at t
S S’ r=ctx2+y2+z2=c2t2

S’ frame at t’,
r’=ct’ (universal speed c)
x’2+y’2+z’2=c2t’2
The burst form a sphere
according to both frames

At t O’ according to O is at x=vt, y=z=0 and signal propagating along

x axis reaches x=ct, y=z=0.
At this time O’ according to O’ is at x’=(x-vt)=(vt-vt)=0 and signal
propagating along x axis reaches x’=ct’=c(t-vx/c2) = c(t-vct/c2)
=c(1-v/c)t=ct[(1-v/c)/(1+v/c)]<ct, y’=z’=0  t’<t

Burst sphere according to S’ has smaller radius that that according

to S.
88
• Space-time invariant
Different frames define an event with different positions and times.
But this event has a characteristic quantity that its value is the same
according to all inertial frames. Such a quantity is called an invariant
quantity
This quantity is s, defined below, and it can be used to characterize
an event.
2 2 2 2
s  x c t
Under Lorentz transformation

s 2  s '2  x '2  c 2t '2  x 2  c 2t 2  s 2

89
s is defined as distance in space-time (not
distance in space) .

Set of events that have the same distance s forms a

hyperbolic curve in space-time diagram.

As x can be greater or lesser that ct the value of s2 can

be negative. In this case s is imaginary.
Imaginary s can be avoided by redefining the time axis of
from axis t to axis it. In this new diagram

s2=x2+c2t20

90
 • Minkowski space-time
Minkowski space-time
is a space-time graph
ct as depicted before but
ct’ light signal by changing the axis t
ct”
by axis ct.
ct”P Thus all the axes have
P dimension of distance.
ctP
If the scale of both axes
ct’P
is the same the world
x’ line of light starting out
at x=0, t=0 is bisector of
x’P the angle between the
x axes.
O xP
(This holds in all frames
All frames that coincide that coincide at
at t=t’=t”=  =0 relate to x”P x” t=t’=t”=  =0)
one another through the Lorentz transformations.
91
 Scale, representing unit
distance, is not the same
along different axes x, x’,
ct
x”,   .
ct’ light signal
ct” As distance s is invariant,
we can define unit
distance in all frames
through the hyperbolic
x2-c2t2=1 curve
ct’P x’2-c2t’2=1
x”’2-c2t’”2=1
x’ x2-c2t2=s2=1.
Intersection between the
B
A curve and the axes x, x’,
x x”,   define the unit
O
C distances for the
corresponding frames.
x”

92
 x2-c2t2=s2=1.
Hyperbolic curve in the graph can be
x’2-c2t’2=s2=1.
expressed by all the following equations:
x”2-c2t”2=s2=1.
ct
light signal etc.
ct ct’
” Points on x, x’, x” axes
correspond to t=0, t’=0, t”=0
… respectively.
x2-c2t2=1 Points A, B, C on the curve
correspond to
x’ xA=1, x’B=1, x”C=1
B
A
O
x OA = 1 unit distance for S
C
OB = 1 unit distance for S’
x” OC = 1 unit distance for S”
93
 x2-c2t2=s2=-1.
Hyperbolic curve in the graph can be
x’2-c2t’2=s2=-1.
expressed by all the following equations:
x”2-c2t”2=s2=-1.
ct
light signal etc.
ct ct’
Points on ct, ct’, ct” axes
” correspond to x=0, x’=0,
x”=0 … respt’ly.
x2-c2t2=-1
x’2-c2t’2=-1
x”2-c2t”2=-1 Points E, F, G on the curve
correspond to
E x’
G F
ctE=1, ct’F=1, ct”G=1

O
x OE = 1 unit scale for axis ct
OF = 1 unit scale for axis ct’

x” OG = 1 unit scale for axis ct”

94
 III. Measurement of Length and
Time
• Relativity of separation of two events
• Length contraction
• Time dilation
• The twin paradox
• Causality

95
• Relativity of separation of two events
Frame S’ and S” move with
ct
velocities v and –V parallel to x
ct’ axis with respect to frame S
ct”

ct”P Events/Points P and Q

are specified by
ctP P
Frames Event P Event Q
ct’P
ct”Q
Q x’ S (xP,ctP) (xQ ,ctQ)
ct’Q S’ (x’P,ct’P) (x’Q ,ct’Q)
ctQ x’Q x’P S” (x”P,ct”P) (x”Q ,ct”Q)
O xQ xP x
x”Q
x”P x”

96
According to Lorentz transformation

x 'P   ( xP  vt P ) xP   ( x 'P  vt 'P )

t 'P   (t P  vxP / c 2 ) t P   (t 'P  vx 'P / c 2 )

x 'Q   ( xQ  vtQ ) xP   ( x 'Q  vt 'Q )

t 'Q   (tQ  vxQ / c ) t P   (t 'Q  vx 'Q / c )
2 2

97
x "P   ( xP  Vt P ) xP   ( x ''P  Vt ''P )
t ''P   (t P  VxP / c 2 ) t P   (t ''P  Vx ''P / c 2 )

x "Q   ( xQ  VtQ ) xQ   ( x ''Q  Vt ''Q )

t ''Q   (tQ  VxQ / c ) tQ   (t ''Q  Vx ''Q / c )
2 2

98
 Separation between P and Q
Frames
In space In time In space-time s
S x=xP-xQ t=tP-tQ s2=x2c2t2
S’ x’=x’P-x’Q t’=t’P-t’Q s’2=x’2c2t’2
S” x”=x”P-x”Q t”=t”P-t”Q s’’2=x’’2c2t’’2

Separation in space is frame dependent

Separation in time is frame dependent
Separation in space-time is frame independent

99
 In terms of unprimed coordinates

x  xP  xQ t  t P  tQ
x '  x 'P  x 'Q   [x  vt ]

x ''  x ''P  x ''Q   [ x  V t ]

t '  t 'P  t 'Q   [t  vx / c ] 2

t "  t ''P  t "Q   [ t  V x / c 2 ]

Separation in space and in time separately between two events
depend on the frame of reference
Separation in space and in time separately between two events is
relative 100
x '   [x  vt ]  x '2   2 [x 2  2vt x  v 2t 2 ]
 t '   [  t  v  x / c 2 ]   t ' 2   2 [  t 2  2v  t  x / c 2  v 2  x 2 / c 4 ]

 s '2   x '2  c 2  t ' 2

  2 [ x 2  2v t x  v 2 t 2 ]
 c 2 2 [  t 2  2v  t  x / c 2  v 2 x 2 / c 4 ]
  2 [ x 2  v 2 t 2  c 2 t 2  v 2 x 2 / c 2 ]
  2 (1  v 2 / c 2 )[ x 2  c 2 t 2 ]  [x 2  c 2 t 2 ]  s 2

Separation in space-time between two events is invariant

101
Summation of infinitesimal separation in space-time is
frame independent, but it is path dependent
Q

 ds  is path dependent
P

Infinitesimal separation in space-time ds is defined

from s through xdx, tdt
ds 2  (ds ) 2
ds 2  dx 2  c 2 dt 2 2 2
2 dx  (dx)
2 2 2 1  dx 
ds  dx c dt  cdt 2   1 dt 2  (dt ) 2
c  dt 
Q Q 2
1  dx 
P ds  P cdt c 2  dt   1
102
 Consider two paths: PQ (path 1) and PMQ (path 2)

Path 1 t

t0 Q
Q Q 2
1  dx 
P ds  P cdt c 2  dt   1 x=x0
x=x0+v(t0-t)

t0 t0/2 M
  cdt 1  1ct0
x=x0+vt
0
P
Path 2 x0 x

Q M 2 Q 2
1  dx  1  dx 
P ds  P cdt c 2  dt   1  M cdt c 2  dt   1
t0 /2 2 t0
v ( v ) 2 ct0
 cdt 2  1   cdt  2
  1  ct 0  1   1
0
c t0 /2
c 2
 103
 Consider two paths: PQ (path 1) and PMQ (path 2)

Path 1 t t’

t0 Q
According to S’ moving
with +V along +x, path PQ x=x0+v(t0-t)
is described by x=x0
x’
t0/2
x0=(x’+Vt’)  dx’/dt’= V M

x=x0+vt
Q Q 2
1  dx ' 
P ds '  P cdt ' c 2  dt '   1 P
x0 x

tQ '
V2 1
  cdt ' 2  1  ct '
tP '
c 
1 1
 c (t  V x / c ) 
2
c (t0  0)  1ct0
  104
Example

Consider frame S’ move with speed v=0.6c with respect to frame S.

Clocks are adjusted so that t=t’=0 at x=x’=0.
Two events A and B occur: event A occurs at x1=10 m, t1=210-7 s
and event B occurs at at x2=50 m, t1=310-7 s (y1=z1=x2=z2=0)

What is the distance between the two events as measured in S

and in S’?

In S: x=x2-x1= (50-10)m=40 m
In S’: x’=x’2-x’1= (x-vt)= (5/4)(40-(3/5 (3108)(110-7 )=27.5 m

x’<x
105
What is the time different between the two events as
measured in S and in S’?

In S: t=t2-t1= (3 10-7 -2 10-7 )s=1 10-7 s

In S’: t’=t’2-t’1= (t-vx/c2)
= (5/4)(1 10-7 -(3/5 (3108)(40)/(3108 )2
=2.5 10-8 s

t’<t

Note the invariant:

(x)2-(ct)2 =(1600-900) m = 700 m
(x’)2-(ct’)2=(756.25-56.25) m = 700 m

106
• Length contraction
From the last slide

t '   [ t  vx / c 2 )  t  t ' vx / c 2

x '   ( x  vt )  x  vt

 x  v (t ' vx / c 2 )  x (1  v 2 / c 2 )  vt '
x
  v t '


similarly for t” and x”

107
Besides it is depending on separation in space calculated in rest
frame S, separation in space between two events calculated in
moving frame S’ depends also on separation in time calculated in S’
Thus separation in space calculated in any moving frames is time
dependent

Accordingly, if the two events describe endpoints of a rod,

separation in space (calculated in moving frames) is not identical to
length of the rod, as we recognize that length of a rod is constant.

In fact, length of a rod according to moving frame S’ is equal to the

separation between the end points of the rod by taking the term of
separation in time to vanish.

This means that measuring of a length should be carried out by

measuring endpoints positions at the same time.

108
Thus length of a rod according to S’ is

x
x '   vt ', t '  0

Or
L0
L L : length according to observer at S’
 L0: length according to observer at S

  1  L  L0

Length measured in moving frame is shorter

(length contraction)

109
 According to S,
the length is PQ
ct According to S’,
ct’ the length is P’Q’.

Note that unit of

x2-c2t2 =1
distance in x axis is
shorter that that in x’axis
P’ Q’ Thus
x’
P’Q’  PQ

x
O P Q

110
 Rod OP at rest in S According to S, the
length of rod:
ct OP=1 unit in S
ct’
According to S’, the
length of rod:

x2-c2t2 =1 OP’< 1 unit in S’.

x’
OP’ < OP
P’

x
O P

111
• Time dilation

Analogous to measuring length, measuring time

interval should be carried out at the same place.

If time interval of an event is t according to frame S,

the time interval of the event according to S’ is
x  0
t '   [ t  vx / c 2 )  t
Or
T : time interval according to frame S
T   T0 T0 : time interval according to S’

Time interval measured in moving frame is

longer/slower (time dilation)
Note: depending on the situation, moving frame can be
either S or S’. 112
 ct
ct’ x2-c2t2 = -1

2’
2 T<T0
T0 T
1’
x’
1

x
O

1’ unit
1 unit

113
 ct
ct’
T<T0

2’
2
The corresponding object
T0 T is at rest according to S’
1’ and is moving according
x’ to S.
1

Thus T<T0 is in accrdance

x to time dilation.
O

114
• The twin paradox

• Consider a sending an astronaut to a distant star in a

spaceship at a very high speed.
• Assume that the astronaut has a twin sibling waiting back
on Earth.
• In the Earth frame of reference, time on the spaceship will
be observed to pass more slowly than on the Earth due to
time dilation.
• So the twin of the astronaut waiting on the Earth expects
the astronaut to be the much younger of the two upon return.

115
 • The twin paradox
• In the spaceship frame of reference, it is the Earth that is
moving at a very high speed, so time on Earth will be observed
to pass more slowly than on the spaceship.
• So the astronaut expects that the twin sibling waiting on the
Earth to be much younger of the two upon return.

• Isn't this a contradiction? What happens when the astronaut

comes back to Earth? Which of the twin siblings will be older?
How can both observations be correct? This problem is known
as the twin paradox.

116
117
The answer to this question is that for the astronaut to
return to the Earth, he/she must change direction and
thereby switch from one inertial frame to another, and
that breaks the symmetry between the two observers.

Now changing direction involves acceleration which

puts the astronaut in a non-inertial frame.

And as we discussed earlier, special relativity is a

theory that only applies to observations made from
inertial frames so we can't really tell what the
astronaut observes during the acceleration process.

118
But let's for the sake of argument assume that the
acceleration process can be made as short as we like
and can be considered an instantaneous jump from
one inertial frame to another.

In the spacetime diagram above, this jump occurs at

C. Notice that in the frame the spaceship was in
before the jump, C is simultaneous with A on Earth.
But in the frame that the spaceship is in after the
jump, C is simultaneous with B on Earth. So after the
jump, the astronaut discovers that time on Earth has
suddenly jumped from A to B. Because of this effect,
the astronaut will be younger than his/her sibling when
he/she gets back to the Earth.

119
Proper time and proper length

Measurements made in rest frame of object

under consideration are called proper.

Measurement of length of the object in this

frame is called proper length of the object

Measurement of (interval) time in some fixed

points in this frame is called proper time.

Non-proper length < proper length

Non-proper time > proper time

120
• Causality
Lightlike: space-time region
where light propagates
(white cone)
ct

Timelike: space-time region

where objects move with
speed v<c
(green cone)

x Spacelike: space-time
region where objects move
with speed v>c
(blue cone)

121
 Timelike: region with t<0 and t>0 are separated
thus timelike has causality structure (cause-
effect structure)
Objects in this region have speed u<c
Bullet released at A with speed u<c and
hits object at B after t>0.
According to S:
Event of hitting object is later than event of releasing bullet.

t '   (t  vx / c )  t (1  vu / c )

2 2

t’>0 for any inertial frames S’ with speed v<c.

According to S’:
Event of hitting object is later than event of releasing bullet.
122
 Spacelike: region with t<0 and t>0 are connected
thus spacelike has no causality structure: no cause-
effect structure (effect could be earlier that cause and
vice versa)
Objects in this region have speed u>c
Bullet released at A with speed u>c and hits object at B after
t>0.
According to S:
Event of hitting object is later than event of releasing bullet.

t '   (t  vx / c )  t (1  vu / c )

2 2

There are inertial frames S’ with speed v<c that gives

(1-vu/c2)<0 giving t’<0.
According to S’:
Event of hitting object is earlier than event of releasing
bullet. 123
Thus to avoid causality problem, matter should
not move with speed u>c.
(But non-matter such as information is possible
to have speed greater than c.)

124
 IV. Relativistic Kinematics

• Relativistic addition of velocities

• The Doppler effect
• The twin paradox: detailed analysis
• Accelerated motions

125
• Relativistic addition of velocities
Lorentz transformation
(Frame S’ moves with speed V along +x direction)

x '   ( x  Vt ), t '   (t  Vx / c 2 ),
y' y
z' z

x   ( x ' Vt ), t   (t ' Vx '/ c 2 ),

y  y'
z  z'

126
x-component of velocity according to S’

dx ' dx ' dt d  d
vx '      ( x  Vt )   (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt ' dt dt '  dt  dt '
  (vx  V ) (1  Vvx '/ c 2 )

 vx '   2 (vx  V )   2 (vx  V )Vv x '/ c 2

 vx '(1   2 (vx  V )V / c 2 )   2 (v x  V )

127
  (vx V)
2
vx '  2
1 (vx V)V/ c2
(vx V) vx V
vx '  2 2 2
 2
(1V / c )(vx V)V / c 1vV x / c

vx  V vx ' V
vx '  vx 
1  vxV / c 2 1  v x 'V / c 2

128
y-component of velocity according to S’

dy ' dy ' dt  d  d
vy '    y  (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt ' dt dt '  dt  dt '
 v y  (1  Vvx '/ c 2 )

Eliminating vx’ using previous result

vx  V
vx ' 
1  vxV / c 2

129
 We obtain

 V vx  V   vxV  V 2 
v y '  v y 1  2 2   v y 1  2 
 c 1  v xV / c   c  v xV 
 c 2  vxV  vxV  V 2   c2  V 2 
 v y  2   v y  2 
 c  vxV   c  v xV 
 1  V 2 / c2  vy / 
 v y  2 
 2
 1  v xV / c  1  v xV / c

vy /  v y '/ 
vy '  2
vy 
1  vxV / c 1  v x 'V / c 2
130
z-component of velocity according to S’

Similar derivation

vz /  vz '/ 
vz '  vz 
1  vxV / c 2 1  v x 'V / c 2

131
Rules of relativistic addition of velocities (summary)

vx  V vx ' V
vx '  vx 
1  vxV / c 2 1  v x 'V / c 2

vy /  v y '/ 
vy '  2
vy 
1  vxV / c 1  v x 'V / c 2

vz /  vz '/ 
vz '  vz 
1  vxV / c 2 1  v x 'V / c 2

132
Rules of relativistic addition of velocities in
dimensionless velocities

Define dimensionless velocities  and i

V ux uy u
  , x  ,  y  , z  z
c c c c
ux ' uy ' u '
x '  , y '  , z '  z
c c c

vx ' vx / c  V / c vx v x '/ c  V / c
 
c 1  (vx / c )(V / c ) c 1  (v x '/ c )(V / c )
x    x ' 
x '  x 
1 x 1 x ' 
133
We have
x    x ' 
x '  x 
1 x 1 x ' 

y /   y '/ 
y '  y 
1 x 1 x ' 

z /   z '/ 
z '  z 
1 x 1 x ' 

All ’s have their value -11

134
Example: Light in a moving medium

Light travel through a medium characterized by a refractive

index n.
Speed of light relative to the medium is c/n.
If the medium is moving with speed V parallel to the direction
of light, then according to rules of velocity addition the speed
of light according to stationary observer is:

c / n V c / n V
vx  2

1  (c / n)V / c 1  V / nc

135
For V<<c:

1
c / n V c  nV   V 
vx   1   1  
1  V / nc n  c   nc 
c  nV   V 
 1   1    
n c   nc 
c  Vn V 
 1   
n c nc 
c  nV V  c  1 
 1      1  2  V
n c nc  n  n 

Drag coeficient
136
Example: Stellar aberation

A telescope on Earth is directed to a distant star

Take frame S which is at rest on the Sun. The distant star is
at rest, accordingly

The Earth (in S’ frame) moves around the Sun apparent

direction () of the star changes periodically

Star

Sun
Earth

Plane of Earth’s orbit

137
  ’

: Direction of star from the ’: Direction of star from

plane of Earth’s orbit in the plane of Earth’s orbit in
frame S frame S’

Light coming from the star to the earth with speed c,

ux =c cos, uy=c sin
ux’=c cos’, uy’= c sin’

138
From rules of velocity addition:

c cos   V
c cos  '  ,
1  ( c cos  )V / c 2

( c sin  ) / 
c sin  ' 
1  ( c cos  )V / c 2

1st equation:

cos   
cos  ' 
1   cos 

139
V=speed of Earth  30km/s 10-4c  =10-4

cos   
cos  '   (cos    )(1   cos  )
1   cos 
 cos    sin 2 

Angle of aberration: =’,  very small

cos  '  cos(   )  cos  cos   sin  sin 

 cos    sin 

140
 cos   
cos  '   cos    sin 
1   cos 

cos     (cos    sin  )(1   cos  )

 cos    cos 2  )   sin    sin  cos  )

   cos 2    sin    sin  cos 

 sin 2    sin  (1   ) cos 
 sin      cos   

   sin 
141
• The Doppler Effect

The phenomenon of the dependence of observed radiation

frequency or wavelength with the motion of the radiation
source and the observer.

S  R

Radiation source S emits brief signals of frequency  (period 1/)

periodically every time interval . The source moves with velocity u1
to the right.

Receiver R moves to the right at velocity u2.

142
 Acoustical Doppler Effect (Review)
1st pulse
t=0 S  R
emitted

2nd pulse emitted

1st pulse travels w
t= S   R
S travels u1
R travels u2
’ ’: distance between
u1
1st and 2nd pulses.
u2

W S: sound pulse
source (e.g. horn)

Effective wavelength: ’=(W-u1)

Relative to Receiver R, speed of pulses is (W-u2)

Pulse 1 and pulse 2 arrives at R within interval time: ’=’/(W-u2)

143
 W  u1
 ' 
W  u2

The effective frequency: ’=1/’

1 W  u1 1 W  u2 1  u2 / W
  '    ' 
 ' W  u2  W  u1 1  u1 / W

Case 1: stationary source, moving receiver away (u1=0, u2=v), ’=(1-)

Case 2: stationary receiver, moving source away (u1=-v, u2=0), ’=/(1+)
Case 3: stationary source, approaching receiver (u1=0, u2=-v), ’=(1+)
Case 4: stationary receiver, approaching source (u1=v, u2=0), ’=/(1-)
144
Relativistic Doppler Effect

Take the source (e.g. radar pulse transmitter) at the origin (x=0) of
frame S.
Receiver is at rest in frame S’, moves relative to S at velocity V.
Each pulse is transmitted at speed c and at period of  starting at t=0.
The (n+1)th pulse is sent out at t=n.

Consider
t1 : time for 1st pulse to reach Receiver
t2 : time for the (n+1)th pulse to reach Receiver
x0: initial position of the Receiver.
x1: position of 1st pulse at time t1
=position of receiver at time t1.
x2: position of (n+1)th pulse at time t2
=position of receiver at time t2.

145
 t

(x2,t2)
source

t=n
(x1,t1)

x
x0

World-line of source: x=0

World-line of receiver: x=x0+Vt
World-line of 1st pulse: x=ct
World-line of (n+1)th pulse: x=ct-nct
146
 Position of 1st pulse at t1: x1=ct1
Position of 1st pulse at t2: x2=c(t2-n)

Position of receiver at t1: x1=x0+Vt1

Position of receiver at t2: x2=x0+Vt2

Combining:
ct1=x0+Vt1t1=x0/(c-V)

c(t2-n)=x0+Vt2 t2=(x0+cn) /(c-V)

c n
t 2  t1 
c  V
c n V
x2  x 1  V ( t 2  t1 ) 
c  V 147
 According to Receiver (frame S’), the time interval
between 1st and (n+1)th pulses when reaching the
Receiver is (using Lorentz transformation)

t 2 ' t1 '   [ ( t 2  t1 )  V ( x 2  x 1 ) / c 2 ]
 c n V c n V 
    2 
 c  V c c  V 
1 c n  V 2
 V
 2 1   (  )
(1  V / c 2 )1/2 c  V  c 2
 c
1/2
1 1   2
1   
 n  n  
(1   2
)1/2 1    1   

148
The time interval between 1st and (n+1)th pulses is
equal to n times period: t2’-t1’=n’
1/2
1   
 '    Source: stationary
1    receiver moving away

In frequency
1/2
1   
 '   
Source: stationary

1   
receiver moving away

149
 1/2
1    Source: stationary
 '    Receiver: approaching
1   
In frequency
1/2
1    Source: stationary
 '    Receiver: approaching
1   

In relativistic case we have symmetrical future:

(stationary source-moving receiver)  (stationary receiver-moving source)

150
Case V<<c
for stationary source and approaching receiver

1/ 2
1  
 '     (1   ) (1   )
1/ 2 1/ 2

1  
  (1   / 2   )(1   / 2   )
  (1     )

In agreement with acoustic case 3 slide no 137

151
Example: Doppler effect of satellite orbiting the Earth

Consider a satellite orbiting the Earth at height h above

Earth’s surface.
For simplicity, the satellite’s path is a horizontal straight line

x1 x2 X=0
V

Position satellite
at time t:
r1 r2 h
x=Vt, y=h


t=0 is choosen when
Earth’s surface O
satellite above O

152
Suppose satellite sends signals every  second according
to satellite itself
If t1 and t2 are times when satellite at positions x1 and x2
respectively, and when a signal is sent at x1 and the next
signal is sent at x2, then according time dilation the time
interval between the released times of signals in Earth
frame is

t2t1 =  = /

Pulses from x1 and x2 take time r1/c and r2/c respectively to

reach observer at O. According to O, the interval time
between pulses is

’ = (t2 + r2/c)(t1 + r1/c) =  (r1  r2)/c

153
From the figure

r1r2  (x2x1)cos = Vcos

So
’ = [1-(V/c)cos]
Frequency of the received signals:

 (1   2 )1/2
 ' 
 [1  (V / c) cos  ] [1   cos  ]

From the figure

x1 x1 Vt
cos    2 2 1/2
 2
r1 (h  x1 ) (h  V 2t 2 )1/2

154
Variation of received signals with time

 (1   2 )1/2 h 2  V 2t 2
 ' 
 [1  (V / c) cos  ] [ h 2  V 2t 2  Vt ]

h 2  V 2t 2
 ' 
[ h 2  V 2t 2  Vt ]
 Vt 
  1  
2 2 2
 h V t 

As  is very small (of order 10-5) the variation is not easy to

detect.

155
Example: Doppler effect of rapidly moving atoms

By taking similar situation, the previous result can be used:

  1
 ' 
 [1  (V / c) cos  ]  1   cos 

This defines an apparent wavelength of light radiated by an

atom as observed by observer:
 '( )   (1   cos  )
When the atom moves transversely (at right angle with line of
observer-atom) we have =90 and ’(/2)=
When the atom moves forward (to the observer) we have
=180 and ’()=(1+)
When the atom moves backward (away from the observer)
we have =0 and ’(0)=(1) 156
 Expanding in 

 '( / 2)     (1   2 ) 1/2   (1  12  2 )

1/2
 1  
 '( )   (1   )       (1    12  2  )
 1   
1/2
 1  
 '(0)   (1   )       (1    12  2  )
 1   

V
First order Doppler effect: 1    
c
(  ) 2
Second order Doppler effect: 2  12  2   1
2
Second order effect cannot be detected using transverse emision.
157
 Example
A proton accelerated through potential difference of
5 kV has a kinetic energy of 5000J giving 0.003
m0 c 2
K  m0 c (  1)  K  m0c 
2 2
 m0c 2 (1  12  2 )  K  12  2 m0c 2
1 192
2K 2(5000 J / C )(1.6 10 C )
 
2
  1.06  10 5
   3.26  10 3

m0 c 2 (1.67  1027 kg )(9  1016 m 2 / s 2 )

When the proton picks up an electron, an excited hydrogen

with speed given by  is produced. This unstable atom
then changes to more stable one by emitting Balmer
spectrum with wavelengths around 5000Å. we have

1st order Doppler effect 1=1.610-9m=16Å

2nd order Doppler effect 2=2.710-12m=0.027Å

158
• The twin paradox: Detailed analysis

Each person sends equally spaced time signals (of his own proper
time) to the other.
Cumulative counts of time signals for the whole trip are compared.
Each person transmits f pulses per unit time.
Interval times during accelerating and decelerating of are assumed
negligible (very short time compared to time for the whole trip
L: Distance between Earth and distant planet

Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time of total trip T=2L/v T’=2L/v
Total number of fT=2fL/v fT’=2fL/v
signals sent
159
 Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time of detecting A Time for reaching Time for reaching
turnaround planet + time of planet
signal needed to
reach Earth from t1’= L/v
distant planet
t1=L/v+L/c
= (L/v)(1+)
Number of signals f’t1=(L/v) f[(1-2)]1/2 f’t1’=(L/v)
received during f[(1+)/(1-)]1/2
moving away (During moving
away Doppler effect =(fL/v) (1-)
gives
f’=f[(1-)/(1+)]1/2)
160
 Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Time for returning Time for reaching Time for returning
to Earth planet -time of
signal needed to t2’= L/v
reach Earth from
distant planet
t2=L/v-L/c
= (L/v)(1+)
Number of signals f’’t2=(fL/v)[(1-2)]1/2 f’’t2‘=(fL/v)(1+)
received during
returning (During returning,
Doppler effect gives
f’=f[(1+)/(1-)]1/2)
161
 Measured by B Measured by A
(the stay at home) (traveler)
Total number of f’t1+f’’t2 f’’t1’+f’’t2‘
signals received =(2fL/v)[(1-2)]1/2 =2fL/v
=(2fL/v)
Conclusion as to
the other man’s T’=2L/v T=2L/v
measure of time
taken
(Total number of
signals received
divided by (f’t1+f’’t2)/f (f’’t1’+f’’t2’)/f
frequency)

162
 • Accelerated motions
vx  V
vx ' 
1  vxV / c 2

dvx ' 1  dvx V  dvx V 

ax '   2 2 
(1  vx 2 )  (vx  V )
dt ' (1  vxV / c )  dt ' c dt ' c 2 
1  V V  dvx
 2 2 
(1  vx 2 )  (vx  V ) 2 
(1  vxV / c )  c c  dt '
1  V 2  dvx dt 1 dt
 2 2 
1 2   2 a
2 2 x
(1  vxV / c )  c  dt dt '  (1  v xV / c ) dt '

163
 t   (t ' Vx '/ c 2 )
dt  V dx ' 
   1  2 
dt '  c dt ' 
(1  vxV / c 2 )  (V / c 2 )(vx  V )

1  vxV / c 2
1  V 2 / c2 1 1
 
1  vxV / c 2
 1  vxV / c 2

1 dt
 ax '  2 a
2 2 x
 (1  vxV / c ) dt '
1
 3 a
2 3 x
 (1  vxV / c )
164
 vx ' V
vx 
1  v x 'V / c 2
dvx 1 dvx '  vx 'V V 
ax   2 2  1  2  (vx ' V ) 2 
dt (1  vx 'V / c ) dt  c c 
1 dvx '  V 2  1 dvx ' dt '
 1  2  2
2 2
(1  vx 'V / c ) dt  c   (1  v x ' V / c 2 2
) dt ' dt

t '   (t  xV / c 2 )  dt '/ dt   (1  vxV / c 2 )

1
ax  2 a
2 2 x
'  (1  v xV / c 2
)
 (1  vx 'V / c )
165
 ax '  vx ' V V 
ax  2 2 
1 2 
 (1  vx 'V / c )  1  vx 'V / c c  2

ax '  V V 
 2 3 
1  vx ' 2  (vx ' V ) 2 
 (1  vx 'V / c )  c c 
ax '  V2 
 2 3 
1 2 
 (1  vx 'V / c )  c 
ax '
 3
 (1  vx 'V / c )
2 3

166
 1
ax '  3 a
2 3 x
 (1  vxV / c )
3
 vx ' V V 
 a x   (1  vxV / c ) a x '  a x '   1 
3 2 3 3
2 2 
 1  v x 'V / c c 
3 3
 1   V V 
 ax '  
3
2  
1  vx ' 2  (vx ' V ) 2 
 1  v x 'V / c   c c 
3 3
 1   V  2
ax '
 ax '  
3
2  
1 2   3
 1  v x ' V / c   c   (1  v x ' V / c 2 3
)

167
 vy /  v y '/ 
vy '  2
vy 
1  vxV / c 1  v x 'V / c 2
vy ' 1  V  dv y dvx V 
ay '   2 2 
1  vx 2   vy 2 
dt '  (1  vxV / c )   c  dt ' dt ' c 

2 2
(1  vxV / c )a y  v y axV / c dt
ay ' 
 (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2 dt '
(1  vxV / c 2 )a y  v y axV / c 2
  (1  vx 'V / c ) 2

 (1  vxV / c )2 2

(1  vxV / c 2 )a y  v y axV / c 2  vx  V V 
 2 2 1  2 2 
(1  vxV / c )  1  vxV / c c 
168
 2 2
(1  vxV / c )a y  v y a xV / c  V V 
ay '  2 3  1  v x 2  (v x  V ) 2 
(1  vxV / c )  c c 
(1  vxV / c 2 )a y  v y a xV / c 2  V 2 
 2 3 1  2 
(1  vxV / c )  c 
2 2
(1  vxV / c )a y  v y a xV / c

 2 (1  vxV / c 2 )3
ay v y axV / c 2
 
 (1  vxV / c )
2 2 2
 2 (1  vxV / c 2 )3

169
 ay v y axV / c 2
ay '  
 (1  vxV / c )
2 2 2
 2 (1  vxV / c 2 )3
v y '/ 
axV / c 2
ay 1  v x 'V / c 2
 2
 3
 vx ' V V   vx ' V V 
 2 1    2 1  
 1  v x 'V / c 2 c 2   1  v x 'V / c 2 c 2 
ay
 2

 1  vx 'V / c  (vx ' V )V / c 
2 2
 2
2 
 1  v x ' V / c 
v y '/  2
a xV / c
1  v x 'V / c 2
3
 1  vx 'V / c  (vx ' V )V / c 
2 2
 
2
2 
 1  v x ' V / c 

170
 v y '/ 
axV / c 2
ay 1  v x 'V / c 2
ay '  2
 3
 1V / c  2 2
 1V / c 
2 2
2 2 
2 2 
 1  v x ' V / c   1  v x ' V / c 
2
 V   V 
  1  vx ' 2    2 a y  v y '  3 a x 2 
 c   c 

ay ' V
ay    vy ' a
2 x
 2 (1  vx 'V / c 2 ) 2 c
ay ' V ax '
 2  vy ' 2 2
 (1  vx 'V / c )
2 2
c  (1  vx 'V / c 2 )3

171
 1
ax '  3 a
2 3 x
 (1  vxV / c )
Formulae ay v y axV / c 2
for ay '  2  2
 (1  vxV / c )  (1  vxV / c )
2 2 2 3

acceleration az vz axV / c 2
az '  2  2
 (1  vxV / c )  (1  vxV / c )
2 2 2 3

ax '
ax  3
 (1  vx 'V / c 2 )3
ay ' V ax '
ay  2  vy ' 2 2
 (1  vx 'V / c )
2 2
c  (1  vx 'V / c 2 )3
az ' V ax '
az  2  vz ' 2 2
 (1  vx 'V / c )
2 2
c  (1  vx 'V / c 2 )3
172
The formulae are quite complicated, but for V<<c they reduce to

ax’=ax, ay’=ay, az’=az,

which are in accordance to Newtonian/Galileon mechanics

If a body is instantaneously at rest in S’ frame, vx’=vy’= vz’= 0,

we have

ax ' ay ' az '

ax  ay  az 
 3  2
2

173
 V. Relativistic Dynamics 1

• Elastic collision
• Inelastic collision

174
• Elastic collision
Consider a collision between two identical particles A and B.
Conservation of momentum gives, in Newtonian mechanics,:
   
mAu A  mB uB  mAv A  mB vB
u’s and v’s are velocities of particles before and after
collision, respectively; m’s are inertial masses. For identical
particles the masses are equal
As masses in relativistic case depend on velocities, the
above collision can be generalized to relativistic collision by
replacing the inertial masses with the velocity dependent
masses:
   
mA (u A )u A  mB (uB )uB  mA (v A )v A  mB (vB )vB
In general the masses are not equal, even for identical particles.
175
For elastic collision, conservation of kinetic energy is also valid.
In Newtonian mechanics the conservation is given by
1
2 mAu A 2  12 mB uB 2  12 mAv A 2  12 mB vB 2

We define an elastic relativistic collision similar to that in

Newtonian mechanics, that is a collision that fulfills
relativistic kinetic energy conservation (m0A and m0B are
rest masses of A and B respectively, equal to mA and mB in
Newtonian):

 m c2   m c2 
 0A
 m0 Ac 2    0B
 m0 B c 2 
 1  u 2 / c2   1  u 2 / c2 
 A   B 
 m c2   m c2 
 0A
 m0 Ac   
2 0B
 m0 B c 
2
 1  v 2 / c2   1  v 2 / c2 
 A   B 
176
 Consider frames S and S’, where S’ moves along x axis
with speed V relative to S
Suppose, before collision, that A moves with velocity u0
along y axis relative to S and B with velocity –u0 along y’
axis relative to S’.
Velocity of A before collision according to S : (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision according to S’: (0,-u0,0)

Velocity addition formula gives velocity of B before

collision according to S
u xB ' V 0 V u zB '/ 
u xB   V u zB 
1  u xB 'V / c 2
1  0 V / c 2 1  u x 'V / c 2
0/
u yB '/  u0 /  u0  2
0
u yB    1  0 V / c
1  u xB 'V / c 2
1  0 V / c 2

177
Velocity addition formula gives velocity of A before
collision according to S’
u xA  V 0 V
u xA '  2
 2
V
1  u xAV / c 1  0 V / c
u yA /  u0 /  u0
u yA '   
1  u xAV / c 2
1  0 V / c 2

u zA /  0/
u zA '  2
 2
0
1  u xAV / c 1  0 V / c

Velocity of A before collision according to S’ : (V,u0 /,0)

Velocity of B before collision according to S: (V,-u0/,0)

178
Observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
 
Velocity of A after collision: (vxA, vyA,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB, vyB,0) v A , vB ?

Observed in S’
Velocity of A before collision: (V,u0 /,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (0,-u0,0)
 
Velocity of A after collision: (vxA’, vyA’,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB’, vyB’,0)
v A ', vB '?
179
We have 4 unknown quantities (vxA,vyA,vxB,vyB) and 3 equations
no unique solutions

Suppose that velocity of A after collision, according to S is (0, -v,0)

Observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
 
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-v,0)
v A , vB ?
Velocity of B after collision: (vxB, vyB,0)

Speed of A Speed of B Mass of A Mass of B

m0 m0
Before collision u0 V 2  u0 2 /  2
1  u0 2 / c 2 1  (V 2  u0 2 /  2 ) / c 2
After collision v vxB 2  v yB 2
m0 m0
1  v2 / c2 1  (vxB 2  v yB 2 ) / c 2
180
 Momentum conservation

x component :
m0 m0
0 V  0 vxB
1  (V  u0 /  ) / c
2 2 2 2 2 2
1  (vxB  v yB ) / c 2

y component :
m0 m0 u0
u0 
1  u0 2 / c 2 1  (V 2  u0 2 /  2 ) / c 2 
m0 m0
 | v yA |  | v yB |
2 2 2 2 2
1 v / c 1  (vxB  v yB ) / c

181
From x-component

1  (vxB 2  v yB 2 ) / c 2
vxB  V
1  (V  u0 /  ) / c
2 2 2 2

vxB 2 [1  (V 2  u0 2 /  2 ) / c 2 ]  [1  (vxB 2  v yB 2 ) / c 2 ]V 2
vxB 2 [1  u0 2 / c 2 2 ]  [1  v yB 2 / c 2 ]V 2
1  v yB 2 / c 2
vxB 2  V 2

1  u0 2 / c 2 2

182
Inserting to y-component

1  v yB 2 / c 2
vxB 2  V 2

1  u0 2 / c 2 2

1 1 u0
u0 
2
1  u0 / c 2
1  (V 2  u0 2 /  2 ) / c 2 
1 1
 v | v yB |
2 2
1 v / c  1  v yB / c2 2
2 2
1
1  V  v yB  2
 1  u 2 /  2c 2 c
 0 

183
Conservation of kinetic energy

 m0 c 2   m0 c 2 
  m0 c   
2
 m0 c 
2
 1  u 2 / c2   1  (V 2  u 2 /  2 ) / c 2 
 0   0 
 m0 c 2   m c 2 
  m0 c   
2 0
 m0 c  This and previous
2
2
 1 v / c
2
  1  (vxB  v yB ) / c
2 2 2  expressions give

the values of v
ans vyB and vxB
 1   1  But so
  
 1  u 2 / c2   1  (V  u /  ) / c 
2 2 2 2 complicated to
 0   0  obtain
 
 
 1   1 
    
2 2
 1  v / c    1  v yB 2 / c 2 2 2
1 
 1   V  v yB  2 
 1  u 2
/  2 2
c c 
  0  

184
Symmetry consideration

Since before collision velocity A is u0 along y axis as

observed in S and velocity of B is u= -u0 along y’ axis
as observed in S’
so
If velocity of A after collision is is -v along y axis as
observed in S and velocity of B, by symmetry
consideration-for elastic collision, is v along y’ axis as
observed in S’

185
Using velocity addition formula as before we conclude
that
as observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-v,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (-V, v /,0)

Since vxB=-V and vyB=v /

1  v yB 2 / c 2 1  v 2
/  2 2
c
vxB 2  V 2
 V 2
 V 2
 v  u0
1  u0 / c 
2 2 2
1  u0 / c 
2 2 2

186
Thus, as observed in S
Velocity of A before collision: (0,u0,0)
Velocity of B before collision: (V,-u0/,0)
Velocity of A after collision: (0,-u0,0)
Velocity of B after collision: (-V, u0 /,0)

u
y axis y axis
B B
u0
u
A A u=u0/

u0
Before collision After collision
187
Checking for consistency:
Expression obtained from momentum conservation

1 1 u0
u0 
1  u0 2 / c 2 1  (V 2  u0 2 /  2 ) / c 2 
1
 v
2 2
1 v / c
1
| v yB |
 V 2 (1  v yB 2 / c 2 )  v yB 2 (1  u0 2 /  2 c 2 )  1
1   2
 1  u0 /  c
2 2 2
 c

188
 1
RHS  u0 
1  u0 2 / c 2
1
u0 / 
 V 2 (1  u0 2 /  2 c 2 )  (u0 2 /  2 )(1  u0 2 /  2 c 2 )  1
1   2
 1  u0 /  c
2 2 2
c
1 1
 u0  u0 /   LHS
2
1  u0 / c 2
1  (V  u0 /  c )
2 2 2 2

189
What we have done:
We take the momentum conservation and energy
conservation for collision as in Newtonian
mechanics but by replacing the usual (Newtonian)
momentum and kinetic energy by the relativistic
momentum and relativistic kinetic energy
We take relativistic addition of velocities and take
symmetry consideration
The results are that combination of the above
considerations lead to consistent results proving
that relativistic momentum expression is valid

190
Checking for consistency:
Expression obtained from kinetic energy conservation
 1   1 
  
 1  u 2 / c2
  1  (V  u /  ) / c 
2 2 2 2
 0   0 
 
 
 1   1 
  
2 2
 1 v / c    1  v yB / c
2 2
2 2
1 
 1   V  v yB 
 1  u 2
/  2 2
c  c 2 
  0  
 
 
 1   1 
RHS    
 1  u 2 / c2 
  1   1  u0 /  c V 2  u 2 /  2  1
2 2 2
 0 
  0  2 
  1  u 0
2
/  2 2
c c 
 1   1

    LHS
  1  V 2  u 2 /  2 / c 2 
 1  u 2 / c2
 0    0   191
• Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision is a collision that fulfills the momentum
conservation, as in elastic collision, but does not fulfill the kinetic
energy conservation. If Q defines the discrepancy between the
kinetic energies after and before collision we have, for inelastic
collision between A and B. Conservation of total energy is valid. This
is equivalent to mass conservation.
   
mA (u A )u A  mB (uB )uB  mA (v A )v A  mB (vB )vB
 m c2   m c2 
Q 0A
 m0 Ac   
2 0B
 m0 B c 
2
 1  u 2 / c2   1  u 2 / c2 
 A   B 
 m c2   m c2 
 0A
 m0 Ac   
2 0B
 m0 B c 
2
 1  v 2 / c2   1  v 2 / c2 
 A   B 
mA (u A )c 2  mB (u B )c 2  mA (v A )c 2  mB (vB )c 2
192
Totally inelastic collision
Inelastic collision in which all the particles involved in the collision
are then stick together to form a composite particle.

  
mA (u A )u A  mB (uB )uB  [mA (v)  mB (v)]v
 m c2   m c2 
Q 0A
 m0 Ac   
2 0B
 m0 B c 
2
 1  u 2 / c2   1  u 2 / c2 
 A   B 
 m0 Ac 2 2
  m0 B c 2 2

  m0 Ac     m0 B c 
2 2 2 2
 1 v / c   1 v / c 

mA (u A )c 2  mB (uB )c 2  mA (v)c 2  mB (v )c 2

193
 Emission and Absorption
Emission and absorption can be thought of collision phenomena.
The particles involved are a massive particle and a photon.
The photon describes the emitted radiation (in emission) or
absorbed radiation (in absorption)

Emission
Sketch momentum Energy


Before collision m(u )u m(u )c 2

After collision  E ph ˆ m '(v)c 2  E ph

m '(v)v  k
c

194
 Annihilation
Annihilation is a collision between a particle and its anti-particle in
which after collision both particles disappear resulting a radiation
(photon)

Sketch momentum Energy


mA (u A )u A  mA (u A )c 2 
Before collision 
mB (u B )u B mB (u B )c 2
Eph ˆ E ph
After collision k
c

195
 Pair production
Pair production is a phenomena of disappearing photon followed
by appearing a pair of particles (particle and its anti-particle)

Sketch momentum Energy

Before collision Eph ˆ E ph

k
c
 m A (v A )c 2 
m A (v A )v A 
After collision 
mB (vB )vB mB (vB )c 2

196
Absorption
Sketch momentum Energy

Before collision  E ph ˆ m(u )c 2  E ph

m(u )u  k
c
After collision 
m '(v)v m '(v)c 2

kˆ : direction of photon's momentum

E ph :Energy of photon
197
 VI. Relativistic Dynamics 2

• Four-vector
• Energy-momentum four-vector
• Forces in relativistic mechanics
• Electromagnetic forces

198
• Four-vector
Four-vector is defined as a vector in a four dimensional space,
thus has 4 components, in which under the Lorentz
transformation it transforms in the same way as the space-time
coordinates do.

Space-time coordinate (ct,x,y,z) transforms

under the Lorentz transformation

(ct , x, y , z )  (ct ', x ', y ', z ')

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),  V /c
y '  y,
z '  z.
199
A four-vector (A0,A1,A2,A3) transforms under
the Lorentz transformation

( A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 )  ( A '0 , A '1 , A '2 , A '3 )

A0 '   ( A0   A1 ),
A1 '   ( A1   A0 ),  V /c
A2 '  A2 ,
A3 '  A 3 .

200
Relationship in terms of matrix equation

Lorentz transformation of spacetime coordinates

 ct '      0 0   ct 
    
 x '       0 0 x 
 y'  0 0 1 0 y 
    
 z'   0 0 0 1 z 

Lorentz transformation of four-vectors

 A0 '      0 0   A0 
 1    
 A '       0 0   A1 
 A2 '   0 0 1 0   A2 
 3     3 
 A '  0 0 0 1 A 
201
 Define

    0 0 1 0 0 0 
   
    0 0 0  1 0 0
 g  
 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 
   
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
Lorentz transformation matrix Metric in Minkowski spacetime

x 0  ct , x1  x, x 2  y , x 3  z
x0  ct , x1   x, x2   y , x3   z
x 0  x0 , x1   x1 , x 2   x2 , x 3   x3

A0  A0 , A1   A1 , A 2   A2 , A3   A3
202
 3 3
x   g  x , x   g x
 0  0
3 3
A   g  A , A   g A
 0  0

3 3
x '    x , x '    x
  
 Lorentz transformation
 0  0
of coordinates and four
3 3
vector
A '    A , A '    A
 0  0

g = g: ’s row component and ’s column component of g

 : ’s row component and ’s column component of 

203
 1 0 0 0 
 
0  1 0 0
( g  )  ( g  )   
 0 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 

    0 0    0 0
   
     0 0     0 0
(  )  (  ) 
 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0
   
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

204
3 3 3



0
x x  


 0


0
g  x x  ( x0 )2  ( x1 )2  ( x2 )2  ( x3 )2

 (ct )2  ( x)2  ( y)2  ( z)2  s 2

3 3 3



0
A A  
 0

 0
g  A A  ( A0 )2  ( A1 )2  ( A2 )2  ( A3 )2

 ( A0 )2  ( Ax )2  ( Ay )2  ( Az )2

205
3 3 3



0
x ' x '   x '  g x '
 0  0
3 3 3 3
     x g   x
 0 
0  0 0

 0 x g000  x   1 x g111 x  

2 x g222 x   3 x g333 x 
 (00 x0  01 x1 )2 g00  (10 x0  11x1 )2 g11 
(22 x2 )2 g22  (33 x3 )2 g33
 (00 x0  01 x1 )2  (10 x0  11 x1 )2  (22 x2 )2  (33 x3 )2
 ( ct   x)2  ( ct   x)2  ( y)2  ( z )2
 (ct )2  ( x)2  ( y)2  ( z)2  s 2
206
 3
define the scalar product between
A  A   A A the four-vector A with itself.
 0 It describes the square of “length” of
A.

3
define the scalar product between
A  B   A B 
the four-vector A and B
 0

A.A has been proven to be Lorentz invariant.

A.B also Lorentz invariant (Prove it!)

207
Invariant property of four-vectors

For any four-vectors (A0,A1,A2,A3) the value of

( A0 ) 2  ( A1 ) 2  ( A2 ) 2  ( A3 ) 2
is the same in all inertial frames

For spacetime coordinates, the value of

(ct ) 2  ( x ) 2  ( y ) 2  ( z ) 2  s 2

is the same in all inertial frames

208
 We can also write the Lorentz transformation

ict '   (ict  i  x ),

x '   ( x  i  (ict )),
y '  y,
z '  z.

 (ct ) 2  ( x ) 2  ( y ) 2  ( z ) 2  (ict ) 2  ( x ) 2  ( y ) 2  ( z ) 2

209
We define four-vectors (A0,A1,A2,A3) such that under the
Lorentz transformation it transforms according to

A0 '   ( A0  i  A1 ),
A1 '   ( A1  i  A0 ),
A2 '  A2 ,
A3 '  A 3 .

( A0 ') 2   2 [( A0 ) 2   2 ( A1 ) 2  2i  A0 A1 ],
( A1 ') 2   2 [( A1 ) 2   2 ( A0 ) 2  2  A0 A1 ],
( A2 ') 2  ( A2 ) 2 , ( A3 ') 2  ( A3 ) 2 .
The invariance is

( A0 ) 2  ( A1 ) 2  ( A2 ) 2  ( A3 ) 2
210
We define four-vectors (A0,A1,A2,A3) such that under the
Lorentz transformation it transforms according to

A0 '   ( A0  i  A1 ),
A1 '   ( A1  i  A0 ),
A2 '  A2 ,
A3 '  A 3 .

( A0 ') 2   2 [( A0 ) 2   2 ( A1 ) 2  2i  A0 A1 ],
( A1 ') 2   2 [( A1 ) 2   2 ( A0 ) 2  2  A0 A1 ],
( A2 ') 2  ( A2 ) 2 , ( A3 ') 2  ( A3 ) 2 .
The invariance is

( A0 ) 2  ( A1 ) 2  ( A2 ) 2  ( A3 ) 2
211
• Energy-momentum four-vector
Energy E and momentum p form a energy-momentum four
vector.

E   (v ) m0 c 2
 
p   (v ) m0 v

Under Lorentz transformation energy and momentum

transform according to velocity addition formulae

vx  V vy /  vz / 
vx '  vy '  vz ' 
1  vxV / c 2 1  vxV / c 2 1  vxV / c 2

212
 vx  V vy /  vz / 
vx '  vy '  vz ' 
1  vxV / c 2 1  vxV / c 2 1  vxV / c 2

1 1
 (v )  
1  v2 / c2 1  (v x 2  v y 2  v z 2 ) / c 2

1 1
 (v ')  
2 2
1 v ' / c 1  ( v x '2  v y '2  v z '2 ) / c 2

213
 v x '2 1 vx 2  V 2  2vxV
1 2  1 2
c c (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2
c 2 (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2  v x 2  V 2  2v xV

c 2 (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2
c 2  vx 2V 2 / c 2  2v xV  v x 2  V 2  2v xV

c 2 (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2
(1  vx 2 / c 2 )(1  V 2 / c 2 )

(1  vxV / c 2 ) 2
v y , z '2 vy,z 2 /  2 (v y , z 2 / c 2 )(1  V 2 / c 2 )
2
 2 2 2

c c (1  vxV / c ) (1  v xV / c 2 ) 2
214
 v x '2  v y ' 2  v z ' 2 (1  vx 2 / c 2  v y 2 / c 2  v z 2 / c 2 )(1  V 2 / c 2 )
1 2

c (1  vxV / c 2 ) 2
(1  v 2 / c 2 )(1  V 2 / c 2 )

(1  vxV / c 2 ) 2

 (v ) 2  (V 2 ) 2
 (v ') 2 
(1  vxV / c 2 ) 2

 (v ')   (v ) (V )(1  vxV / c 2 )

215
 The transformed energy

E '   (v ') m0 c 2

E '   (v ') m0 c 2   (v ) (V )(1  v xV / c 2 )m0c 2

  (V )[ (v ) m0 c 2   (v )m0 v xV ]
  [ E  p xV ]    (V )

216
 The transformed momentum

 
p '   (v ') m0 v '

vx  V
p x '   (v ) (V )(1  v xV / c )m0 2

(1  vxV / c 2 )
  (v ) (V )(vx  V ) m0
  [ (v ) m0 vx   (v )m0 c 2V / c 2 ]   [ p x  EV / c 2 ]
v y , z /  (v )
p y , z '   (v ) (V )(1  vxV / c )m0
2

(1  vxV / c 2 )
  (V ) m0 v y , z  p y , z
217
 The transformed energy-momentum

E '   [ E  p xV ]
p x '   [ p x  EV / c 2 ]
py '  py
pz '  pz    (V )
Or
E '/ c   [( E / c )   p x ]
p x '   [ p x   ( E / c )]
py '  py
pz '  pz    (V ),   V / c
218
 Define p0=E/c, p1=px, p2=py, p3=pz

p 0 '   [ p 0   p1 ]
p1 '   [ p1   p 0 ]
p2 '  p2
p3 '  p3
The above transformations have the Lorentz transformation
forms. Thus

( p 0 , p1 , p 2 , p 3 )  ( E / c, p x , p y , p z )

Forms a four-vector. It is called

Energy-Momentum Four-Vector
219
Invariant property of energy-momentum
2
 E'
    ( p x ') 2  ( p y ') 2  ( p z ') 2
 c 
2
E
     ( px )2  ( p y )2  ( pz )2
c
  m0 2 c 2
2
 iE '  2 2 2
   ( p x ')  ( p y ')  ( p z ')
 c 
2
 iE 
    ( px )2  ( p y )2  ( pz )2
 c 
  m0 2 c 2 220
• Force in relativistic mechanics
Let us define a force F in relativistic mechanics in the form
similar to Newton’s law

 dp d ( mv ) m0
F  , m
dt dt 1  v2 / c2

This definition guaranties that the above force equation reduces

to Newton’s law for low speed.
The above definition also restricts that the force should
transforms according to the way dp/dt transforms.
Thus under the Lorentz transformation the force transforms
according to
 dp '
F'
dt ' 221
 dp x ' dp x ' dt dp x '/ dt
Fx '   
dt ' dt dt ' dt '/ dt

dp x '  dp x V dE 
p x '   [ p x  EV / c ] 
2
   2 
dt  dt c dt 
 V  dt '  V 
t '   t  2 x    1  2 vx 
 c  dt  c 

dp x '  dp x V dE   V 
Fx '     2  /  1  2 vx 
dt '  dt c dt   c 
Fx  (V / c 2 ) dE / dt

1  (V / c 2 )v x
222
  
E  c p  E0  c p  p  E 0 2
2 2 2 2 2

 
dE 2  dp 2
 2E  2c p   2c p  F
dt dt
2
dE c p   
  2
 F  F v
dt mc

2
 
Fx  (V / c ) F  v
Fx ' 
1  (V / c 2 )vx

223
 dp y , z '
dp y , z ' dt dp y , z '/ dt
Fy , z '   
dt ' dt dt ' dt '/ dt

dp y , z ' dp y , z
py,z '  py,z  
dt dt
 V  dt '  V 
t '   t  2 x    1  2 vx 
 c  dt  c 

 dp y , z   V  Fy , z
Fy , z '    /  1  2 vx  
 dt   c   [1  (V / c 2
)v x ]

224
 The inverse

Fy , z
Fy , z ' 
 [1  (V / c 2 )vx ]
 V   V vx ' V 
 Fy , z  Fy , z '   1  2 vx   Fy , z '   1  2 2 
 c   c 1  Vv x '/ c 
 1  Vvx '/ c 2  (v x ' V )V / c 2 
 Fy , z '   2 
 1  Vvx '/ c 
 1  V 2 / c2  Fy , z '/ 
 Fy , z '   2  2
 1  Vv x '/ c  1  Vv x '/ c

225
 2
 
Fx  (V / c ) F  v
Fx ' 
1  Vvx / c 2
Fx [1  Vvx / c 2 ]  (V / c 2 )[ Fy v y  Fz v z ]

[1  Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy v y  Fz v z ]
 Fx 
[1  Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy v y  Fz v z ]
 Fx 
[1  Vvx / c 2 ]

226
 (V / c 2 )[ Fy v y  Fz v z ]
Fx '  Fx 
[1  Vvx / c 2 ]
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z '] /  2 [1  Vv x '/ c 2 ]2
 Fx 
2 vx ' V
1  (V / c )
1  Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z '] /  2 [1  Vv x '/ c 2 ]2
 Fx 
1  V 2 / c2
1  Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[ Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
 Fx 
1  Vvx '/ c 2
(V / c 2 )[  Fx ' vx ' Fx ' vx ' Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
 Fx 
1  Vvx '/ c 2 227
 (V / c 2 )[  Fx ' v x ' Fx ' v x ' Fy ' v y ' Fz ' v z ']
Fx '  Fx 
1  Vvx '/ c 2
2
 
(V / c )[  Fx ' v x ' F ' v ']
 Fx 
1  Vvx '/ c 2
 
(V / c )[ F ' v '] (V / c 2 )( Fx ' v x ')
2
 Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
2
  2
(V / c )[ F ' v '] ( V / c )( Fx ' v x ')
 Fx  Fx ' 2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
2 2 2
 
Fx '[1  Vvx '/ c  Vv x '/ c ]  (V / c )[ F ' v ']

1  Vvx '/ c 2
2
 
Fx ' (V / c )[ F ' v ']

1  Vvx '/ c 2 228
 Summary: Transformation law for forces

 
2  
Fx  (V / c ) F  v 2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
Fx '  Fx 
1  Vvx / c 2 1  Vvx '/ c 2
Fy Fy '
Fy '  Fy 
 [1  Vvx / c 2 ]  [1  Vvx '/ c 2 ]
Fz Fz '
Fz '  Fz 
 [1  Vvx / c 2 ]  [1  Vvx '/ c 2 ]

As components of force transform differently

force and acceleration in general are not co-
directional
229
 2
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
Fx 
1  Vvx '/ c 2
2
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '

2 vx  V
1  (V / c )
1  Vvx / c 2
2
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '

1  Vvx / c 2  (v x  V )V / c 2
1  Vvx / c 2
2
 
2 Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
 (1  Vvx / c )
1  V 2 / c2

230
  
Fx  (1  Vvx / c ) [ Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ']
2 2 2

 
2  Fx  (V / c ) F  v
2   
 (1  Vvx / c ) 
2
2
2
 (V / c ) F ' v ' 
 1  Vvx / c 
   
  [ Fx  (V / c ) F  v ]  (1  Vv x / c ) (V / c ) F ' v '
2 2 2 2 2

   
Fx (1   )   (V / c ) F  v  (1  Vv x / c ) (V / c ) F ' v '
2 2 2 2 2 2

 
  c Fx (1   )   (V / c ) F  v
2 2 2 2
 F ' v ' 
V 2 1  Vvx / c 2
 
FxV  F  v

1  Vvx / c 2

231
  
2
Fx  (V / c ) F  v
Fx ' 
1  Vvx / c 2
2
  2
2 2 2
 
2 ( Fx )  (V / c ) ( F  v )  2(V / c ) F  vFx
 ( Fx ') 
(1  Vvx / c 2 ) 2
Fy ( Fy ) 2 (1  V 2 / c 2 )
Fy '   ( Fy ') 2 
 [1  Vvx / c ]
2
[1  Vv x / c ]2 2

2 2 2
Fz 2 ( F ) (1  V / c )
Fz '   ( Fz ')  z
 [1  Vvx / c ]
2
[1  Vv x / c 2 ]2
    2  
  FxV  F  v   2 Fx V  ( F  v )  2 FxV ( F  v )
2 2
F ' v '  2
 ( F ' v ') 
1  Vvx / c (1  Vv x / c 2 ) 2
232
  
F ' v ' 2
( )  ( Fx ') 2  ( Fy ') 2  ( Fz ') 2 
c
  2 2  
 Fx V / c  ( F  v ) / c  2 FxV ( F  v ) / c 2  
2 2 2

 Vvx   
2
2 2 2
  2 2
 
 1  c 2   [( Fx )  (V / c ) ( F  v )  2(V / c ) F  vFx ]  
   
 ( Fy ) 2 (1  V 2 / c 2 )  ( Fz ) 2 (1  V 2 / c 2 )
 

  F  v  2 
 2
 (1  V / c ) 
2

 c 
2 

 Vvx   2 2 2 
  1  2   ( Fx ) (1  V / c )  
 c  
( Fy ) 2 (1  V 2 / c 2 )  ( Fz ) 2 (1  V 2 / c 2 ) 
 
 
 
233
  
F ' v ' 2
( )  ( Fx ') 2  ( Fy ') 2  ( Fz ') 2 
c
2 
  2 
1V / c  F v 
2
    ( Fx )  ( Fy )  ( Fz ) 
2 2 2
Vvx   c  
1 2  
c

234
• Electromagnetic Forces
Coulomb’s law
Consider a source charge q1 and a test charge q2. When the
test charge is at rest a force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by

 kq1q2 r 
F F
r3 q2

r
q1

Note: the formula is only valid for

stationary source charge.
stationary

235
Magnetic force on a moving charge
A test charge q2 passing a point in space at velocity v will
experience a magnetic force

  
Fmag  q2 v  B (MKSsystem)

If there is a magnetic field in that point.

The force depends on the velocity of the test

charge.

236
Coulomb’s law on a stationary charge (in frame S)

Case 1: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (x,0,0)

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we have to go to an

inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (-V,0,0).

237
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (x2=x0,0,0) At any time

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (-V,0,0) (x2’=x’,0,0) At time t’

q1 q2 q1 q2

V -V
At rest At rest

Frame S Frame S’
238
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ), vx  V
vx ' 
x '   ( x   ct ), 1  vxV / c 2

Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct1 )

Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct 2   x2 )  ct1 '   (ct 2   x20 )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   ( x20   ct 2 )
239
 Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)
x2 ' x1 '  x ' 0  x '
x '  x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )   ( x2   ct1 )   ( x20  x1 )   x

x: distance between charges at time t1=t2 =t relative to S

Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’

kq1q2 kq1q2
Fx '   2 2 , Fy '  Fz '  0
x' 2
 x The force at
time t’

240
 Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
Fy '
Fy  0
 (1  Vvx '/ c )2

Fz ' The force at

Fz  0 time t
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

Velocity of test charge according to S’ is vx’=-V:

Fx '(1  V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2
Fx   Fx '  2 2 , Fy  Fz  0
1V / c2 2
 x
241
Case 2: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (0,y,0)

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (-V,0,0).

242
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y,0) At any time

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (-V,0,0) (x2’,y’,0) At time t’
q2 q2

q1 q1 -V
At rest
V
At rest

Frame S Frame S’

243
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ), vx  V
vx ' 
x '   ( x   ct ), 1  vxV / c 2
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct1 )
y1 '  y1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )  ct '   (ct 2   x20 )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   ( x20   ct 2 )
y2 '  y2
244
 Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)

x2 ' x1 '  x2 ' 0  x2 ' 2 2

 distance= x 2 '  y 2 '
y2 ' y1 '  y2 ' 
x '  x2 '   ( x2   ct 2 )   ( x2   ct1 )   ( x20  x1 )   x

x: distance between charges at time t1=t2 relative to S

Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’

kq 1 q 2 x 2 ' kq 1 q 2  x
Fx '   , The force at
2
( x2 '  y ' ) 2 3/2
( x  y )
2 2 2 3/2
time t’

kq 1 q 2 y ' kq 1 q 2 y
Fy '   , Fz '  0
2
( x2 '  y ' )2 3/2
( x  y )
2 2 2 3/2

245
 Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
Fy ' Fz '
Fy  , Fz  0
 (1  Vvx '/ c )2
 (1  Vv x '/ c )
2

Velocity of test charge according to S’ is vx’=-V, vy’=vz’=0

Fx '(1  V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 x
Fx   Fx '  2 2 , The force at
2
1V / c 2
( x  y ) 2 3/ 2
time t
Fy '  kq1q2 y
Fy   2 2 , Fz  0
 (1  V / c ) ( x  y )
2 2 2 3/ 2
246
 At initial time t=0 the charges are at y axisx=0

Fx (t  0)  0,
 kq1q2 y  kq1q2
Fy (t  0)  3
 2
, Fz  0
y y

t=0, x=0  t’=0, x’=0

kq 1 q 2 x 2 '
Fx '  2 2 3/2
 0,
( x2 '  y ' )
kq 1 q 2 y ' kq 1 q 2 kq 1 q 2
Fy '  2 2 3/2
 2
 2
, Fz '  0
( x2 '  y ' ) y' y

247
Case 3: Relative to S
Source charge q1 be moving with constant velocity (V,0,0)
Source charge is at origin of S at time t=0
Test charge q2 is stationary at (x,y,z)

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (-V,0,0).

248
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (x,y,z) At any time

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (-V,0,0) (x2’,y’,z’) At time t’

249
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct1 )
y1 '  y1  0, z1 '  z1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )  ct '   (ct 2   x20 )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   ( x20   ct 2 )
y2 '  y '  y2  y , z 2 '  z '  z 2  z
250
 Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)

x2 ' x1 '  x2 ' 0  x2 ' 2 2 2

 distance = x 2 '  y  z
y2 ' y1 '  y2 '  y 
z2 ' z1 '  z2 '  z    2
( x  x 1 ) 2
 y 2
 z 2


x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )   ( x2   ct1 )   ( x  x1 )
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
kq 1 q 2  ( x  x1 )
Fx '  ,
(  ( x  x1 )  y  z )
2 2 2 2 3/2

The force at
kq 1 q 2 y
Fy '  , time t’
(  ( x  x1 )  y  z )
2 2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 z
Fz ' 
(  2 ( x  x1 ) 2  y 2  z 2 ) 3 / 2 251
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is

 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fx ' v x '
2
Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
Fy '
Fy  ,
 (1  Vvx '/ c )2

Fz '
Fz  .
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

252
Velocity of test charge according to S’ is vx’=-V, vy’=vz’=0

The force at time t

Fx '(1  V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 ( x  x1 )
Fx   Fx '  2 ,
1V / c2 2
( ( x  x1 )  y  z )
2 2 2 3/ 2

Fy '  kq1q2 y
Fy   ,
 (1  V / c )
2 2
( ( x  x1 )  y  z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2

Fz '  kq1q2 z
Fz   2
 (1  V / c ) ( ( x  x1 ) 2  y 2  z 2 )3/ 2
2 2

253
The force at time t=0 (x1=0)

Fx '(1  V 2 / c 2 ) kq1q2 x
Fx   Fx '  2 2 ,
2
1V / c 2
( x  y  z )
2 2 3/ 2

Fy '  kq1q2 y
Fy   2 2 ,
 (1  V / c ) ( x  y  z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2

Fz '  kq1q2 z
Fz   2 2
 (1  V / c ) ( x  y 2  z 2 )3/ 2
2 2

 
kq1q2 r 
F , r  ( x, y , z )
( x  y  z )
2 2 2 2 3/2

 
kq1 r
E 2 2 , Electric field
( x  y  z )
2 2 3/2
254
Coulomb’s law on a moving charge (in frame S)

Case 1: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0)
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0)
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)
At time t=0 both charges are at y axis, thus x2=x1=x

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is stationary (since both charges
have identical velocities) 255
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (V,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

x2=x1=x y2=y
x(0)=0, y constant

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y’,0) At time t’

(x,0,0)
q2 q2 (0,y’,0)
V
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)
At rest

Frame S Frame S’
256
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct '   (ct   x )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x   ct )
y1 '  y1  0, z1 '  z1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )  ct '   (ct   x )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  0   ( x   ct )
y2 '  y '  y2  y , z 2 '  z 2  0
257
 Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)

x2 ' x1 '  0 
 distance =y
y2 ' y1 '  y2 '  y 
z2 ' z1 '  0 

Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’

kq 1 q 2 (0 ) kq 1 q 2 (0 )
Fx '  2
 0, F z '  2
0
y y The force at
time t’
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy '  3

y y2

258
Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is (v’=0)

2
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v '
Fx  2
 Fx '  0
1  Vvx '/ c At any time
Fy ' Fy '
kq1q2 (since y is
Fy    , a constant)
 (1  Vvx '/ c ) 
2
y 2

Fz '
Fz   0.
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

259
 Case 2: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (ux,0,0) respectively
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0)
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)
At time t=0 both charges are at y axis, thus x2(0)=x1(0)=0

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (ux’,0,0)

260
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (ux,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

x1(0)=x2(0)=0 y2=y, constant

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (ux’,0,0) (x2’,y’,0) At time t’

(x,0,0) (x2’,y’,0)
q2 q2 ux’
ux
V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)

Frame S Frame S’
261
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct '   (ct   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct )
y1 '  y1  0, z1 '  z1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )  ct '   (ct   x2 )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   ( x2   ct )   ( x2  x1 )
y2 '  y '  y2  y , z 2 '  z 2  0
262
 Velocity of test charge according to S’

vx  V ux  V
vx '  2
 2
, v y '  vz '  0
1  vxV / c 1  u xV / c

Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’

(distance should be measured at same time)

x2 ' x1 '  x2 ' 

 distance = x2 '2  y 2
y2 ' y1 '  y2 '  y 
z2 ' z1 '  0 

263
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
at time t’
kq 1 q 2 x 2 ' kq 1 q 2  ( x 2  x1 )
Fx '   ,
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2 y
Fy '  
2
( x2 '  y ) 2 3/2
(  2 ( x 2  x1 ) 2  y 2 ) 3 / 2
kq 1 q 2 (0 )
Fz '  2 2 3/2
0
( x2 '  y )
At time t’=0

Fx '  0, Fz '  0,
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy '   
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2 2 3/2
(y ) y2
264
 Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S is
 
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1  (V / c 2 )v x ')
2
Fx  2
 2
 Fx '
1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c
Fy '
Fy   Fy '  (1  Vu x / c 2 ),
 (1  Vvx '/ c 2 )
Fz '
Fz   Fz '  (1  Vu x / c 2
).
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

Vvx ' V ux  V
1  1 
c2 c 2 1  u xV / c 2
c 2 (1  u xV / c 2 )  Vu x  V 2 1
 
c 2 (1  u xV / c 2 )  2 (1  u xV / c 2 ) 265
The force at time t according to S
kq 1 q 2  ( x 2  x1 )
Fx  Fx '  ,
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2

kq q y  (1  V u / c 2
)
F y   F y '(1  V u x / c ) 
2 1 2 x
(  2 ( x 2  x1 ) 2  y 2 ) 3 / 2
F z   F z '(1  V u x / c 2 )  0
The force at time t=0 according to S

F x  0,
kq 1 q 2 y  (1  V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2  (1  V u x / c 2 )
Fy  
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2
y2
F z   F z '(1  V u x / c 2 )  0
266
 Case 3: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (0,uy,0) respectively.
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0), x1(0)=0.
Position of test charge q2 is at (0,y2=y,0)

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (ux’,uy’,0)

267
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (0,y2,0) At any time

x1(0)=0
y2=y(t)=uyt+y0.

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (ux’,uy’,0) (x2’,y’,0) At time t’

uy y‘=uy’ t’+y0.
(x2’,y’,0)
q2 (0,y,0) q2

V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)

Frame S Frame S’
268
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )  ct '   (ct   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct )
y1 '  y1  0, z1 '  z1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )  ct '   (ct   x2 )   ct
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   (0   ct )   x1
y2 '  y ', z2 '  z2  0
269
 Velocity of test charge according to S’

vx  V ux  V
u x '  vx '  2
 2
 V ,
1  vxV / c 1  u xV / c
v y /  (V ) u y /  (V ) uy
u y '  vy '    ,
1  vxV / c 2
1  u xV / c 2
 (V )
u z '  vz '  0.
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)

x2'x1' x1 
distance= 2x12 y2
y2'y1' y2' y' uy 't'y0 (uy /)ty0 y

z2'z1' 0 
270
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
at time t’

 kq 1 q 2  x1
Fx '  ,
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 y
Fy ' 
(  2 x1 2  y 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz '  0

At time t’=0, x1=0

F x '  0, F z '  0,
kq 1 q 2 y kq 1 q 2
Fy '  2 3/2

(y ) y2
271
 Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S at time t is

  2 2
2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1  (V / c ) v x ')  (V / c ) Fy ' v y '
Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' v y ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y / 
 Fx ' 2
 Fx '
1  Vvx '/ c (1  Vv x '/ c 2 )
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y / 
 Fx '  Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y 
(1  V 2 / c 2 )
 kq1q2 x1 kq1q2 y Vu y
 2 2  2 2
( x1  y )
2 3/ 2
( x1  y 2 )3/ 2 c 2
272
 Fy ' Fy ' kq1q2 y
Fy    2 2 ,
 (1  Vvx '/ c )  (1  V / c ) ( x1  y )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2

Fz '
Fz   Fz '   0.
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

The force at time t=0, x1(0)=0,

kq1q2 Vu y
Fx 
y2 c2
kq1q2
Fy  2
,
y
Fz  0.
273
 Case 4: Relative to S
Source charge q1 and test charge q2 be moving with
constant velocity (V,0,0) and (0,uy,0) respectively.
Position of the source charge is at (x1,0,0), x1(0)=0.
Position of test charge q2 is at (x2,y2=y,0)

To apply Coulomb’s law acting by q1 on q2 we again have to go to

an inertial frame S’ in which the source charge is at rest.
Choose coordinates in S’ such that the source charge is at the
origin of S’.
S’ moves with velocity (V,0,0) relative to S.
Relative to S’, the test charge is moving with velocity (ux’,uy’,0)

274
 Relative to S Velocities Positions
Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (x2,y,0) At any time

x1(0)=0, x2 constant y(t)=uyt+y0.

Relative to S’ Velocities Positions

Source charge q1 (0,0,0) (0,0,0) At any time
Test charge q2 (ux’,uy’,0) (x2’,y’,0) At time t’

uy
(x2’,y’,0)
q2 (x2,y,0) q2

V (0,0,0)
q1 q1
(x,0,0)

Frame S Frame S’
275
Lorentz transformation

ct '   (ct   x ),
x '   ( x   ct ),
Source charge q1
ct1 '   (ct1   x1 )
x1 '   ( x1   ct1 )  0   ( x1   ct )
y1 '  y1  0, z1 '  z1  0
Test charge q2
ct2 '   (ct2   x2 )
x2 '   ( x2   ct2 )  x2 '   ( x2   ct )   ( x2  x1 )
y2 '  y ', z2 '  z2  0
276
 Velocity of test charge according to S’ (equal to
the previous case)

uy
u x '  V , uy '  , u z '  0.
 (V )
Distance between charges relative to S’ at time t1’=t2’=t’
(distance should be measured at same time)

x2'x1' (x2 x1), distance


y2'y1' y2' y',(y'(0)y0)
 = 2
(x x )2
y'2
z2'z1' 0 
2 1

277
Coulomb force acting on test charge according to S’
at time t’
kq 1 q 2  ( x 2  x1 )
Fx '  ,
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y ' )
2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 y '
Fy ' 
(  2 ( x 2  x1 ) 2  y ' 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz '  0

At time t’=0, x1=0, y’=y0

kq 1 q 2  x 2
Fx '  ,
( x 2  y 0 )
2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 y 0
Fy '  , Fz '  0
( x 2  y 0 )
2 2 2 3/2
278
 Using force transformation, the Coulomb force acting on
test charge relative to S at time t is

  2 2
2
Fx ' (V / c ) F ' v ' Fx '(1  (V / c ) v x ')  (V / c ) Fy ' v y '
Fx  2

1  Vvx '/ c 1  Vv x '/ c 2
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' v y ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y / 
 Fx ' 2
 Fx '
1  Vvx '/ c (1  Vv x '/ c 2 )
(V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y / 
 Fx '  Fx ' (V / c 2 ) Fy ' u y 
(1  V 2 / c 2 )
kq1q2 ( x2  x1 ) kq1q2 y ' Vu y
 2  2
( ( x2  x1 )  y ' )
2 2 3/ 2
( ( x2  x1 ) 2  y '2 )3/ 2 c 2
279
 Fy ' Fy '
Fy  
 (1  Vvx '/ c ) 2
 (1  V 2 / c 2 )
kq1q2 y '
 Fy '   ,
( ( x2  x1 )  y ' )
2 2 2 3/ 2

Fz '
Fz   Fz '   0.
 (1  Vvx '/ c )
2

The force at time t=0, x1(0)=0,

kq1q2 x2 kq1q2 y Vuy

Fx  2 2  2 2
( x2  y )2 3/2
( x2  y2 )3/2 c2
kq1q2 y
Fy  2 2 , Fz  0.
( x2  y )
2 3/ 2

280
 Magnetic forces a moving charge (in frame S)

Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t  kq1q2

Fy 
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y,0) At any time y2

Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t kq1q2

Fy 
Test charge q2 (V,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time  y2

(No other components of force)

281
 Difference between forces acting on moving
and stationary test charges at time t=0

  kq1q2  kq1q2 ˆ  kq1q2  1 ˆ

F     j 1  2 j
  y 2
y 2
 y  
2

 kq1q2   V2  ˆ V 2  kq1q2 ˆ
  1   1  2   j   2 j
y2   c  c y 2

282
 Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t  kq1q2

Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y,0) At any time
Fy 
y2

Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

Test charge q2 (ux,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

kq 1 q 2  (1  V u x / c 2 )
Fy 
y2
283
 Difference between forces acting on moving
and stationary test charges at time t=0

 kq 1 q 2  (1  V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2  ˆ V u x kq 1 q 2  ˆ
F  ˆ
j j 2 j
2 2 2
y y c y

284
 Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t  kq1q2

Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (0,y,0) At any time
Fy 
y2

Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

kq1q2 Vu y
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (0,y2,0) At any time Fx 
y2 c2
kq1q2
Fy 
y2
285
 Difference between forces acting on moving
and stationary test charges at time t=0

  kq1q2 Vu y kq q   kq q  kq q  Vu y
F   2 2
iˆ  1
2
2 ˆj   1
2
2 ˆj  1
2
2
2
iˆ
 y c y  y y c

286
 Stationary Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t kq1q2 x2

Fx  2 2 ,
Test charge q2 (0,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time ( x2  y )2 3/ 2

 kq1q2 y
Fy 
( 2 x2 2  y 2 )3/ 2

Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

kq1q2 y
Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time Fy  2 2
( x2  y 2 )3/ 2
kq1q2 x2 kq1q2 y Vuy
Fx  2 2  2 2
( x2  y )2 3/2
( x2  y2 )3/2 c2
287
 Difference between forces acting on moving
and stationary test charges at time t=0

  kq1q2 x2 kq1q2 y Vuy  ˆ

F   2 2  2 2 2 
i
 ( x2  y ) ( x2  y ) c 
2 3/2 2 3/2

kq1q2 y ˆj   kq1q2 x2 iˆ  kq1q2 y ˆj 

( 2 x22  y2 )3/2  ( 2 2
x2  y 2 3/2
) (  2 2
x2  y 2 3/2
) 
kq1q2 y Vuy ˆ
 2 2 i
( x2  y ) c
2 3/2 2

288
 Summary: Magnetic force on moving test charge
due to a source charge at time t=0

Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force

test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x,0,0) At time t

Test charge q2 (V,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

Coulomb force on Coulomb force on

Magnetic force
moving test charge due moving test charge due
to moving source
= to stationary source
+ due to point
source charge
charge charge

kq1q2 ˆ  kq1q2 ˆ V 2  kq1q2 ˆ

j  j  2 j
y 2
y 2
c y 2

289
 Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

Test charge q2 (ux,0,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

Coulomb force on Coulomb force on

Magnetic force
moving test charge due moving test charge due
to moving source
= to stationary source
+ due to point
source charge
charge charge

kq 1 q 2  (1  V u x / c 2 ) ˆ kq 1 q 2  ˆ V u x kq 1 q 2  ˆ
2
j  2
j  2 2
j
y y c y

290
 Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (0,y2,0) At any time

Coulomb force on Coulomb force on

Magnetic force
moving test charge due moving test charge due
to moving source
= to stationary source
+ due to point
source charge
charge charge

 kq1q2 Vu y ˆ kq1q2 ˆ  kq1q2 ˆ kq1q2 Vu y ˆ

 2 2
i 2
j  2
j  2 2
i
 y c y  y y c

291
 Moving Velocities Positions Coulomb Force
test charge at t=0

Source charge q1 (V,0,0) (x1,0,0) At time t

Test charge q2 (0,uy,0) (x2,y2,0) At any time

Coulomb force on Coulomb force on

Magnetic force
moving test charge due moving test charge due
to moving source
= to moving source
+ due to point
source charge
charge charge

 kq1q2 x2 kq1q2 y Vuy  ˆ kq1q2 y ˆj

 2 2   i 
 ( x 2  y 2 3/2
) ( 2 2
x2  y 2 3/2
) c 2
 (  2 2
x 2  y 2 3/2
)
 kq1q2 x2 ˆ kq1q2 y  kq q  y Vuy
 2 2 i  ˆj   1 2 ˆ
i
 ( x2  y 2 3/2
) ( 2 2
x2  y 2 3/2
)  ( 2 2
x2  y 2 3/2
) c 2

292
 Magnetic field produced by moving point
source charge

Case 2  V u x kq 1 q 2  ˆ
M ag n etic fo rce F m a g   2 2
j
c y
ux 
Test charge q2  q 2 u x iˆ  B
V
Source charge q1

 V kq 1 ˆ
M ag n etic field B   2 2
k
c y

No magnetic field if source charge is stationary (V=0)

293
 Case 3
 kq1q2 Vu y ˆ
uy Magnetic force Fmag  2 2
i
Test charge q2 y c

Source charge q1
V  q2u y ˆj  B
(x,0,0)

 kq1 V
Magnetic field B ˆ
k
y2 c2

No magnetic field if source charge is stationary (V=0)

294
 uy
Test charge q2 Case 4
V
Source charge q1
(x,0,0)
 kq1q2 y Vu y
Magnetic force Fmag  ˆ
i
( x2  y )
2 2 2 3/2
c 2


 q2u y ˆj  B

 kq1 y V ˆ
Magnetic field B  k
( x2  y ) c
2 2 2 3/2 2

No magnetic field if source charge is stationary (V=0)

295
 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

 V kq 1 ˆ  kq1 V
ˆ
 kq1 y V ˆ
B  2 k B k B k
c y 2
y2 c2 ( x2  y ) c
2 2 2 3/2 2

 1   1   1 
ˆ
B  2 Vi   ˆ
B  2 Vi   ˆ
B  2 Vi  
c c c
 kq 1 ˆ kq1 ˆ  kq1 y
  2 j  2 j  2 2 ˆ
i
y y ( x2  y )2 3/2

kq1 y ˆj

 Electric field due to source charge ( 2 x2 2  y 2 )3/2

296
Direction of velocity of source charge V iˆ

ˆj
Direction of electric field 

Direction of magnetic field B kˆ

   
V    B V
297
 From previous results

Coulomb force Coulomb force Magnetic

on moving test = on moving test + force due to
charge due to charge due to point source
moving source moving source charge
charge charge

   
FLorentz = q2  + q2u  B
298
 Magnetic field produced by line of point
charges moving with velocity V

This is a generalization of case 2 with ux=0

case 2
Stationary Stationary t
test charge q2 est charge q2
V

Source charge q1 Line of moving charges V

299
 Coulomb force at time t acting on stationary charge q2 on
(0,y,0) due to moving charge q1 along x axis with velocity V
(obtained from case 2 with ux=0) is
kq 1 q 2  ( x 2  x1 )  kq 1 q 2  x1
Fx   ,
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2

kq 1 q 2 y  (1  V u x / c 2 ) kq 1 q 2 y 
Fy  
(  ( x 2  x1 )  y )
2 2 2 3/2
(  2 x1 2  y 2 ) 3 / 2
Fz  0
As q2 is stationary, no magnetic force acts on charge q2 and
accordingly the electric field at the point (0,y,0) due to charge
q1 is just obtained by dividing the above force with q2:

 kq 1 x1 kq 1 y 
x  2 2 , y  , Fz  0
(  x1  y ) 2 3/2
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2

300
 Learning from previous
result, we conclude that the Stationary t
electric field at the position of est charge q2 dq
q2, that is at point (0,y,0) due
to charge element dq located
in the vicinity of point x1 on Line of moving charges V
the x axis is given by

 kd q  x1 kd q y 
d x  , d y  , d z  0
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2

Assuming that the distribution of the moving charges is

homogeneous, we can write dq=dx where  is the charge
density which is a constant and dx1 is the length of charge
element dq:

 k   x1 d x1 k  y  d x1
d x  , d y  , d z  0
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2
(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2

301
 The electric field due to all
moving charges is then Stationary t
obtained by integrating d est charge q2 dq
with respect to x1 from - to
+
Line of moving charges V

 
 k   x1 d x1  k  d (  2 x1 2  y 2 )
x  

(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2
 
x1   
2  (  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2
0

 
k   yd x1 k   d x1
y  

(  x1  y )
2 2 2 3/2
 

y 2 (  2 x1 2 / y 2  1) 3 / 2

z  0

302
Write

 x1 d
 tan    d x1  y ,
y co s 
2

 2 x1 2 1
 1  tan   1 
2

y 2
co s 2 
 / 2     / 2
 /2
k  co s  d  2k
y 

 /2
y

y

303
  /2
k  co s  d  2k
 x   z  0,  y 

 /2
y

y

This result is the same with the electric field due to

stationary line of charges
However in this case there is a magnetic field

 1 
ˆ
B  2 Vi  
c

304
VII. Introduction to Einstein’s
General Relativity

305
 Newtonian Mechanics
•Newtonian mekanika only valid in
inertial frames
(Newton’s law is invariant under Electromagnetism
Galileo’s transformation) Speed of e.m. wave is c in vacuum
•Newton’s law is not valid in non-
inertial frames
•Time is absolute in inertial frames

Einstein’s special relativity

•Physical (not only mechanical) laws are valid in inertial frames.
(Physical laws are invariant under the Lorentz transformation)
•Physical laws are not valid in non-inertial frames
•Time is relative 306
 Newtonian Mekanics
•Newtonian mechanics only valid in inertial frames
•Newton’s law is not valid in non-inertial frames
•,Fictitious force should be added if Newton’s law is applied
in non-inertial frames
•Fictitious/inertial force–md2f/dt2 depends on (inertial) mass
and moving coordinates
•Newton’s gravitational force mg(r) depends on mass and
coordinates(distance)

Einstein’s gravitation
General Relativity Theory
307
General Relativity
– Einstein assumes that, because its dependence on
masses, inertial force is also a gravitation force, like Newton
gravitational force.
– Einstein modfies the law of gravitation theory of
General relativity
– Gravitational force, according to Einstein, besides its
dependence on position, it also depends on the velocity
other objects, relative to a reference frame.
– Inertial forces represent movement of other objects,
relative to our reference frame
– Gravitational force (that includes inertial force) defines
space-time geometry
–Space-time geometry describes gravitational force

308
– Space-time around massive objects curves. More
massive more curved.
– Space-time in special relativity (Minkowski relativity) is a
flat space-time
–Equation of motions in a uniformly accelerated coordinate
system are identical to that under the constant gravitational
acceleration g (with g is equal to negative of the
acceleration of the coordinate system).

309
Einstein generalized this fact to all physical laws
in his equivalence principle:

Physical laws under the uniform

gravitational field are equal to gravitational
field-free physical laws in a coordinate
system accelerated uniformly with
acceleration -g

310
– Gravitational acceleration around massive object (e.g.
Earth) is not uniform, but depends on distance and direction
w.r.t the object. A gravitation cannot be replace by an
accelerated coordinate system. Thus for non-uniform
gravitational field the equivalence principle is:
In a small free-fall laboratory, the physical
laws are the same with that in special
relativity without gravitational field.

Free fall laboratory: Physical systems that do not feel any

external forces except the gravitational force.
Small laboratory: a very small region such that the variatio
of the magnitude and direction of gravitational fields can be
neglected.

311
Some consequences of GR

– Gravitational wave phenomena (moving with

speed c)
– Gravitational red shift (Doppler effect in region
with gravitational field)
–Precession of the major axes of planetary orbits
–Curving of light rays around very massive
objects
–Through GR we can predict the history of the
universe.

312
Einstein Field Equations
Newton’s gravitational force acting on a point mass m at r
due to a point mass M at origin O:
 mM
F  G 2 rˆ
r
Gravitational field potential at r due to a point mass M at origin O:

M
  G
r
Gravitational field potential at r due to a distribution of masses
fulfils:

 2  4 G 
: mass density
* 313
 Gravitational field at any point in space is given by the
solution of (*)
Principle of energy-mass equivalence leads  is equivalent
to energy density
Energy (p0) depends on the chosen frame
(*) changes with frames
 (*) does not in accordance to the Einstein postulate
(invariance law)
(*) should be modified

To modify we must replace  with a covariant quantity containing

:

 T

314