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Apart from water, living things are largely made up of organic compounds,
notably proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The study of these
compounds, and the role they play in all life processes, is a special area of
study called BIOCHEMISTRY.
Historical note: Wohler and the synthesis of urea.
Structure of organic compounds:
Hydrogen atoms are the most common atoms found linked to carbon
atoms. In HYDROCARBONS, the major constituents of petroleum, they are
the only atoms found linked to carbon.
One or more reactive chemical groups of atoms (known as FUNCTIONAL
GROUPS) are attached to the carbon chain (in the case illustrated above, the
functional group is O-H). Hydrogen atoms are bound to the carbon skeleton
by means of covalent bonds. There are other ways of representing the
structure of organic compounds:
represents, in condensed form, the same molecule, without all the bonds
being shown.
As shown above, carbon skeletons are immensely varied: they may consist
of straight chains of various lengths, branched chains, rings of various sizes
and combinations of these.
Functional groups:
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS are groups of atoms that have special chemical
properties and which define the chemistry of an organic compound.
The following are common functional groups:
Functional group Found in
(none) alkanes
C=C alkenes
C≡C alkynes
arenes
R is hydrogen or a group of atoms derived from alkanes
or other hydrocarbons
ketones
carboxylic
acids
esters
ethers
C-N amines
amides
Isomerism:
Have a good look at the two structural formulae shown below. Both of these
are structural formulae applying to molecules with molecular formulae
C6H14.
These two molecules are said to be ISOMERS. Isomers are compounds
which have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae.
In other words, although the atoms, both in number and in type, are the
same, they are arranged differently in space. Isomers normally also differ in
their chemical and physical properties. (See the condensed structural
formulae )
Isomers do not have to belong to the same class of organic compounds. For
example, the compounds whose structural formulae are shown below, are
isomers. The one on the left is aCARBOXYLIC ACID, while the one on the
right is an ESTER:
See the condensed structural formulae ( ) and verify that they both have
the molecular formula C5H10O2.
Additional questions
Alkanes:
Alkanes are hydrocarbons (compounds containg only C and H) that have
single covalent bonds joining the carbon atoms. The carbon atoms form
open chains, which may have branches. The molecular formula of all alkanes
fits the expression CnH2n+2, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Alkenes:
Alkenes are hydrocarbons (compounds containg only C and H) that have
one or more C=C double bonds (two C atoms are linked by 4 shared
electrons). The general formula is CnH2n, which istwo hydrogen atoms less
than the corresponding alkane.
Alkenes are said to be UNSATURATED, (since they do not have their full
complement of hydrogen atoms).
Alkynes:
These are hydrocarbons (compounds containg only C and H) that have one
or more CC triple bonds (two C atoms are joined by 6 shared electrons).
The molecular formula fits the formulaCnH2n-2 and has
therefore four hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkane.
Alkynes are said to be UNSATURATED, (since they do not have their full
complement of hydrogen atoms). The simplest alkyne, HC≡CH, is commonly
known as acetylene.
Arenes:
Haloalkanes:
If one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom
(F, Cl, Br or I, chemists use the term SUBSTITUTION for this process), the
compound is a HALOALKANE.
Alkanols:
These compounds arise when one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane are
substituted by the -O-H (HYDROXYL) functional group.
Alkanols are classified into primary, secondary, and teriary alkanols,
depending on the number of hydrogen atoms that are bonded to the carbon
atom that is attached to the hydrohyl (-OH) functional group (see the
examples in the table below):
Alkanol class class Structural formula Name
ethanol
Primary alkanol
methanol
Primary alkanols have the hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom that is itself
attached to only one other carbon atom. The simplest of all alkanols, methanol, is
an exception in that it has three hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atom
that bears the hydroxyl group.
Secondary alkanols have the hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom that is
itself attached to two other carbon atoms.
Tertiary alkanols have the hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom that is itself
attached to three other carbon atoms.
Carboxylic acids:
These are compounds that have the carboxyl -COOH functional group,
whose structure contains a C=O bond:
Esters:
Esters are compounds that have the CO-O-C functional group. This group,
derived from the carboxyl group, also contains a C=O double bond:
Ethers:
Ethers are compounds where an oxygen atom is joined to two carbon atoms
by single bonds. They are isomeric with alkanols with the same number of
carbon atoms.
Ketones and aldehydes
Both ketones and aldehydes have the >C=O (carbonyl) group. In ketones,
that group is "sandwiched" between two carbon atoms. This means that the
simplest ketone must have 3 carbon atoms. In aldehydes, the >CO group is
attached to one carbon atom and one hydrogen atom. The exception is
formaldehyde, HCOH, where the carbonyl group is attached to two
hydrogen atoms. The examples shown below should make this clear.
Amines:
AMINES are compounds that are derived from ammonia. They all have at
least one carbon atom attached to the nitrogen atom. This carbon atom is
not bound to oxygen (see under amides, below). If only one carbon atom is
attached to the nitrogen atom, the amine is said to be PRIMARY. If the
nitrogen atom is attached to two carbon atoms, it is a SECONDARY amine,
and with three carbon atoms, it is a TERTIARY amine.